Dissertation - Full (3)

Muscle Dysmorphia in Male University Athletes
for
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
by
Kieren Heron
Prof. Robert Eklund
7364
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of BA (Hons) in Sport Studies
at
School of Sport
University of Stirling
April, 2014

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Prof. Robert Eklund for his guidance and more importantly
patience throughout the process of writing this article. Additionally I would like to thank the
School of Sport at the University of Stirling for the on-going support they have given me
while I have been here, especially Emma Lyons. Furthermore I would like to thank Barry
Nicholson for proof reading my work.
I would also like to thank my mum for putting away my washing while I’ve been
writing this piece of work, which was a big help.

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Abstract
It had been previously suggested that females are more likely to suffer from body
image issues than males. Developing from different types of body dysmorphia such as
anorexia and bulimia, muscle dysmorphia is where a person views his own physique as not
muscular and not defined even though he or she is. This is usually seen in sports such as
bodybuilding, American football and rugby, where muscle size and leanness are seen as
important factors for success. With the growth of the internet and other forms of media it
can be seen that these avenues suggest easy ways to get unrealistic bodies. Furthermore,
with influences from children’s toys, television adverts and fitness magazines, it is possible
to suggest these as sources of muscle dysmorphia There have been many studies of this
condition on weightlifters and bodybuilders although few have been done on sports such as
soccer and tennis. The purpose of this study was to explore if the drive for muscularity
differs across competitive university athletes in different sports. A modified version of
McCreary and Sasses’ (2000) Drive for Muscularity Scale was distributed to 83 athletes in six
sports to provide reliability and cross sectional comparison. The results of the study showed
team sports have a higher drive for muscularity, also sports that require mass scored higher
than others. This can suggest that muscle dysmorphia is apparent among some male
university athletes.
Keywords: Body Image, Physique, College, Sport.

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Body image has been defined as “the internal representation of your own outer
appearance – your own unique perception of your body” (Thompson, Heinberg, Atlabe &
Tantleff-Duff, 1999, p. 4). Furthermore twinned with body dissatisfaction, which is defined
as “displeasure with one or more aspects of one’s body or one’s overall physical
attractiveness” (Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky & Perry, 2004, p. 1080), body image can be seen
as a central factor in muscle dysmorphia. This term is important as the body is being viewed
personally with the perspective of gaining muscle in relation to muscle dysmorphia. There
have not been many studies on the preferred male body across sports, with American
football and long distance running being on the opposite side of the scale of ideal body
types. It has been noted that there has been an absence of research in other sports other
than American football and distance running about body image (Galli & Reel, 2009).
Originally termed “Reverse Anorexia” (Pope, Katz & Hudson, 1993, pp. 406), “Muscle
Dysmorphia”, (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia & Phillips, 1997, p. 548) is a sub-set of body
dysmorphic disorder in which a person believes that he is not muscular enough, despite
being large in muscularity and leanness. This leads to a person becoming consumed with
becoming physically bigger and more muscular without gaining body fat.
It has been commonly suggested that females have issues concerning body weight,
losing fat and overall appearing slimmer (Huon & Brown, 1986). Muscularity is associated
with masculinity in western culture and being muscular with low body fat is the male ideal
(Wesely, 2001). Muscle dysmorphia has been almost entirely seen to appear in the male
population. Studies in this area have looked at bodybuilders due to the nature of their
activity (Mangweth et al. 2001; Olivardia, Pope & Hudson, 2000; Pope, Kanayama & Hudson,
2012; Pope et al. 1993). Picket, Lewis and Cash (2005) have compared competitive

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bodybuilders, men who train using weights on a recreational level and males who are active,
(e.g., running or cycling) on levels of muscle dysmorphia and found that there was no
significant difference in muscle dysmorphia affecting the groups.
Weightlifting and body-building athletes focus on muscle size and diet for success,
which leads to excessive exercise and dieting. Sports where athletes’ success is down to
types of skill such as soccer and tennis usually do not tend to focus on building muscle mass.
There are sports which depend on size and skill such as American Football or Wrestling,
which are also related to an obsessive behaviour towards body size, exercise and diet
(Chittester, 2007). Additionally, body building is a unique activity where although it is an
individual sport, the athletes’ body is compared to a competitor subjectively. Where in
other individual sport like singles tennis and swimming the result is objectively scored, so
the victory is based on performance, not physical comparison. On the other hand, O’Dea
(2005) suggests that body consciousness affects participation in individual sport. Team
sports are opposite to this, where boys in a group can have body image issues and body
dissatisfaction (Morano, Colella & Capranica, 2011). Furthermore in a team environment,
skill competence and body image is interlinked which would be absent in individual sports.
Studies on male body issues have become more relevant in today’s culture due to
reports on youths and men turning to substance abuse (Kanayama et al. 2008, Kanayama et
al. 2012, Pope et al. 2012). It can be suggested that the men look to replicate the physique
of the actors and models they see in magazines, movies and the internet (Daily Mail article,
September 15th, 2013). Furthermore the shifting in cultural popularity to fads such as new
diets or workouts by TV personalities (Harvey & Robinson, 2003) affect some of the
population where the athlete is very muscular, low body fat and tall (Livine & Chapman,
2011).

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A study by Pavao (2012) indicated that western culture’s ideal body image is driven
by the media with toys, computer games characters, physique based magazines and
advertising. Excluding the children’s toys, the male is often being portrayed as a sex object
(Pope et al. 2002) and an image of a female’s desire (Elliot & Elliot, 2005). The man has
usually low body fat, visually apparent abdominal muscles, large arms and shoulders while
his waist is small, usually put forward as a “man’s man” or a “real man” (Wolska, 2011, p. 1).
It is a construct of the media that masculinity defines male sexuality (Fracher & Kimmel,
1995).
More often than not, physique-based magazines, such as Flex and Men’s Health,
have an elite bodybuilder/ topless model on the front cover, whose picture has been edited
to fit the ideals of perfection (Fredrick, Fessler & Haselton 2005). Bodybuilding magazines
often have male athletes on the front cover who take illegal substances to appeal to specific
consumers (White & Gillett, 1994). Interviews and training schedules are typically
presented inside these magazines with secrets on how featured males got their physiques.
Although it is impossible for the displayed to be achieved naturally, the message promoted
is that muscularity is masculinity. Inside, these magazines have adverts on every second or
third page with a sponsored athlete, whose body is built only by the help of the specific
supplements that he uses. His image is about sexuality with the “emphasis on muscularity
and the symbolic association of male power” (Dyer, 1982, p. 66), while extremely muscular
men are not appealing to the general public, it still is seen as important in defining men’s
bodies (Dyer, 1982). Furthermore, 71% of the readership of these magazines regularly buy
the supplements and equipment advertised therein (White & Gillett, 1994). It is seen that
80% of sport supplements are consumed by males ranging from 16-30 years old (Atkinson,
2007). The targeted market which is young and have ambitions to be like the cover models

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that are (usually) chemically enhanced, have trained for over ten years. When in the reality
is that that physique is impossible to attain by hard work and diet alone. This leads to the
readership turning to an obsession with weight lifting and dieting which could lead to illegal
substance abuse (Kanyama et al, 2012, Pope et al, 2011).
More generally, the mass media has been described as “the most potent and
pervasive communicators of sociocultural standards” (Thompson & Heinberg, 1999, p. 162).
Furthermore, with the increase in internet media, it has changed the public’s perception of
reality from the use of photo editing. The difference of representation of male and female
In the case of the body being portrayed through toys, there is evidence that the male
physique is being distorted in action figures as early as mid-1970’s where the ‘GI Joe’
figurine was made noticeably “exaggerated, sculpted musculature…inflating Joe’s physical
body, and by extension, his strength and invulnerability” (Hall, 2004, p. 38). The toy was an
image of the American army, masculine and untroubled. This could be the start of the over-
sized toys, while further reading found that a rival doll, ‘Big Jim’, who’s biceps could bulge
when bent, was considered ‘bigger’ than GI Joe even though he was 4 inches shorter
(Michlig, 1998). The manufacturer brought the toy back in 1994 with even more
development, with “Sharply ripped abdominals…also displays distinct serratus muscles…a
feature seen in bodybuilding but less often in ordinary men.”(Pope, Olivardia, Gruber &
Borowiecki 1998, p. 67) This may suggest that even at a young age the male self-perception
is open to unrealistic expectations which could lead to a warped sense of body image when
older. Cohane and Pope (2000) suggest that body satisfaction among boys is positively
correlated with self-esteem. Furthermore, Pope et al suggests that the increase of
dimensions action figures over time correlates with the growth of the male body in other
areas of media, which could promote reasons to the growth of muscle dysmorphia.

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It has also been seen that video games and video game magazines have an effect on
the drive for muscularity. The exaggerated bodies of the games characters, which were
extremely muscular and the fact these characters were usually used as the hero were seen
to influence children (Harrison & Bond, 2007). Models in fitness magazines although have
big, muscular bodies, they are still real men. While video game characters are warped
beyond humanly possible.
There have been many noted characteristics that can highlight if an athlete has
muscle dysmorphia. Suggested by Grieve (2007) there are nine variables (body mass, media
influence, ideal body internalization, low self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, health locus of
control, negative effect, perfectionism and body distortion) that are common in all reviews
of muscle dysmorphia. An obsession with building muscle can lead to abandonment of
activities to stick to diets and not get into situation where body parts could be exposed,
while continuing to lift weights, having a diet and use illegal substances despite knowing it
may be harmful. Olivardia (2001), puts forward a criteria for muscle dysmorphia, which
suggests that a preoccupation with how lean and muscular must be present within
someone, with the obsession leading to distress in areas such as social activities, body
exposure, body inadequacy or self-bodily harm and the motivation of the person focused on
being too small/ not muscular enough. Furthermore it has been proposed that the person
suffering from muscle dysmorphia looks in the mirror more often than non-sufferers
(Olivardia, Pope & Hudson, 2000).
The aim of this study was to find if male university athletes show symptoms of
muscle dysmorphia and have a poor perception of their own body. Furthermore it tried to
find if athletes felt pressure to adhere to a certain body type and if athletes in different
sports act differently to one another. It was hypothesised that on average, athletes would

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score highly on the DMS. It was expected that athletes from the American football and
rugby players would have the highest drive for muscularity due to the nature of the sport,
while distance running athletes would score the lowest. Additionally, it was predicted that
athletes in team sports would score higher than individual sport athletes.
Method
Participants
Eighty three participants were handed questionnaires and all were returned
complete. The mean age of participants was 20.24 years old, with the youngest being 18
years old and the oldest being 27 years old. All the participants were male, and competed
for the university in only one sport at the elitist level possible. Males were only selected as
it was suggested in Huon and Brown (1986) that females look for their body type to be thin,
with no need for muscularity. Additionally, McCreary and Sasse (2000, p. 302) mention that
“Women tend to be preoccupied with their hips and weight, whereas men tend to become
preoccupied with their body build”. No data were collected about the race or sexuality of
the participants.
Swimmers were used as one of the test participants due to the nature of their
activity. The athletes perform in swimming trunks/pants on or skin tight body suits, thus the
male physique is fully seen. Body consciousness would be prevalent, as seen in Reel and
Gill, (2001). A distance runner in this study was being an athlete who runs over 1500m on
the track or cross country. Studies have indicated that runners do not have body perception
issues (Parks & Reid, 1997). Tennis players can vary in physique with different physiques
suiting different playing styles (i.e., power vs. finesse). Roger Federer is a relatively slender
player with not particularly big muscles. He is known for his technique and style, while Rafa
Nadal is known for his larger physique, large arms and powerful play (Garber, 2008).

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American football players are known for their muscular physiques, power and
strength. The range of body types in American Football is large, from the linemen to the
backs, (Kakutani, 2013) with each position needing to bring different attributes to their area.
Rugby Union players are known for their size and muscularity, with the added mass being
seen as beneficial to over-power opponents. Soccer players have the relatively average
physique in comparison, muscle mass is not seen as important to other sports while
endurance and skill is seen as more beneficial.
Instruments
The drive for muscularity scale was used to determine if the participants suffer from
muscle dysmorphia which has been determined to be one of the most effective scales to
measure male body image (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). A modified drive for muscularity scale
[appendix 1] was used to measure muscle dysmorphia in university athletes as it had
previously been successful in studies concerning the university population (Jones, 2011;
Pavao, 2013; Rathakrishnan & Chuen, 2009). The questionnaire had 16 items and is scored
using a six point Likert scale, ranging from 1 – Always to 6 – Never. The added question was
“I think that if I become more muscular I will perform my sport better.” The questionnaire
also had a section describing what muscle dysmorphia was and asking the age of the
participant. For the purpose of analysis, the scoring system is reversed, therefore the higher
the score the higher the drive for muscularity.
Procedures
The questionnaire was handed out before a training session to eight male swim team
members in the warm up area. They were fully clothed and had not begun any warm up
routine. Instructions were given describing the subject and what was required of the
participants, they were told not to confer with one another until all the sheets had been

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handed back to the researcher. Once the questionnaire was filled out the participants were
asked to fold the questionnaire over to protect their answers and then the papers would be
collected and kept with the researcher.
The distance runners, rugby and football players were given the questionnaires at
the Gannochy sport centre before a training session. The swimmers had submitted the
questionnaire at the swimming centre and the tennis centre was used to obtain the
information from the tennis team. The American football players were administered the
questionnaire in a classroom before a session.
Ethical approval was obtained and permission from the School of Sport.
Furthermore, permission from each sport’s clubs president or coach was gathered to
organise a time and a place to conduct the questionnaires was granted.
Analysis
The data were analysed using SPSS. The first piece of analysis conducted was
Cronbach’s alpha to examine the internal consistency of the DMS. The second analysis
conducted was the mean score for all the players combined. The study then analysed the
mean score from each of the player’s sports and looked for differences using a one-way
ANOVA and post hoc Tukey HSD test. The next analysis conducted was the measurement of
the athletes who played team sports and the individual sport athletes using a one way
ANOVA and post hoc Tukey HSD test.
Results
The internal consistency of measurement for the 16 items of the modified drive for
muscularity scale’s (DMS) was examined using Cronbach’s alpha. A value of .93 was
observed. Values over 0.90 are recognized as excellent (George & Mallery, 2003) so it was
concluded that the internal consistency of measurement was adequate to use for the study.

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The mean score for the DMS data was 3.91 and the standard deviation of 1.52. The
average score of the study is above the median score of DMS inventory (3.5) and would
score in the “Sometimes” category of the DMS.
Figure 1 shows the average scores of the sports tested. The American football
players scored the highest and the distance runners were the lowest scoring group.
Figure 1. Mean scores in DMS for each sport.
The mean scores between sports found that there were significant difference using a
one way ANOVA F(5, 77) = 17.527, p = < .001. Tukey HSD post hoc tests revealed that the
American football players (m = 4.860, sd = .076) were significantly higher (p = < .001) than
distance runners (m = 2.114, sd = .488). There were no significant differences between
soccer players (m = 3.530, sd = .248), tennis players (m = 3.392, sd = .667) (p = .998) and
swimmers (m = 3.308, sd = .839) (p = .964). There was no significant difference between
American football players and rugby players (m = 4.430, sd = .316) (p = .999).
The second hypothesis predicted that the American football, soccer and rugby
players would all score highly as well as the swimmers on the DMS. American football
players and rugby players both averaged scores in the “Often” category (p = .999), while

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soccer players, tennis players and swimmers scoring in the “Sometimes” section of the scale
(p = .998). The distance runners average score was in the “Rarely” category.
It was hypothesised that players in team sports would score higher than the
participants in individual sports. The team players scored highly (m = 4.273, sd = 1.33) with
individual athletes scores significantly lower (m = 2.974, sd = 2.892). The difference
between the team players and the individual players was significant. The study found that
the participants in team sports showed greater levels of muscle dysmorphia than
participants who play individual sports, t(83) = 4.502, p = <.001 (see figure 2).
Figure 2: DMS mean score comparison between team and individual sports.
Discussion
This study is unique to the point there has not been a study that has took selected
sports and compared them against one another to the authors knowledge. A mix of
athletes who played individual and team sports where chosen. Sports which are more
physical size based while others are skill based or fitness based were also used. The study
used a modified drive for muscularity questionnaire which is used to suggest if a person
suffers from Muscle Dysmorphia. Muscle Dysmorphia is a subtype of body dysmorphia,

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where a person looks at himself as small and non-muscular, when he really has a muscular
physique.
The sports selected were chosen for the variation of the different needs the sports
entail. Male swimmers were seen to exhibit signs of muscle dysmorphia, scoring average in
the drive for muscularity scale. This coincided with previous research, where body
consciousness would be prevalent, as seen in Reel and Gill, (2001). Forty five percent of
swimmers reported wearing a swim suit was stressful and 42% thought a lean body would
improve performance. (Porter, Morrow & Reel, 2013). Results to a similar question “I think
that if I get more muscular I will perform my sport better,” provided relatable results.
Raudenbush and Meyer (2003) suggested swimmers would have a desire for a lean, slim
body. It has been suggested by Dosil (2008) that in an individual context, males are left on
their own and open to comparisons between competitors, although it was found that team
sports scored higher than individual sports in the study.
Soccer players scored similarly to swimmers on the drive for muscularity scale which
was predicted. It was expected that soccer players would not score highly as studies have
suggested that only the height of a player could be seen as a benefit (Olds, 2001). In soccer
it can be seen that weight training can slow a player down (Alejo, 1995), with the average
body shape of a soccer player not seen as physically large. There has been little research to
a soccer players overall muscularity with the focus of studies usually placed on thigh
muscles (Kuzon et al, 1990, Hoshikawa et al, 2009, Kearns et al, 2001) Elite players such as
Christiano Ronaldo are relatively lean but not overly muscular, are seen as the best physical
specimens similar to the Adonis in ancient mythology for Greek athletes. (Galli & Reel,
2009). Research from Arroyo et al (2008), suggest that soccer players want to have a lower

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body fat percentage and more muscle mass. This was similar to the results in this current
study.
The American Football players scored highly on the scale which was hypothesized
and is representable of work previously done. They were the highest scoring overall in the
study. Research has shown in increase in body weight and decrease in body fat - which
would suggest an increase in muscularity - in pro American Football (Anzell et al, 2013). At
College/University level, an American Study focusing on the drive for muscularity in college
American football players suggested that as American Football is a contact sport, the
athletes must use their body as a ‘weapon’ to dominate an opponent (Steinfeldt, Gilchrist,
Halterman, Gomory, Steinfeldt, 2011). Raudenbush & Meyer (2003) suggested that sports
that put emphasis on muscle mass, such as American football would have a greater desire to
gain muscle this coincided with the current study.
The distance runner group, as predicted, scored the lowest out of the groups.
Previous research has found that distance runners find that they have less body
dissatisfaction (Parks & Reid, 1997), physique anxiety (Smith, Wright, Winrow, 2010) and
body image disturbance (Gleaves, Williamson, Fuller, 1992), therefore it can be presumed
that distance runners have a low drive for muscularity. Further studies by Huddy and Cash
(1997), suggested that male marathon runners saw their own appearance better than non-
active people, although this was accredited to the low body mass of runners. Additionally,
they were less concerned about their appearance than the control group, therefore it was
concluded that marathon runners did not participate in sport for body image improvements.
The previous research was consistent with the results of the current study.
The male rugby players were seen to show signs of muscle dysmorphia by scoring
highly in the drive for muscularity scale. This was predicted from previous articles. There is

15
research to suggest that added size brings success (Bell, 1979, Olds, 2001, Quarrie &
Hopkins, 2007) and that a rugby player’s size correlates with the pressure to adhere to a
certain body type for their specific sport. Additionally, research has shown that as Rugby
union has continued to develop, body fat has decreased in the calf, triceps and the side of
the body while muscle size in the calf and ‘flexed arm’ have increased (Olds, 2001).
Decreasing body fat and building muscle are important factors to look for in muscle
dysmorphia studies.
Within tennis, body image has not been seen as a problem in the previous male
athlete studies. Tennis was seen to score similarly with soccer and swimming in the DMS.
There is no reason to suggest from the scores from drive for muscularity scale that elite
male tennis players have muscle dysmorphia or body image issues. The media have noted
Andy Murray’s physical progression to a more muscular ‘ideal’ shape to cope with the sport.
Furthermore, the media likes to show the players changing t-shirts during a match (Daily
Mail, 2014, 2013, 2009, EuroSport, 2014, The Slice, 2013, Washington Post, 2013),
commenting on the crowd’s reaction or the player’s body. Tennis is based on a player
exuding force repeatedly, sometimes for hours. (Girard & Millet, 2009) therefore a bulky
body would not be seen as ideal to move around the court, furthermore the research by
Girard and Millet (2009) found that they could predict the success of a youth tennis player
by their strength in their arms and legs, a possible reason for a tennis athlete to try and gain
muscle. Previous research on tennis and muscle dysmorphia is very small, with most of the
research based on female body concerns (Harris, 2000).
It was hypothesised that team sports would score higher than individual sports.
When comparing team sport and individual sports it was found that the team sports scored
higher on average. This is reflective of studies by Galli and Reel (2009) where peer influence

16
can cause positive and negative outcomes for body image. Additionally, research from Galli,
Reel, Petrie, Greenleaf and Carter (2011), reported that male athletes felt more pressure
about their body when in a group environment.
The purpose of the study was to find if male university athletes have muscle
dysmorphia. The hypothesis predicted that the average scores for the group will be high,
although this was incorrect as the mean score over all participants was less than half (2.63)
of the total score of the DMS (6). Therefore it can be suggested that body dysmorphia is not
an issue in the male athletic population in this university.
As hypothesised, American football players and rugby players were seen to have to
highest drive for muscularity. Previous research on American football and rugby has
suggested that sports where the body size is important (Bell, 1979, Olds, 2001, Raudenbush
& Meyer, 2003). As hypothesised, distance runners were the lowest scoring group. This is
consistent with previous research where distance runners do not have body image issues
Smith et al. (2010). It can be noted, that even though the American football and rugby
players scored highest, previous research found that they score lower that body builders
and weight trainers (Baghurst & Lirgg, 2009).
Limitations
The research will be hard to compare as no other study has done research similar to
this work. Results can be individually checked but not across sports. The study was limited
to the athletes who were “elite” therefore the number of athletes varied from team to
team, additionally, there is only one American football team at the university, therefore the
quality of the players may not be classed as elite as much as a scholarship athlete in another
sport. With only 8 scholars in swim team, 8 in the tennis squad and 7 in the distance running
group, the test size was limited compared to the 20 in the American football, 20 in football

17
and 20 in rugby team. It should be noted not all 20 from the football team where
scholarship students and none of the American football team or rugby team have
scholarship programs in the university. This distortion of participant groups would have to
be taken into account.
The inconsistency of where the questionnaires were completed with some outside
on the field and some in classrooms make the repeatable study difficult and that the
questionnaire was done right before some sessions the participants may have rushed
through it or given a generic answer to complete it and begin with their training session.
Other possible limitations included the fact that the participants did not complete the study
on their own, which could lead to self-conscious answers and personal comparison which
could lead to distorted answers.
Possible corrections would be sending out the questionnaires online, where they
could be completed in their own time. Furthermore, the number of participants could be
evenly distributed with a larger study containing different universities or including the
recreational players as well. The research was asking the participant to critique their own
body, asking if their muscles are ‘big’ enough. Possible discrepancies may be that the
participant may interpret ‘big’ differently. Additionally the study was conducted during a
season which could interfere with the participant’s view of themselves. For example an
athlete may have been defeated previously by a bigger opponent therefore making the
athlete evaluate themselves, possibly in a negative way at the time of the study. Moreover,
the participants know what other sports were being studied which could lead to inter-sport
comparisons. Another possible limitation is the selection bias. Male participants were only
used as the questionnaire had previously found that the drive for muscularity is rarely found

18
in females. Furthermore the sports were not randomly chosen with sports chosen by the
size of availability and the programmes which used scholars.
Future research may expand the study to other universities, with the subtraction of
distance running as it is found that it does not score high enough to credit further study,
although it may be used to show contrast between sports. Furthermore Stirling University is
a sport orientated university with the national base for tennis, swimming and triathlon,
along with a scholarship for men and ladies football, tennis, swimming, golf and triathlon.
Therefore the culture at Stirling University may be more elitist and competitive where at
other universities the sportsmen and women may see it differently.

19
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28
Appendix A
The Drive for Muscularity Scale
Background
The Drive for Muscularity represents an individual's perception that he is not muscular
enough and that bulk should be added to his body frame, in the form of muscle mass
(irrespective of a person's percentage of actual muscle mass or body fat).
Do you understand what the questionnaire is asking from you?
Age (years):
Sport (please put a line through.):
Football Rugby AmericanFootball Tennis Distance Running Swimming
Please readeachitemcarefullythen,foreachone,circle the numberthatbestappliestoyou.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Always Very Often Often Sometimes Rarely Never
I wishthat I were more muscular. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I liftweightstobuildupmuscle. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I use proteinorenergysupplements. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I drinkweightgainorproteinshakes. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I try to consume as manycaloriesasI can in a day. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I feel guiltyif Imissaweighttrainingsession. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkI wouldfeel more confidentif Ihadmore muscle mass. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Otherpeople thinkIworkoutwithweightstoooften. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat I wouldlookbetterif Igained 10 poundsinbulk. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkabouttakinganabolicsteroids. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat I wouldfeel strongerif Igainedalittle more muscle mass. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat myweighttrainingschedule interfereswithotheraspectsof mylife. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat myarms are not muscularenough. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat mychestis not muscularenough. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat mylegsare notmuscularenough. 1 2 3 4 5 6
I thinkthat if I getmore muscularI will performmysport better. 1 2 3 4 5 6
McCreary, D.R.,& Sasse,D.K.(2000). An explorationof the drive formuscularityinadolescentboys
and girls.Journal of AmericanCollege Health,48,297-304.
Yes No

29
Appendix B
Manuscript characteristics:
Title, Abstact, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, References, Appendix.
30 page limit, includes references and appendix. 250 word abstract limit.
APA style, Indented first lines in main body of work, Overhang in references.

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