Dissertation 6 th draft

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Dialogues with Antiquity: Humankind’s Response to the
Landscape through the use of the Stone and the Circle
EleanorFisher
15824207
BA (Hons) Fine Art Printmaking 2018

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Table of Contents
Introduction
1.1 – Introduction into lifestyles
Part 1 – The Circle
Part 2 – Stone
Part 3 – Location
Bibliography

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Introduction
Throughout history humans have displayed a desire to make marks in the landscape whether for
practical, aesthetic or spiritual purposes. Having grown up in rural Wiltshire I have been surrounded
by some of the most ancient landmarks. Studying these has highlighted many parallels between
certain British prehistoric megalithic monuments, such as Stonehenge and Avebury stone circle, with
work by modern land artists, such as Richard Long and Andy Goldsworthy. Having identified this
correlation I have furthered my investigation into these modern works to understand why they exist
and how they interact with the British landscape. Two of the most prominent similarities I have
observed throughout my research are the frequent use of stone as a material, and the regular
occurrence of the circle as a motif. In this essay I will analyse and compare works which incorporate
both these aspects from the Neolithic period, (4000BC – 2500BC), to contemporary works made since
the 1960’s, when the Land Art movement first became known. I will discuss ideas around
permanence and materiality with close attention to the location of the work and the creator/s. The land
artists that will feature in this text have lived, studied and worked in areas which contain many
prehistoric monuments. I will investigate the influences these landmarks have left on their work in the
21st
century. Have modern land artists consciously attempted to continue an older heritage, or are
they drawn to a similar approach, as that used by our ancient ancestors, due to a subconscious instinct
evident throughout human history?
The purpose of this initial chapter is to define the areas of study encompassed by my thesis, and also
to give some important background information regarding the people involved. This information is
important as it helps understand the motivation for the construction of landscape based work, both in
the ancient and modern world. I will be initiating a comparison between the creators of prehistoric
sites such as Avebury Stone Circle and Stonehenge with contemporary Land Artists like Long, whilst
looking at how their surroundings have influenced their beliefs. Furthermore, the text will explore the
distinction between construction as a community and as an individual.
In order to appreciate the motives of the ancient landscape builders we need to understand their
environment. Stone circles first started to appear in Britain some 5000 years ago, towards the end of
the Neolithic period, and their introduction coincided with the transition to an agricultural society.
Prior to this they had been hunter gatherers, and hence followed a nomadic existence. The switch to
agriculture meant they we able to adopt a permanent residence, and with this came the possibility of
making their mark on the landscape, both as a consequence of their lifestyles, such as dwellings, but
also as a result of structures intended to mark their presence and denote power and status, such as
stone circles. Furthermore the switch to permanent settlements meant there was more opportunity for
people to gather and interact. The population of ancient Britain is uncertain, but would have been less

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than 1 million in total, hence as hunter gatherers contact between different groups would have been
minimal and sporadic. After the switch to agriculture, and sites of permanent residence, contact
increased in the form of trade, rituals and social gatherings. In this context we see the development of
their relationship with the landscape around them, resulting in the formation of structures which relate
to elements important to them, such as predicting the seasons or celestial movements.
The stones at Avebury are one of the best examples of the structures produced by ancient Britain’s.
They were raised between 3000-2000BC, and have served various purposes for many generations.
Archaeologists have uncovered pottery which suggests that ceremonial events were held within the
circular enclosure. The size of the structures alone confirm that significant effort was required to
produce them, and hence many people were persuaded to work together. This implies some shared
belief to provide the motivation, probably related to mystical elements, such as interacting with the
past, or influencing the future. Discoveries of humans ‘buried with weird collections of talismanic and
witchcraft paraphernalia’ could support the evidence of links to shamanism1
.
Figure 1 Avebury Stone Circle. English Heritage. 2850BC – 2200BC
1 Aubrey Burl, Prehistoric Avebury, Yale University Press, 2002. 232.

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The centuries that followed the Neolithic period saw many changes, including the approaches to art,
but for a large part art remained the province of the wealthy including the church and the monarchy
and was confined to galleries and private collections. However, in the 20th century there was a trend
for sculpture to move out of the gallery into the natural landscape, and in the 1960’s the term Land
Art first appeared as part of the conceptual art movement. Previously artists used the landscape as
something to work from replicating it in the form of a painting or photograph. Land Artists had a
different approach; they used the landscape as not only their subject, but their studio and their source
of materials. Richard Long, a pioneer of Land Art, introduced new ideas to sculpture through his work
A Line made by walking (1967). This piece of work established a new trajectory for contemporary
sculptors. Some people believe that Land art is a continuation from the Minimalist movement in that it
employs abstract forms through the use of simplistic materials. Conversely, others claim its origins lie
in early human history. Many connections can be made between ancient sites like Stonehenge and
contemporary Land Art. So it is possible to conclude that artists like Long and Goldsworthy aim to
recall a prehistoric approach to the landscape by using their art to leave a trace of their existence.
These connections will be discussed further in this chapter.
Fig 2, Richard Long. A Line Made by Walking 1967. Photograph, gelatin silverprint on paper and
graphite on board. Image: 375 x 324 mm. Tate collection

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Part 1
1.1 Distinction between group and individual
Analysis of ancient and contemporary land works highlights one clear distinction, namely the group
or the individual creator. Clearly ancient monuments, such as Stonehenge, were built by large
communities. Whether they were willing volunteers working for the communal good, or forced by an
overseeing authority with a grand plan is unknown. What is certain is there must have been a
significant motivating force to undertake such large scale work. The sophisticated building of
Stonehenge and the transportation of such large stones requires hundreds of people, and highly
developed logistics. There is currently no universally accepted explanation for why it was produced.
But it is the result of coordinated effort over a long period, and with a specific objective intended to
be relevant to many people, a precursor to the later European Cathedrals.
Comparing something like Stonehenge to the work of Richard Long, there is an obvious dissimilarity
in that his work is very personal and is primarily created alone. One reason for this is that Long
considers the actual process of creating the work as art itself. The act of finding a specific location
through walking and placing stones in a circular or linear shape provides a meditative experience for
the artist therefore “a work of art can be a journey”2
Walking is one of the most significant aspects of
Long’s practice. Within his work walking sits somewhere between performance and sculpture. I feel
this reflects our society’s bias towards the individual, as opposed to Neolithic mans need for
community, which was critical to their daily survival. For Neolithic people walking was their primary
means of transport, a daily necessity, rather than a luxury which could be used to think conceptua lly
about landscape like Long.
Whilst some Land Artists prefer to create their art in solitude, there are others who benefit from
working as a group. The work of Sussex based artist, Chris Drury, often involves collaborations
‘between the local community, academics, scientists, planners and architects’3
. The construction of
the work is usually executed by local builders alongside the artist himself. The complexity of the
construction and demand of physical labour for his work such as his Cloud Chambers require more
than one person’s involvement. Drury believes that by working with others, particularly children, it
encourages them “to reconsider their relationship to the land around them”4
. With both contemporary
and prehistoric creators the action of producing their work inevitably results in them becoming more
familiar with their surroundings. They develop a relationship with the landscape by working in
2
Charlotte Higgins, Richard Long: 'It was the swinging 60s. To be walking lines in fields was a bit different' Guardian 2012.
(https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/jun/15/richard-long-swinging-60s-interview)
3
Chris Drury, Works Outside. (http://chrisdrury.co.uk/category/works_outside/)
4
Chris Drury. Silent spaces. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. 15

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conjunction with it. As a consequence of using this group approach I think that Drury’s work is closer
to the approach of prehistoric builders, and further away from some of his contemporaries.
Fig 3, Chris Drury. Cloud Chamber under construction. Willow wattle, daubed with mud, top and doorway
made from woven reeds
There are other modern artists who adopt an approach somewhere between communal and
isolationist. Andy Goldsworthy, for example, makes much of his work by himself, but has worked
with organisations in determining their nature and structure. The Cumbria Sheepfold project which
started in January 1996 and concluded in April 2003, was a sculpture project organised by
Goldsworthy but was planned in conjunction with the Cumbrian County Council. In total 46 pre
existing disused sheepfolds located in Cumbria were altered and added to by the artist. Using old
maps Goldsworthy located the folds and applied his own artistic approach. The aim of doing this was
to make ‘nostalgic evocations of earlier agricultural economies’, and to continue to add layers of
human history5
. Previously the dry stone wall enclosures were used for maintaining flock, now they
serve a dual purpose as a work of art. As well as sharing a connection to agricultural history, this
communal way of working, albeit on a smaller scale, relates to the sophisticated building of
prehistoric sites. The organisation of Goldsworthy’s sheepfolds and Stonehenge both require a
5
William Malpas. Andy Goldsworthy:Touching Nature. Maidstone:Crescent Moon, 2005. 51

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workforce and community involvement, for example to transport materials, and gain acceptance for
the structure within the community.
The organisation required to produce these works, both the ancient and the modern communal ones
implies some form of hierarchy. There must be the directors and the directed. In order for sites like
Stonehenge to have been produced a hierarchical class system would be required that enabled control
and manipulation of a significant workforce. It has been speculated that priests or shaman were part of
this structure. It is on a smaller scale, but the sheepfolds project also required people to follow a
leader. Goldsworthy does not offer himself as a religious leader, but undoubtedly his established
reputation as an artist has given him a status that means he is able to get others to follow his direction.
This requirement to get a ‘commitment to the cause’ can be seen in varying degrees with other land
artists. Some require significant numbers of people, authority permission and large amounts of
money, but they all need a leader, and a belief in others to follow that leader.
Fig 4, Andy Goldsworthy Single Sheepfold. Redmire Farm near Keswick, Cumbria. Own photograph.

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Part 2.
The Circle
Throughout human history the circle has been omnipresent. In a preindustrial society, man’s life
would have been ruled by the rising and setting of the sun. Equally humans would have been aware of
the cyclical nature of life, death and the seasons,giving the circle particular symbolic relevance which
has progressed to the modern day. This shape now appears in all areas of modern culture and nature: it
is an organic shape which contemporary land artists have employed to harmonize with the landscape.
Furthermore it has enabled us to fulfil our most fundamental requirements, such as motion and telling
the time. This chapter acknowledges the intrinsic link between the circle, the landscape and humans,
and considers the organic and geometric aspects with references to art movements like minimalism
and abstraction.
One obvious connection between prehistory land works and contemporary land art is the creator’s
awareness of the natural landscape. Both land artists and prehistoric builders have been immersed in
their surroundings, becoming familiar with the earth’s movements and alterations, particularly those
which are circular, such as the rising of the sun and the moon. It has been suggested that building of
stone circles within the British Isles started with the circular petroglyphs in Ireland and Northern
Britain.

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Fig 5, Petroglyphs at Copt Howe in Cumbria. Own photograph

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From there circular enclosures spread across the Scottish islands and southwards through the
mainland, with Stonehenge destined to become the most recognised example worldwide. Stonehenge
was built in stages between 3000 and 2200BC with its initial structure being a circular ditch dug from
chalk. Excavations have given evidence that this ditch was initially used as a cemetery containing
around 150 bodies. However, the inner 56 holes, where either stone or timber edifices had been
positioned in a circle and the final larger stones, which were raised around 500 years later, suggest
that the monument was used for a different purpose. The actual purpose remains the subject of
dispute, but many archaeologists and antiquarians have agreed that the positioning of the stones relate
to the movement of the sun. The transition to agriculture increased the dependence on the seasons,
and a need to be able to time activities such as sowing crops and harvesting. Many theories have been
put forward for the alignment of the stone, some involving complex celestial movements, but the most
obvious features clearly relate to two critical dates in the calendar. The winter and summer solstice.
Standing inside the circle facing the Avenue the sun will rise over the Heel Stone on mid summers
day. Likewise standing at the Heel Stone the sun will appear to set in a frame defined by two pillar
stones and a lintel on the winter solstice. The ability to define these dates could have been a prompt
for celebration and other rituals. Even to this day the many people are still drawn to the site on these
two critical days to observe the phenomena so important to our ancestors that they invested such huge
effort in the construction of Stonehenge.
Fig 6, View of the Heel Stone at summer solstice sunrise, as seen from inside the Stonehenge monument. Image
via mysticrealms.org

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The interaction with nature via a physical structure has a clear correlation with the work of
Goldsworthy. He engages with natural interventions such as weather, decay and time. Some of his
sculptures, such as the sheepfold Touchstone Fold (1996 - 2003) are made in relation to the position
of the sun. Similar to Stonehenge this work uses the circular shape within the sculpture, as well as the
cyclical movements of the earth’s elements. Inside the sheepfold there are four circular slate
sculptures, each of which includes stones which are carefully positioned in varying directions and thus
“are activated by the sun at different times of the day”6
. Goldsworthy’s desire to collaborate with
nature, and his knowledge of local geology and geography, are clearly demonstrated in this particular
work. It raises the question whether artists like Goldsworthy use the circle in their work to recall early
prehistoric traditions, or are they driven to do so purely from their own motives.
Fig.7 and 8, Andy Goldsworthy. Touchstone Fold, Tilberthwaite. A comparison between the two images
demonstrates how weather conditions affect the work. 7 - Lakeland Walking Tales 8 – Own photograph
Whilst the circle can serve many practical purposes, it can also represent a powerful symbol by itself.
That symbolism is evident when viewing both works of prehistory and modern land art. Avebury
stone circle, which is the largest Neolithic stone circle in Europe, was built between 2850BC and
2200BC on the Marlborough Downs in Wiltshire. The monument is linked to four other prehistoric
sites in the area known as the Sanctuary, Silbury Hill, Windmill Hill and West Kennet Long
Barrow. With the exception of the Long Barrow, all of these associated monuments are circular,
again highlighting prehistoric man’s fascination with the shape. One antiquarian, William Stukely,
suggested the monument was based on “a landscaped model of the Trinity, with the circle
representing in the ineffable deity, and the avenues in the form of a serpent”7
. Although this idea has
been proven false, there are many other factors which provide evidence for its existence to be related
to a belief in Gods and spirituality. As raised previously there is the likelihood that Neolithic people
6
James Fox. 2/4 Forest, Field & Sky: Art out of Nature. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxII3r4Zxx4)
7
Aubrey Burl. Prehistoric Avebury. Yale University Press, 2002. 51

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were involved with shamanism and associated belief in Gods. A recently visit to Devizes museum
illustrated the importance of shamanism to Neolithic man and that the shamanic leader would have
served as a healer and a communicator with both human and animal spirits. Similar to the Nazca lines
in Peru, the circle at Avebury could have been a symbol critical to being able to communicate with the
Gods.
Land Art is divided into two disciplines. On one side artists approach their work in a ‘rational,
mathematical, scientific’ way through the use of ‘transport, materials, maps and spatial data’ whilst on
the other side they have a ‘deep, emotional or religious feeling’ towards it, represented by their
references to romanticism, spirituality and symbolic meaning8
. It is the latter that will be discussed in
this paragraph. Firstly it is important to note that whilst land artists may use symbols in their practice,
they do not necessarily have any definitive reasoning, and it is usually down to the viewer to
determine what significance they serve. Circles, spirals and lines are recognised as the most
reoccurring symbols within land art since the 1960’s. Some 20th century sculptors prior to this, such
as Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore, had already begun using the circle in their sculptures by
piercing their figurative works. As they brought their work out of the gallery and into the landscape,
they wanted the circle to function as an aperture enabling the viewer to experience the relationship
between themselves, the sculpture and the surrounding landscape. Richard Long expanded these
ideas by making the circle the main composition, symbol, mark and journey of his work. He uses the
circle as a metaphor for “the relationship between the patterns of nature and the formalism of
human”9
. The circle in nature has connotations of eternity, time and rebirth.
The circle has been used as a geometric form throughout history for multiple practical purposes.
Technological development is intrinsically linked with the circle throughout history, starting with the
wheel and continuing to the present day. One such practical use is for the measurement of matter, as
employed by mediaeval alchemists to modern engineers. The layout of stone circles, like Avebury, are
known to have been made through the use of a radial rope. This would have been the easiest shape to
recall at the time and has continued through history with the circle being crucial in classical
architecture as is evident in amphitheatres and temples.
Bringing geometry and nature together creates a spatial relationship between a sculpture and the
landscape. It also provides a measurement of time, space and distance. Many of Richard Long’s
indoor sculptures, such as Midsummer Circle made in 1993, have played with the idea of using more
than one circle, placing one shape inside the other. This resembles the structure of some stone circles
8
Malpas. Andy Goldsworthy : Touching Nature. 80
9
Richard Long, Walking in Circles. . London. Thames & Hudson, 1991. 250

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where inner circles and coves sit inside an outer ditch or henge. As well as making circular stone
works, Long uses his walks to record marks. One of the most significant walks he has made was
around Silbury Hill, the largest prehistoric man-made mound in Europe, which is also associated with
Avebury stone circle. Richard Long began making this sculpture in 1970 by taking a large piece of
string and walking around the circumference of Silbury Hill, recording the time and distance it took to
get to the top. He then relocated the string into a gallery space, initially the Hayward Gallery in
London in 1991. He placed the string onto the floor in the spiral shape that reflected the journey of his
walk ‘before pacing its length with muddy boots, which left a residue of light-coloured clay’10
. This
could reflect the chalk that makes up Silbury Hill. Richard Long has used techniques employed by
prehistoric builders to make a contemporary work, which reflects and reminds us of our ancestors, but
also uses the labyrinth motif as a symbol for time and space,an important element to Land Art.
10
Richard Long, Silbury Hill. Tate(http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/long-silbury-hill-al00214) 2013.

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Fig 9, Richard Long. Silbury Hill, 1970-1 Photograph, Gelatin silver print on paper, typed text and
postcard. Frame, sight: 526 x 417 mm. Tate and National Galleries of Scotland.
‘The spiral or circle is a kind, organic, even gentle shape, seemingly in tune with earth energies’11
.
From the stars and the moon, to the lichen on rocks, ripples in water, the iris in eyes, wheels and cogs
in machinery. The large megaliths and the circular sculptures of Long and Goldsworthy work in
harmony with the landscape echoing the shapes of the planet itself.
11
William Malpas, Land Art in Great Britain. Kent: Crescent Moon Publishing 2008. 61.

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Chapter 3 – Stone
In the British Isles the variety of scenery is a reflection of the presence of rocks from almost every age
in Earth’s history 12
. Rocks are divided into three main categories – Sedimentary, Igneous and
Metamorphic. The prehistoric land works that are being discussed in this essay are predominantly
situated in South West England where the earth is made up of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, such as
chalk, clays and sands. Furthermore there are some carboniferous rocks such as limestone’s and
sandstones. ‘Stone is one of the earliest materials used by man to fashion tools, construct dwellings,
create monuments and to mark territory’13
. Until, the discovery of metals in the Bronze Age, stone
was human’s main implement for survival. Why do modern Land Artists choose to use stone over
metals like Bronze and copper? This chapter aims to answer that question. It will raise aspects such as
permanence and impermanence, practicality and spirituality, as well as looking at how the positioning
of the stone affects its purpose.
Firstly, it is important to provide context for the works that I will compare in this chapter, and discuss
what materials were present at the time. After the Ice age in Britain, when the land became habitable,
the hunter gatherers used flint, wood and bone to make tools for hunting and shelters. As such the use
of stone was on a small scale, and limited to individuals. After the transition to agriculture and the
establishment of fixed communities it was possible to organise work on a larger scale, including
greater utilisation of stone. Looking at Stonehenge, there were two types of stone used in its
construction. The earlier stones were formed from Preseli Dolerite, commonly known as Bluestone. It
is a metamorphic igneous rock that is only found in the Preseli Hills, which are some 150 miles from
Stonehenge. The use of this stone clearly tells us that these ancient people had an understanding of
different stone types, knew about their geographical location, and held it in enough reverence to
justify the extraordinary effort required to transport it from a remote corner of Wales. Although the
bluestone is outwardly similar to other stones, when broken and polished it reveals a blue reflective
quality. It may therefore have been believed to have special powers, for healing or other purposes, but
it does clearly indicate an advanced intent to interact with specific elements of their natural
environment. They could have been making an aesthetic choice.
The larger rocks used for the central stone construction are a type of Sandstone called Sarsen stone.
These are scattered in many parts of Southern England with a high density located on the
Marlborough Downs near to Avebury stone circle. It is therefore likely that those used for Stonehenge
came from this area. Weighing between 20- 60 tonnes they would have been very difficult to move,
but the inherent flatness and durability of the stone may have aided the process. Salisbury Plain itself,
12
Sunday Times Book of the Countryside. Macdonald Futura 1983. 18
13
South Bank Circle. Tate(http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/long-south-bank-circle-t07159)

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the location of Stonehenge, was known contain little stone, so it is interesting why the builders chose
that site for its construction rather than erecting it closer to the source of the stones. It is possible that
the site of Stonehenge was already established as a location for congregation, either for ritual and/or
trade. Stone axes from the Lake District and Yorkshire were known to be traded in this area.
Furthermore the nature of the landscape there means that any structure would be visible for a long
way around. Hence it may well have been a signal that this was the main ‘metropolitan’ area for
Southern Britain.
At Avebury sarsen stones were also used, but there are two distinct types which have been used to line
each side of The Avenue. It has been suggested that one type represents male and the other female;
hence The Avenue formed a processional route used in a fertility ritual. William Stukely, the pioneer
of archaeology investigation, also noted ‘the phallic appearance’ of one of the stones within the
enclosure known as “Obelisk”, which again could imply fertility rituals were performed there14
?
The use of natural materials to construct large earthworks has been re-established by land artists in the
21st
century. Despite having access to modern refined materials, they choose to use the primal
elements offered by the earth. Richard Long has supported this application, and states that the reason
he uses stone in his work is “because that’s what the world is made up of”15
. As a result land artists
don’t necessarily expend large sums on their materials; they simply make use of what is in front of
them in the landscape. This approach correlates with the relationship between Neolithic people and
the materials they used. The stone that land artists use is often taken from the location in which they
present their work. For example, Goldsworthy uses materials from where he lives in Cumbria. He
claims it is the place in which he can learn most about nature and his relationship to it 16
. As a
consequence much of his work features slate, which is abundant in Cumbrian quarries. He says that he
uses slate because it is like “a book of stone”17
. It is lamina in form, like the leaves of a book, and as
you separate the pieces he likens it to looking back in time.
14 The Obelisk.Avebury-web (http://www.avebury-web.co.uk/the_obelisk.html)
15 Richard Long's stone sculptures at Houghton Hall - BBC News
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6W2xAChE_U)
16 Andy Goldsworthy - Stone Wood Water - The Laight Quarry (3) Youtube
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqmUOk44A9M )
17 Andy Goldsworthy - Stone Wood Water - The Laight Quarry (3)
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqmUOk44A9M )

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Although neither Long or Goldsworthy has chosen to construct an art piece with the same stone used
in Neolithic stone monuments, Long has made work that instead engages with them. A walk past
standing stones is a walk made by the artist which engages with the 9 standing stones of Penwith
Peninsula. He presented the walk in a small concertina book which demonstrates the journey that he
took, noting the signs of each stone. In a sense similar to when an artist uses stone found in the
landscape to construct their art, Long is using the stone which someone has previously discovered and
made a mark with. Although he was not the one to position the stones, he has chosen to use their
placement as a narrative for his walk. Land Artists may be able to derive benefit from ancient
landmarks because ‘the atmosphere and magic of the prehistoric stones rubs off on their own work’18
.
The different types of stone used by Land Artist may not be believed to have spiritual qualities but
they have relevance to the artist. As Goldsworthy points out “we share a connection with stone”19
.
The reason our blood is red due to its iron content20
, in the same way that some rocks appear red due
to the presence of iron oxide. Stone then becomes a symbol of human’s presence within the landscape
for the artist, reminding us of an approach relating to romanticism which often focuses on ‘the
solitude of the artist, exalting nature and the predominance of subjectivity’21
.
Drury and Goldsworthy recycle traditional human activity, which make their work not only about
human’s presence in the landscape but also evoke our earliest crafts buried deep within our culture,
such as dry stone walling and basket weaving. These already sculptural activities have provided the
artists with a way in which they can integrate old and contemporary marks in the land. This causes
debate within Land Art as it is known to revolve around the idea of ‘object hood’, which considers
objects as ‘simply what they are, without referring to anything outside themselves’22
. In some manner
this contradicts the idea of Land Artists using stone as a symbol. As Long reinforces, ‘I use stones
because I like stones or because they’re easy to find, without being anything special, so common you
can find them anywhere ... It’s enough to use stones as stones, for what they are’. Objecthood came
with the rise of minimal and conceptual sculpture with artists like Marcel Duchamp, with Fountain
(1917) being a pioneer.
18 Malpas, Land art in Great Britain. 64
19 Andy Goldsworthy – 'We Share a Connection with Stone' | TateShots
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DjCMqtJr0Q)
20 Andy Goldsworthy – ‘We Share a Connection with Stone’
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DjCMqtJr0Q
21 Malpas. Land art in Great Britain. 34
22 Malpas. Land art in Great Britain.73

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A feature that was undoubtedly attractive to Neolithic man for the use of stone was its apparent
permanence. From their perspective stone must have appeared eternal, adding to its mystical qualities.
By comparison they could see that wood could decay and deteriorate within their lifespan, whereas
stone offered them the ability to make a permanent mark on the landscape. It has been suggested that
they used wood for structures intended for use by the living, such as Durrington Walls, but used stone
where the structure related to the dead or their ancestors23
. It is interesting to think whether the
builders of Stonehenge would have had any concept of how long the stones would continue to hold
the fascination of man, even though they are no longer used for their original purpose.
‘The concept and reality of change’24
has become an important element for some land artists, and as
such their work is often created with natural materials like wood, snow, ice, leaves, or water25
that are
expected to change or decay. Particularly for artists like Goldsworthy, stone forms the minority of
their work. Living in Cumbria, Goldsworthy has been surrounded by the impermanence of the seasons
as well as the permanence of stone circles like Castlerigg and Long Meg and her Daughters which
have existed for around 5000 years.
Fig 10 ‘Castlerigg seems to crystallise the characteristic features of the landscape in which it is built’ - Aubrey Burl
1988 A photograph of Castlerigg stone circle amongst the circle of surrounding mountains demonstrating its
harmony with the landscape. Own photograph
23 Stonehenge Audio Tour. English Heritage.

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Long, who is predominantly known for using stone, refuses to acknowledge the notion of his art as a
permanent object, although he does give it some sense of permanence by using photography and
marks made onto maps. When Long first made A Circle in Ireland (1975) it appeared as a
rearrangement of stones. After years of exposure to the elements, the line sculpture is now virtually
invisible. The artist reinforces the fragility that humans have to resist the powers of nature.
Fig 11, Richard Long, A Circle in Ireland, 1975. Tate and National Galleries of Scotland.
The final observation I have made regarding the materiality in ancient and modern works is the
differentiation in their positioning. The majority of stone circles in the British Isles are upright stones.
They were designed to be noticed, to stand out in the landscape. Furthermore, if they were erected as a
form of astronomical counter then they needed to be standing in order use their alignment to measure
and monitor the sun, moon and the skies. By comparison the circular stone constructions of Richard
Long are frequently placed flat on the ground, either in a gallery space or in nature. Long is not
preoccupied with whether his work is seen or not when it is in the landscape as previously
demonstrated in his work A Circle in Ireland (1975). Often he will place his monuments in areas
which are populated with large amounts of stone, therefore making the circle disappear in its
surroundings. So rather than standing out in its environment, it actually takes effort to find the work.
Although much modern land art is not vertically orientated Drury contradicts this trend with his
cairns, shelters and cloud chambers. Throughout history, cairns have been used to mark waypoints
along a journey, with shelters representing the end of the journey. They are made to be recognised

21
from afar and also a place in which many people can collaborate with earth’s elements. ‘If a shelter is
a stopping place, a full stop, a cairn is a comma within the rhythm of a walk’26
.
The materials that land artists use are undoubtedly a crucial aspect in their practice. Predominantly
natural they are able to blend in harmoniously with the land. Some exceptions have been made when
land artists choose to use materials deliberately intended to stand out from their surroundings, such as
the metals used by Anthony Gormley. His work Angel of the North (1998) opposes many land artists
desire for their work to blend with the landscape. Its large scale and location makes it one of the most
famous yet controversial sculptures of the 21st
century. The work was made by an elite artist about
working class culture and the marks left on the land by industry. The enormous sculpture was made
on a burial mound, in a location which relates to both prehistory and modern culture. It was not an
accident that this site was chosen for the work, which leads me onto my final chapter, where I will be
investigating further why particular sites are chosen by land work creators.
Fig 12. Antony Gormley, Angel of the North, 1998. Steel sculpture. Image from Wikipedia.
26 Chris Drury. Silent spaces. London: Thames & Hudson,2004. 58

22
Chapter 3 - Location
In conducting my research into the structures made by Neolithic man and those made by modern Land
Artists I have realised that there is possibly a significant difference regarding the location of the work.
For Neolithic man his stone circles were erected in places that were considered critical to their daily
lives. The resulting structures played a part in rituals or provided a function that they considered
relevant to their wellbeing and survival. Modern Land Artists are arguably driven by less compelling
reasons when they select their sites. However, that potential gives them greater freedom to select the
location so that in itself it becomes an element of the artwork.
If we consider the site of Stonehenge, as mentioned previously, it was probably already established as
a cultural centre, but there were other factors about the site that meant its construction was possible.
Perhaps the most important was the proximity of a navigable water way which enabled the
transportation of the stones. Furthermore the surrounding area is fundamentally flat. Without these
two key features Stonehenge may well have not been built, or possibly built somewhere else. The
other aspect crucial to Neolithic man would be the location of the workforce. The amount of effort to
produce Stonehenge was significant, and couldn’t be done without a large workforce; hence it
becomes inevitable that sites like Stonehenge would be markers for where the population was
concentrated.
If we now observe the location used by modern Land Artists. Long, Goldsworthy and Drury all have
grown up in megalith rich landscapes, so it is possible that they have been influenced by what they
have seen throughout their lives, and deliberately chose to make their work in the same locations.
Long’s work often relates to walks that he has done, hence he usually will choose locations local to
him. These are often isolated locations, more often populated with stone rather than people. In that
sense they are almost the antithesis of Stonehenge, where there was lots of people and little stone. Is
this a conscious decision by Long, or the consequence of other factors? He is specifically recognised
by virtue of the fact that he has sought to subvert the traditional definition of art, and in particular the
relevance of location. In his work A Ten Mile Walk England (1968) he plotted a route on the map and
then followed its course as a walk without adhering to established paths. The result was the mark on
the map, his text describing what he did, and the faint evidence of his footsteps, which inevitably
faded. He is challenging our definition of art, but clearly he has made a location choice which has had
some bearing on the outcome. Although in much of his work the location is practically anonymous.
Goldsworthy has also been able to choose the locations for his work, but where he is intending to
adapt existing structures, such as the sheepfolds, he is restricted to specific sites. It is possible that
when undertaking projects such as this, that although he doesn’t have complete freedom for selection

23
of the location, instead the location in part dictates the nature of the artwork. As mentioned previously
it is clear that the alignment of the stone at the Touchstone Fold (1996 -2003) has been specifically
chosen to work within that location.
One other modern Land Artist to consider in the context of location is David Nash, and in particular
his work Wooden Boulder (1978). Similar to the other artists already discussed in this thesis, Nash is
preoccupied with the natural environment and working with its materials. The boulder in question has
been placed in a mountain stream close to his home in North Wales, and as consequence it moves to a
new location each times the river floods. The location is ever changing, and not under his control, and
thus challenges the idea of the spectator in a gallery. This brings me to one of the most argued debates
regarding Land Art. Should the work be presented in a gallery or in the landscape? Many artists and
critics have put forward their opinions on this argument. Nash, although perhaps contradictory to his
Wooden Boulder (1978), has said that when an object made outside is brought inside, it seems to grow
in stature and presence27
and that the environment in which it was made comes with the object itself.
Other people disagree with this statement, for instance Goldsworthy describes the experience of
moving land art into the gallery as ‘problematic’28
. He feels it disconnects him with the landscape, and
the work becomes detached from its origins. His sculptures need the presence of nature to make them
come to life.
27 Malpas. Land Art in Great Britain. 49
28 Malpas, Land Art in Great Britain.51

24
Fig 13 , David Nash, Wooden Boulderin various locations in North Wales. 1978 – 1981. James Trunks – My reflective Thoughts

25
Equally the presence of the viewer can be as important. Contradictory to Long’s employment of
anonymous locations, Goldsworthy’s Sheepfolds, give people an opportunity to see the work firsthand
by providing a map and directions. Part of my research consisted of finding these locations by
walking the routes which he had provided. The three sheepfolds I discovered were Single Sheepfold,
Boulder Sheepfold and Touchstone fold (See fig 4, 7, 14). The works have obscure locations which
took some time to find but the act of finding became part of the artwork itself. This modern day
pilgrimage to find the artworks reflects those of prehistoric times and equally my admiration of
Goldsworthy’s work recalls his respect for the ancient builders.
Fig 14. Andy Goldsworthy, Boulder Sheepfold 1996, Redmire Farm, Cumbria. Own photograph
As my research has shown, Goldsworthy, Drury, Long and others demonstrate in their engagement
with the practices and symbolism of the prehistoric past, land art and related activities can often
undermine the myth of the artist as transcendent genius by making work collaboratively, and –
sometimes - not in the public eye. By working with what they see as timeless and possibly universal
practices, the artists I have discussed can be said to foreground a sense of continuity between
prehistory and modernity, a continuity which locates their work in a space which is not necessarily
‘contemporary’ and which does not only highlight the role of a unique individual practitioner. I
would argue, on the basis of my research and encounters with some of these artefacts – both in and
out of the modern art world – that immersion in (and understanding of) the specificity of the local
natural environment, is of artistic as well as ecological importance, not least of all in the digital age.

26
Bibliography
Books
Burl , Aubrey. Prehistoric Avebury. Yale University Press,2002.
Drury, Chris. Silent spaces.London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.
Hawkins, Gerald S. Stonehenge decoded. Glasgow: William Collins Sons & Co Ltd, 1970.
Long, Richard. Walking in circles. London. Thames & Hudson, 1991.
Malpas, William. Andy Goldsworthy : Touching Nature.Maidstone: Crescent Moon, 2005.
Malpas, William. Land Art in Great Britain. Kent:Crescent Moon publishing, 2008.
Mazel, Aron. Nash, George. Waddington, Clive. Art as Metaphor:The Prehistoric Rock-Art of
Britain. Archaeopress Archaeology, 2007.
Tuffnell, Ben. Richard Long : Selected statements & Interviews. London: Haunch of Venison, 2007.
Tuffnell, Ben. LAND ART. London: Tate publishing, 2006
Sunday Times Book of the Countryside. Macdonald Futura 1983.
Websites
‘Avebury’ (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCy2iJxOhCo)
Avebury – Sacred Sites Pt 1 http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/Media/Avebury%20SitesFilm1.html)
John, Betjeman, ‘Avebury’ (http://www.stonehenge-avebury.net/Media/Avebury%20ShellFilm.html)
‘A Stone Age Holy Land’ Landscape – perception: (http://www.landscape-
perception.com/a_stone_age_holy_land/) accessed 08.01.2018.
‘Forest, Field & Sky: Art out of Nature: Fox, J BBC Documentary
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q262DGh6QeM&list=PLM4S2hGZDSE7Nh27vfT6UTPWYkav
Rhj4-&index=1)
Ian Wightman ‘THE LANDSCAPES OF RICHARD LONG:PERSPECTIVES ON PREHISTORY,
SPACE AND SCULPTURAL FORM’
(https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10026.1/2405/IAN%20WIGHTMAN.PDF?sequence=
1&isAllowed=y)
‘In Focus: Castlerigg Stone Circle’ Archaeosoup productions
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVOMlWg0zgY)
Micheal Brenson ‘ART: AT THE GUGGENHEIM, WORKS BY RICHARD LONG’
(http://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/12/arts/art-at-the-guggenheim-works-by-richard-
long.html?pagewanted=all)
‘Omnibus, Richard Long’ BBC 4 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0160qw9)

27
‘One Step Beyond’ The Observer, 2009 (https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/may/10/art-
richard-long)
‘Richard Long’ Tate (http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/richard-long-1525)
‘Richard Long’ The Art Story (http://www.theartstory.org/artist-long-richard.htm)
‘Richard Long In Conversation’ The New Art Gallery Walsall.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVCEku5SAWo)
‘Richard Long, Silbury Hill’ Tate (http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/long-silbury-hill-al00214)
‘Richard Long's stone sculptures at Houghton Hall - BBC News’ 2017 Youtube (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6W2xAChE_U)
‘Secrets of Stonehenge’ National Geographic: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6oxmxPKoSE)
accessed 05.10.2017
‘Secrets of Stonehenge’ Discovery Channel (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSFsNrUljNc)
‘Stonehenge’ Timewatch (http://www.stonehenge-
avebury.net/Media/StonehengeTimewatch1985.html)
‘Who built Stonehenge?’ Horizon (http://www.stonehenge-
avebury.net/Media/StonehengeBuilding.html)
‘Wayfaring land artist Richard Long pays homage to his Bristol roots’ 2015
(https://www.itsnicethat.com/features/richard-long)
Other
English Heritage ‘Stonehenge Audio Tour’ Phone App

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