The document discusses the complex relationship between development and the environment, highlighting various perspectives from different theorists regarding the process and implications of development. It emphasizes the importance of sustainable practices in managing natural resources and addresses India's environmental challenges, including pollution, waste management, and biodiversity loss. It also reviews historical and contemporary environmental legislation in India, revealing the ongoing struggles for effective governance and pollution control amidst economic growth.

1. Organized by—
Department of Geography
Kalyani Mahavidyalaya, Nadia
Collaborator:
Department of Environmental Science
University of Kalyani, Nadia,. West Bengal
‘DEVELOPMENT VS ENVIRONMENT’ IN GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK
National Seminar
on
Environment and Development in India and Adjacent Countries
20 – 21 September, 2013

2. Perspectives on Development
— as a state (or condition)
: a static concept
— as a process (or course of change)
: a dynamic concept
Todaro
viewed ‘development’ as not only an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-
dimensional process that involves complete reorganization and reorientation of the
entire economic and social system.
Simply, it is the process of improving the quality of all human lives with the
following equally important concerns —
1. Raising peoples’ standard of living, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels
of food and nutrition, access to medical services and education
facilities through relevant growth processes.
2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem
through the social, political and economic systems and institutions.
3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their
choice variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services

3. Mabogunje vied ‘development’:
(1) — as economic growth that emphasizes commodity output in measuring
growth (GNP)
(2) — as modernization that emphasizes processes of social change needed to
produce economic advancement:
a) to examines changes in social, psychological and political
processes;
b) to develop wealth-oriented behavior and values in individuals;
c) to build profit-seeking motive rather than subsistence and self-
sufficiency
d) to shift from ‘commodity’ to ‘human’ approach with investment in
education and skill training.
(3) — as distributive justice that views development as improving our basic
needs.
Interest in social justice has raised three issues —
a) nature of goods and services provided by the Govts.
b) access of these to different social classes
c) how burden of development can be shared among these classes
Target Group = {small farmers, landless, urban under-employed and unemployed
people}

4. Marx viewed ‘development’:
— with emphasis on mode of production through labour.
Capitalist (market economy) mode bases on the processes of labour that
produces surplus which is accumulated and appropriated by the employer
resulting in class-conflicts in capitalist societies.
Neocolonialists view : ‘development’ has —
1) a regional (geographic location), and also a historical component,
2) underdevelopment is due to historical evolution of ‘an unequal
international capitalist system’ of ‘rich country-poor country’ relations
producing “center (developed countries) – periphery (developing
countries)” contrast.
Note:
1) This kind of relationship acts as constraints to become self-reliant and progressive.
2) Certain elites of the developing world (e.g., landlords, entrepreneurs, merchants)
 enjoy high income, social status and political power,
 perpetuate inequality and conformity, and
 are rewarded by -
 the international power groups (like MN Firms, Assistance
Agencies, e.g., World Bank, and other agents) they serve.

5. Underdevelopment
1. characterized by:
low per capita income, low literacy and educational attainment,
lack of basic services, e.g., water and power
2. caused by:
certain physical environments, and particular cultural traditions and
value systems (environmental and cultural determinism)
WhyhasJapansucceeded?
1) strong cooperation between government and business
2) adaptation to physical situations and acquiring a maritime prowess
3) early development (Meiji restoration) of transport and banking systems
4) high literacy
5) niche development (technology driven)
Myrdal’sviewon ‘Underdevelopment’
Complex web of interlocking vicious circles each of which constitutes a chain of
cause-and-effect relations where one unfavorable circumstance leads to another,
thereby producing downward spiral.
High Birth Rate → Large Families → Low PCI → Poverty
→ Low Output/ Worker → Low Productivity
→ Poor Health → Inadequate Housing → Poor Sanitation
Remedy → Downward Spiral not reversible without Massive Aid from OUTSIDE

6. OverthelastCentury,
theso-calledDevelopmenthasbeenassociated
with:
Exponential Pattern
of Growth —
(1) Human Population
(2) Resource Consumption

7. Solution (!!):
Needs Clear Understanding of OUR
ENVIRONMENT with a Scientific
Geographical Mind
Concept of Sustainability bases on 3 Central Themes
Natural Capital = Natural Resources + Natural Services
Materials: Renewable Functions of Nature
Non-renewable : Purification of Air &
Water
through Nutrient
Cycling
Practice Sustainability
L = f (solar capital, natural capital)
Our life and economy depend on solar energy
(solar capital) and natural resources and services
(natural capital) provided by the earth.
Thus, ‘sustainable living’ means living off earth’s
natural income without depleting or degrading its
natural capital.

8. Nutrient Cycling
Natural Capital = Natural Resources
+ Natural Services

9. Global Scenario – developed vs. developing nations
Natural Capital Degradation

10. Measuring Environmental Impacts
(1) Ecological Footprint:
Biological Capacity to replenish Resources and absorb/ adsorb Waste/Pollution
(2) /Capita Ecological Footprint:
Use of Renewable Resource/Capita
Total Ecological Footprint (m ha) and Share of
Global Ecological Capacity (%) Ecological Footprint (ha/person)
Projected Footprint
Ecological Footprint
Earth’s
Ecologic
al
Capacity

11. The IPAT Identity defines the Environment ⇋ Development Relationship
I = f (P, A, T)
where, I = environmental impacts, P = population, A = affluence, and T = technology
(expressed by the intensity of environmental impacts, i.e., the environmental impacts
or resource consumption/ unit GDP)
Improving eco-efficiency is the premise and also the foundation to realize green
development/ environmentally sustainable development (Ehrlich et al, 1970; Commoner
et al, 1971).

12. Curves of Environmental
Impacts
1) Inverted U-shaped
2) Evolutionary Trend
3) 3 Peaks at
a) 3 particular times
b) 3 particular levels of
economic
development
 Peak of EI /unit of GDP
 Peak of EI /capita
 Peak of Total EI Curve
The 3 Peaks divide the Evolution into 4 Stages —
1) Stage 1(S1): Pre-peak or Materialization stage
2) Stage 2(S2): Stage between the 1st 2
Successive Peaks
3) Stage 3(S3): Stage between 2nd and 3rd Peaks
4) Stage 4(S4): Stage of steady decline of Total EI
Drivers at Different Stages:
1) Stage S1: Growth in Resource Consumption and
Technology (proliferation and application)
2) Stage S2: Economic Growth
3) Stage S3 and S4: Technological Progress in
“resource conservation” or “pollution
reduction”
Fluctuations (including ‘rebound effect’) may occur due to the impact of factors like economic
fluctuation, structural adjustment, policy or system change, upper limit for technology or economy
(Vehmas et al., 2007) and uncertainties etc.

13. Empirical Relations related to 6
Developed Nations
Source: CDIAC,2008; Maddison, 2008

14. Empirical Relations related to 6
Developed Nations
Source: CDIAC,2008; Maddison, 2008

15. REPj =
the weighted average value of
the ratio of selected resource
consumption and ‘pollution
discharge performance/
intensity’

16. Source: 73 Countries UNEP,2011; CSDR,2012
Note
1) The smaller the REPI value, the higher the resource
productivity or eco-efficiency
2) REPI = 1 : resource and environmental performance
of a country or region or sector equals to that of the
world average
3) If REPI >1: resource and environmental
performance of a country or region or sector is lower
than that of the world average
4) If REPI <1: resource and environmental
performance of a country or region or sector is higher
than that of the world average

17. Q. How are our Ecological Footprints affecting our Earth?
As our Ecological Footprints grow, we are depleting and degrading more of our
Earth’s Natural Capital.
Natural Resources
Perpetual – renewed continuously (solar energy)
Renewable – hours to decades (water, air, forest, grasslands)
Sustainable Yield : Highest use while maintaining supply
Environmental Degradation: Exceed natural replacement rate
Nonrenewable – fixed quantities (fossil fuels, minerals)
Recycling
Substitution
Reuse
Q. How can Environmentally Sustainable Societies grow Economically?
Societies can become more environmentally sustainable through economic
development dedicated to improving the quality of life for everyone without
degrading the earth’s life-support systems.

18. Preventing Pollution is ‘more effective and less costly’ than ‘cleaning up pollution’
Pollution Prevention Input Control : Front-of-the-pipe
Pollution Cleanup Output Control : End-of-the-pipe
Disadvantages of Output Control
1) Temporary
Growth in consumption may offset technology
2) Moves pollutant from one place to another
Burial
Incineration
3) Dispersed pollutants costly to clean up
Population Growth Unsustainable
Resource Use
Poverty Excluding
Environmental Cost
from Market Price
Trying to Manage
Nature without
adequate
understanding

19. Some Harmful Results of Poverty The 4 Basic Elements of Sustainability?
Nature has sustained itself for billions of
years by using –
1) solar energy,
2) biodiversity,
3) population regulation, and
4) nutrient cycling
Lessons from Nature:
we can also apply these to our lifestyles
and economies.
Sustainable
Living
- Green
Approach

20. Levels of Organization Two Views of Economics
Resource Depletion - Degradation
Exponential Growth

21. Waste Disposal leading to River Water Pollution
Thick Haze and Smoke along the Upper/Middle Ganga
Plain caused by –
1) aerosols from biomass burning in the NW India,
2) air pollution from large cities in Nn India, and
3) dust from deserts in Pakistan and Middle East.
Roadside Waste Disposal
INDIAN SCENARIO

22. Floods cause:
Soil Erosion,
Wetland Destruction,
Migration of Wastes
Public Dumping of Rubbish
along a Road
A Chulah uses
Biomass Cakes,
Fuelwood and Trash
as Cooking Fuel
and Pollutes Air
resulting in Health
Hazards
The Taj Mahal
beside the Polluted Yamuna R.
Noise Pollution

23. EnvironmentalIssues in India: Challenges of the 21st Century
Air Pollution, Poor Waste Management, Growing Water Scarcity,
Falling GWT, Water Pollution, Biodiversity Loss,
Public Health Hazards, Livelihood Security for the Poor,
Natural Resource Depletion Land / Soil Degradation.
Reasons are:
(1) rampant burning of fuel wood and biomass as the primary source of energy,
(2) lack of organized waste removal services,
(3) lack of sewage treatment operations,
(4) lack of flood control and monsoon water drainage system,
(5) diversion of consumer wastes, industrial effluents, etc directly into rivers,
(6) cremation practices near major rivers,
(7) government mandated protection of highly polluting old public transport, and
(8) continued operation by Indian Govt. of Govt.-owned, high-emission plants
built between 1950 to 1980.
Some opine that ─
India's Growing Population adds Stress/Pressure to Environmental Issues
and its Resources.
Others believe that ─
Economic Development is key to improving India's Environmental
Management and preventing Pollution.

24. A Growing Population exerts pressure on Agricultural Land —
(1) causing Environmental Degradation, and
(2) forcing Cultivation of Land (of poorer and poorer quality).
This –
1) reduces yield and food availability,
2) causes famines, diseases, and death, and
3) act as a major cause of air, water, and solid-waste pollution.
These can be mitigated through Economic Growth and Modern Technology —
(1) increase in human knowledge,
(2) rapid increase in productivity,
(3) innovation and application of knowledge,
(4) improvements in farming methods (industrial agriculture),
(5) mechanisation and automation (to increase efficiency),
(6) use of chemical fertilizer,
(7) use of HYV seeds (wheat and others: Green Revolution),
(8) use of pesticides.
Population Density has little correlation to environmental quality and quality of life.
In 2011, India = 368 /km2 Singapore = 7148 /km2
Hong Kong =6349 /km2 England = 395 /km2
Lombardy =417/ km2 Japan =337/km2

25. Water Pollution
In India, major sources are: untreated sewerage and industrial effluents from cities
and industries. Major rivers are heavily polluted despite long-standing efforts by the
government and communities.
Air Pollution
Domestic Fuel
1. 100+m HH use chullahs every day, 2–3 times/day, thereby producing smoke and
numerous indoor air pollutants at concentrations 5 times higher than coal.
2. Traditional fuel (fuelwood, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy
use in rural (90%) and also in urban India (24%).
3. Together, these release 165+m tons of combustion products into air every year,
causing health hazards.
Vehicle Emission
worsened by (a) fuel adulteration and (b) poor combustion efficiencies from traffic
congestion, poor road condition, low density of fuel, and very low high-speed road
network /’000 persons.
Cremation is another major factor for air pollution in India.
In 2009, India emitted –
1) 1.4 tons of gas/person (USA = 17.0, World = 5.3),
2) 1.65 Gt of CO2 /year (China = 6.9, USA = 5.2),
3) 5% of CO2 emission (China = 24%).
Although, the Prevention and Control of Pollution Act was passed in 1981, in 2012
out of 132 countries India ranked as one of the poorest based on ‘environmental
performance index’.

26. Poor Waste Management
1. Indian cities alone generate more than 100+m tons of solid waste a year.
2. Street corners are piled with trash.
3. Public places and sidewalks are despoiled with filth and litter.
4. Garbage is directly dumped into Rivers and Canals.
5. Solid waste landfills are overflowing, being sources of GHG emissions and
breeding sites for disease vectors, like flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, and
other pests.
6. India's waste problem points to a stunning failure of governance
In 2000, Supreme Court directed all Indian Cities to implement a comprehensive
‘waste-management programme’.
However, till now:
about 40% of municipal waste remains uncollected, and
even medical waste is routinely dumped with regular municipal garbage.
In 2011, Cities, e.g., New Delhi embarked on waste-to-energy projects (Germany,
Switzerland and Japan).
However, these are being opposed by waste collection workers and local unions who
fear changing technology may deprive them of their livelihood and way of life.

27. Ashoka’s View on Environment and Biodiversity
Animals were declared to be protected —
parrots, mainas, aruna, geese, wild ducks,
nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants,
terrapins, boneless fish, vedareyaka,
gangapuputaka, sankiya fish, tortoises,
porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild
asses, wild pigeons, domesticpigeons and all 4-
footedcreatures that are neither useful nor
edible.
Also protected were —
nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with
young or giving milk to their young, and so are
young ones less than six months old.
Cocks are not to be caponised, husks/ forests not to
be burnt.
One animal is not to be fed to another. Our king killed
very few animals."
— Ashoka's Seven Pillar Edicts
Even, in MAHABHARATA, Bhisma suggested the Pandavas (while in forest exile) ―
→ not to remain in one place throughout the year
→ while living on hunting and food gathering they should change places with
seasons
→ prakriti or dharitri mata will get enough time to restore herself own
system.

28. Environmental Legislation in India
The British Regime
1) The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act of 1853,
2) The Oriental Gas Company Act of 1857,
3) The IPC (1860):
a) imposed a fine on anyone who voluntarily fouls the water of any public
spring or reservoir,
b) penalised negligent acts.
4) the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905,
5) the Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act of 1912.
Thus, the British-enacted legislations pioneered the growth of environmental
regulations in India.
Post-independence Period
1) India adopted a constitution and also numerous British-enacted laws
2) India amended its constitution in 1976.
Article 48(A) of Part IV: The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
Article 51 A(g) imposed additional environmental mandates on the Indian state.
3) Enacted:
a) the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974,
b) the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, and
c) the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 (after Stockholm
Conference).

29. In 1985, Indian Govt. created the Ministry of Environment and Forests for regulating and
ensuring environmental protection.
The Bhopal gas tragedy triggered the Govt. of India to enact the Environment
(Protection) Act of 1986.
Since late 1980s, the Supreme Court of India has been pro-actively engaged in India's
environmental issues by
a) laying down new principles to protect the environment,
b) re-interpreting environmental laws,
c) creating new institutions and structures, and
d) conferring additional powers on the existing ones through a series of
directions and judgments.
Despite legislation, the environmental quality mostly worsened between 1947-1990:
a) most of Indian economy was nationalised and owned by India,
b) regulations were mostly ignored by state run enterprises.
c) rural poor had no choice, but to sustain life in whatever way possible.
d) air emissions increased, water pollution worsened, and forest cover
decreased.
This has prompted Civil Society Groups to file PIL with the Courts for suitable remedies.
Starting in 1990s, reforms were introduced. Since then, for the first time in Indian history,
major air pollutant concentrations have dropped in every 5 year period.
India has also enacted a set of Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules in 2000.
Between 1992 to 2010, satellite data confirms India's forest coverage has increased for
the first time by over 4 million ha (+7%).

30. The Supreme Court has delivered a new ‘normative regime of rights’.
It insisted that the State cannot act arbitrarily but must act
reasonably and in public interest.
But, it produced some adverse consequences:
PILs are repeatedly filed to block infrastructure projects, e.g., water
works, expressways, land acquisition for projects, and power
generation projects.
The litigation routinely delays such projects while rampant pollution
continues.
Even after a stay is vacated, new issues become grounds for court
notices and new public interest litigations.
Thus, judicial activism has found state-directed economic development ineffective
and a failure to reduce environmental pollution.

31. Thus, the need of the hour –
is
Sustainable Development/ Green Development
to
satisfy basic human needs and improve the quality of life.
by
1. helping the poorest (primary workers) who are left with no option but to
exploit their local habitat / environment in order to survive
2. the idea of self-reliant development with natural resource constraints
3. the cost effective development that won’t degrade environment
4. the issues of health control, appropriate technologies, food self-reliance,
clean water and shelter for all
5. people-centered activities

32. Thank You Audince
for your patience
Prof. Ashis Sarkar
PG Department of Geography
Chandernagore College, West Bengal.
profdrashis@gmail.com editorijss2012@gmail.com
www.indiansss.org
+91 98365 52173