Development Administration chapter 4 (UNPAS 2012)

Prof. Ginandjar Kartasasmita

Program Doktor Bidang Ilmu Sosial
Universitas Pasundan
Bandung
2012

 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE CULTURE IS CHANGING TO
BE MORE FLEXIBLE, INNOVATIVE, PROBLEM
SOLVING, ENTREPRENEURIAL, AND ENTERPRISING
AS OPPOSED TO RULE-BOUND, PROCESS-ORIENTED,
AND FOCUSED ON INPUTS RATHER THAN RESULTS.

S3-Unpas_2012 www.ginandjar.com 2

 THE CURRENT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEBATE
PLACES A NEW EMPHASIS ON ‘WHAT MATTERS IS
NOT WHAT WE DO, BUT HOW PEOPLE FEEL ABOUT
WHAT WE DO’ AND THAT ‘PROCESSES MATTER’ OR
PUT DIFFERENTLY, ‘THE ENDS DO NOT JUSTIFY THE
MEANS’.


 THE CENTRAL FORCE BEHIND THE MULTIPLE CHANGES AND
TRANSFORMATION WE ARE WITNESSING AROUND US IS
GLOBALIZATION OF CAPITAL, KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS, A
PROCESS THAT TRANSCENDS NATION-STATES, ECONOMIES,
MARKETS, INSTITUTIONS, AND CULTURES. THE
GLOBALIZATION PROCESS IS ACCELERATED BY A NUMBER OF
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS, SUCH AS TECHNOLOGICAL
INNOVATIONS, POST COLD-WAR DEIDEOLOGISATION,
DECLINING ECONOMIC POWER OF INDUSTRIALIZED
COUNTRIES, AND RISING CITIZENS’ HORIZON AND
EXPECTATIONS.


• PARADIGM SHIFT

 GLOBAL  POLITICAL
 NATIONAL  ECONOMIC
 LOCAL  CULTURE/
VALUES)


GLOBALIZATION UNDERMINE TRADITIONAL DOMESTIC
POLITICAL AUTHORITY

GLOBAL ECONOMY, MARKET, CAPITAL
PRIVATIZATION

HOLLOWING OUT OF THE STATE

OVERIDE THE ABILITY OF NATIONAL
GOVERNMENTS TO SOLVE THEIR OWN PROBLEMS

ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE INTERNATIONAL
MARKET AND STANDARD

x
TRADITIONAL LINES OF ACCOUNTABILITY


 TECHNOLOGY IS THE DRIVING FORCE BEHIND INNOVATION.
BUT WHAT IS UNDERSTOOD AS INNOVATION CAN BE A
MATTER OF TIME OR PLACE. WHAT WAS IDENTIFIED AS
INNOVATION TEN YEARS AGO HAS NOW BECOME A
ROUTINE PRACTICE. SIMILARLY, IN TERMS OF PLACE, WHAT
IS ROUTINE IN DEVELOPED SOCIETIES MAY STILL BE
CONSIDERED A NOVEL OR INNOVATIVE WAY IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES, WHO ARE STRAPPED TO THEIR TRADITIONAL
WAYS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT.


 FROM GOVERNMENT TO GOVERNANCE. RELATIVELY
RECENTLY THERE IS DISTINCT DIRECTION IN PUBLIC SECTOR
INNOVATIONS THAT IS GAINING GROUND: "INNOVATIONS IN
GOVERNANCE." THESE INNOVATIONS DIFFER FROM
STANDARD INTRAORGANIZATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN
PRODUCTS, SERVICES AND PROCESSES IN THE TRADIONAL
MODE OF GOVERNMENT. INNOVATIONS IN GOVERNANCE
ARE CONCEIVED ABOVE A PARTICULAR LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION.


 MANAGERIALISM. RECENTLY EMERGING IN INNOVATIONS
ARE THE OFFSHOOT OF THE MANAGERIAL APPROACH IN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. WHEREAS PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION HAD BEEN CONSIDERED TO BE
SUBSTANTIALLY DIFFERENT FROM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT,
THE MANAGERIALIST STRAIN OF THINKING ARGUES THAT
"MANAGEMENT IS MANAGEMENT."
 THE GENERIC MANAGEMENT IS GUIDED BY ASSUMPTION
THAT THE SAME PRINCIPLES THAT MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES TO
DO THEIR JOBS EFFICIENTLY IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
WILL ALSO MOTIVATE INDIVIDUALS TO PERFORM WELL IN
THE PUBLIC SECTOR. THIS VIEW OF MANAGEMENT TAKES
THE PRIVATE SECTOR MODEL OF GOOD MANAGEMENT AND
EXTEND ITS IDEAS INTO GOVERNMENT [PETERS, IBID].


 THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF THE
CONTEMPORARY MANAGERIALIST APPROACHES IS
“LET THE MANAGERS MANAGE.” THE ASSUMPTION IS
THAT IF GOVERNMENT CAN RECRUIT OR RETAIN HIGH
QUALITY MANAGERS, AND IF THOSE MANAGERS ARE
GIVEN THE TRUST AND RESPONSIBILITY TO DIRECT
OPERATIONS WITHIN THEIR SPEHERE OF
RESPONSIBILITY FREE FORM POLITICAL CONSTRAINS
AND TRADITIONAL BUREAUCRATIC ADMINISTRATION
THEN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WILL PERFORM BETTER.


 PARTICIPATORY GOVERNMENT. AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE
MARKET-BASED APPROACH TO MANAGING THE PUBLIC
SECTOR HAS BEEN A MORE PARTICIPATORY CONCEPT OF
GOVERNING. WHEREAS THE MARKET BASED APPROACH
ASSUMES THAT THE PRINCIPLE ROOT OF THE PROBLEMS IN
GOVERNMENT IS THE MONOPOLY OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR
OVER MANY GOODS AND SERVICES, ADVOCATES OF THIS
APPROACH ARGUE THAT THE PRINCIPAL PROBLEM IS
HIERARCHY.


 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT. A SHIFT TO PERFORMANCE
MANAGEMENT HAS GAINED GROUND RECENTLY, AS
CITIZENS DEMAND AND EXPECTATIONS ARE RISING WHILE
RESOURCES ARE CONSTRAINED. BASICALLY IT WAS A SHIFT
FROM "LET THE MANAGERS MANAGE", TO "MAKE THE
MANAGERS MANAGE.” WHEREAS MUCH OF THE EARLY
REFORM WAS CONCERNED WITH MANAGERIAL FREEDOM
THE SUBSEQUENT REFORMS HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH
HOW WELL THEY PRODUCE OUTPUTS AND OUTCOMES AS
AGAINST THE RESOURCES THAT HAS BEEN CONSUMED.


 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT. ONE OF THE MOST CITED
NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF GOVERNMENT IS THE
FRAGMENTATION OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR AND
CONSEQUENTLY DIFFICULTIES IN COORDINATION.
 THERE IS A REAL NEED FOR GOVERNMENTS TO MOVE
BEYOND “REACTIVE” COORDINATION TO MORE
“PROACTIVE” FORMS OF COLLABORATION, AND HENCE THE
NEED FOR STRATEGIC POLICY CHOICES. STRATEGIC
MANAGEMENT INVOLVES LINKING THE BROAD SYSTEM
GOALS THAT ENVELOP THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF
GOVERNMENT—FROM THE CENTRAL TO THE MORE
SPECIFIC GOALS OF INDIVIDUAL AGENCIES AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS.


1. THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
2. REINVENTING (ENTREPRENEURIAL)
GOVERNMENT
3. THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM)

4. NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
5. POST MODERNISM
6. GOVERNANCE


 THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WAS A
MOVEMENT OF REFORM MINDED YOUNG
SCHOLARS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN LATE
1960’S AND 1970’S, SUCH AS DWIGHT WALDO
AND GEORGE H. FREDERICKSON.


 THE FOCUS OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
WAS DISINCLINED TO EXAMINE SUCH TRADITIONAL
PHENOMENA AS EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS,
BUDGETING, AND ADMINISTRATIVE TECHNIQUES.
 THE QUESTIONS IT RAISED DEALT WITH VALUES,
ETHICS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL
MEMBER IN THE ORGANIZATION, THE RELATION OF
THE CLIENT WITH THE BUREAUCRACY, AND THE
BROAD PROBLEMS OF URBANISM, TECHNOLOGY, AND
SOCIAL CONFLICTS.


 MAIN ARGUEMENTS OF THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION:
1) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AND PUBLIC AGENCIES ARE
NOT AND CANNOT BE EITHER NEUTRAL OR OBJECTIVE.
2) TECHNOLOGY IS OFTEN DEHUMANIZING.
3) BUREAUCRATIC HIERARCHY IS OFTEN INEFFECTIVE AS
AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY.
4) BUREAUCRACIES TEND TOWARD GOAL DISPLACEMENT
AND SURVIVAL.


5) COOPERATION, CONSENSUS, AND DEMOCRATIC
ADMINISTRATION ARE MORE LIKELY THAN THE SIMPLE
EXERCISE OF ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITY TO RESULT IN
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS.
6) MODERN CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION MUST
BE BUILT ON POSTBEHAVIORAL AND POSTPOSITIVIST
LOGIC-MORE DEMOCRATIC, MORE ADAPTABLE, MORE
RESPONSIVE TO CHANGING SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND
POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES. (MARINI 1971)


 MOST GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS PERFORM
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX TASKS, IN COMPETITIVE,
RAPIDLY CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, WITH
“CUSTOMERS” WHO WANT QUALITY AND CHOICE.


1. CATALYTIC GOVERNMENT:
STEERING RATHER THAN ROWING.
2. COMMUNITY OWNED GOVERNMENT:
EMPOWERING RATHER THAN SERVING.
3. COMPETITIVE GOVERNMENT:
INJECTING COMPETITION INTO SERVICE DELIVERY.
4. MISSION-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT:
TRANSFORMING RULE-DRIVEN ORGANIZATIONS
5. RESULTS-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT:
FUNDING OUTCOMES, NOT INPUTS.


6. CUSTOMER-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT:
MEETING THE NEEDS OF THE CUSTOMER, NOT THE
BUREAUCRACY.
7. ENTERPRISING GOVERNMENT:
ERANING RATHER THAN SPENDING.
8. ANTICIPATORY GOVERNMENT:
PREVENTION RATHER THAN CURE.
9. DECENTRELAIZED GOVERNMENT:
FROM HIERARCHY TO PARTICIPATION AND TEAMWORK.
10. MARKET-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT:
LEVERAGING CHANGE THROUGH THE MARKET.

(OSBORNE AND GAEBLER, 1993)


 IN THE EARLY 1990's, A NEW MANAGERIAL APPROACH TO PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION BEGAN TO TAKE HOLD. LIKE THE TRADITIONAL
MANAGERIAL APPROACH AT ITS INCEPTION, THE NEW APPROACH IS
REFORM-ORIENTED AND SEEKS TO IMPROVE PUBLIC SECTOR
PERFORMANCE
 IT STARTS FROM THE PREMISE THAT TRADITIONAL,
BUREAUCRATICALLY ORGANIZED PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS
"BROKE" AND "BROKEN“, AND CONSEQUENTLY THE PUBLIC HAS LOST
FAITH IN GOVERNMENT.
 MANAGERIALISM REFERS TO AN ENTREPRENEURIAL APPROACH TO
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT, ONE THAT EMPHASIZES THE RIGHTS OF
MANAGERS TO RUN THE ORGANIZATION AND THE APPLICATION OF
REINVIGORATED SCIENTIFICMANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES.
(LEMAY, 2002)

 IT CALLED FOR AMONG OTHERS: PUTTING CUSTOMERS
FIRST, MAKING SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS COMPETE,
CREATING MARKET DYNAMICS, USING MARKET
MECHANISMS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS, EMPOWERING
EMPLOYEES TO GET RESULTS, DECENTRALIZATION
DECISION MAKING POWER, STREAMLINING THE BUDGET
PROCESS, DECENTRALIZATION PERSONNEL POLICY, AND
STREAMLINING PROCUREMENT.


 TODAY, THE NPM IS BECOMING THE DOMINANT
MANAGERIAL APPROACH.
 ITS KEY CONCEPTS-SOMEWHAT EVOLUTIONARY A
DECADE AGO- ARE NOW THE STANDARD LANGUAGE
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
 TERMS SUCH AS "RESULTS ORIENTED", "CUSTOMERS
FOCUSED", "EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT",
"ENTREPRENEURSHIP", AND "OUTSOURCING", HAVE
DOMINATED THE MAINSTREAM.


APPROACH DATE SELECTED FEATURES
CLASSICAL 1900 ORGANIZATIONS PERCEIVED AS CLOSED SYSTEMS;
STRESS ON EFFICIENCY, CONTROL AND THE
BUREAUCRATIC FORM
BEHAVIORAL/ 1930 EMPHASIS ON PEOPLE RATHER THAN MACHINES;
HUMAN CLOSE ATTENTION TO FACTORS SUCH AS GROUP
RELATIONS DYNAMICS, COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION
QUANTITATIVE 1940 PROVISION OF QUANTITATIVE TOOLS TO SUPPORT
MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING; FOUND IN
MANAGEMENT SCIENCE, OPERATIONAL
MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
SYSTEMS


APPROACH DATE SELECTED FEATURES
OPEN SYSTEM/ 1965 ORGANIZATIONS SEEN AS SYSTEMS OF INTERRELATED PARTS
CONTIGENCY WHICH RELATE TO THE ENVIRONMENT; EMPHASIS ON
'FITTING' ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TO THE SPECIFIC
ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION
POWER/ POLITICS 1965 ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION-MAKING IS NOT GUIDED BY
TECHNICAL RATIONALITY BUT IS DETERMINED BY POLITICAL
PROCESSES; A DOMINANT COALITION WILL BE THE MAJOR
LOCUS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POWER
QUALITY 1955 STRONGLY PURSUED IN JAPANESE POSTWAR INDUSTRIAL
MOVEMENTS DEVELOPMENT AND MUCH LATER ADOPTED ELSEWHERE;
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT BY WORKING TOGETHER AND
CLIENT FOCUS; TYPIFIED IN TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT,
BENCHMARKING, QUALITY CIRCLES AND ISO 9000
MANAGERIALISM 1980 ADOPTION BY THE PUBLIC SECTOR OF PRIVATE SECTOR
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; APPLICATION OF PUBLIC CHOICE
THEORY AND NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMICS TO PUBLIC SECTOR
MANAGEMENT
(TURNER AND HULME, 1997)


 IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, HIERARCHICAL
GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACY WAS THE PREDOMINANT
ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL USED TO DELIVER PUBLIC
SERVICES AND FULFILL PUBLIC POLICY GOALS.
 PUBLIC MANAGERS WON ACCLAIM BY ORDERING THOSE
UNDER THEM TO ACCOMPLISH HIGHLY ROUTINE, ALBEIT
PROFESSIONAL, TASKS WITH UNIFORMITY BUT WITHOUT
DISCRETION.
 TODAY, INCREASINGLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES FORCE
PUBLIC OFFICIALS TO DEVELOP NEW MODELS OF
GOVERNANCE.


 QUESTION: DO GOVERNMENTS KNOW WHAT THEY
ARE DOING? WHY SHOULD WE TRUST THEM?
 THE DEMAND FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT HAS A LONG
HISTORY. BUT SELDOM HAVE THE FORMS OF
GOVERNMENT BEEN UNDER GREATER CHALLENGE.
 DISSATISFACTION AND DISILLUSIONMENT ABOUT
POLITICAL SOLUTIONS ARE RIFE.


POLITICAL
DEMOCRACY

STRUCTURE AND
SOCIETAL VALUES OF
TRANSFORMATION PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
TECHNOLOGICAL
PROGRESS


CORE VALUES OF
? VALUES & NEEDS OF
PUBLIC SOCIETY AT LARGE
ADMINISTRATION


?
ABSORB
SCALE AND
COMPLEXITY PROCESS PUBLIC
OF MODERN EFFECTIVELY ADMINISTRATION
GOVERNMENT ACCOMPLISH


SOCIAL  PARTICIPATION CHALENGE THE
VALUES  DEMOCRACY STRUCTURES OF
AUTHORITY AND
CONTROL

BASIC VALUES OF
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION


CORE VALUES >< SOCIAL VALUES

ETHICS

CENTRALIZED, OPEN PARTICIPATION/DEMOCRACY
CLOSED SYSTEM SYSTEM

TRANSPARANCY

ACCOUNTABILITY


 NETWORK
 STRUCTURE
 STAKEHOLDERS
 HIERARCHY PARTICIPATION


MODELS OF GOVERNMENTS

High
Public private collaboration

Outsourced Networking
government government

Hierarchical Joined-up
government government

Low
Low High
Network management capabilities

(GOLDSMITH AND EGGERS, 2004)


GOOD GOVERNANCE
 IN MANY COUNTRIES GOOD GOVERNANCE IS VERY
MUCH A CURRENT TOPIC, AS PART OF THE AGENDA OF
THE REFORM MOVEMENT.
 IT IS CONCERNED WITH SUCH ISSUES AS CORRUPTION,
HUMAN RIGHTS, SOCIAL JUSTICE, EQUITY, RULE OF LAW.


 UNIVERSALLY ‘GOOD GOVERNANCE’ RAISES SUCH
ISSUES AS:
 STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT;
 TRANSPARENCY;
 THE EQUALITIES AGENDA (GENDER, ETHNIC GROUP,
AGE, RELIGION, ETC);
 ETHICAL AND HONEST BEHAVIOR;
 ACCOUNTABILITY;
 SUSTAINABILITY.


0,06
Per capita income growth, 1982-2002 (residual)

0,04

0,02

0

-0,02

-0,04

-0,06

-0,08
-20 -10 0
10 20 30

Initial Governance, 1982

Source: Steve Knack, unpublished note 2005 (In Levy, 2007)


 WHEREAS THE GOVERNANCE DISCUSSIONS IN THE
PUBLIC SECTORS IS RELATIVELY RECENT, THE TERM
GOVERNANCE IS MUCH MORE COMMON IN THE
PRIVATE SECTOR WHERE A DEBATE ABOUT
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE HAS BEEN GOING ON FOR
QUITE SOME TIME.
 COORPORATE GOVERNANCE REFERS TO ISSUES OF
CONTROL AND DECISION-MAKING POWERS WITHIN
THE PRIVATE (CORPORATE) ORGANIZATIONS.


 ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT IS THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE
ECONOMY AND THE GROWING IMPORTANCE OF
TRANSNATIONAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS LIKE THE
UNITED NATIONS (UN), EUROPEAN UNION (EU), WORLD
TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO), ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH
EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN), AND NORTH AMERICAN
FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA).


THE DIFFUSION OF GOVERNANCE IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

Private sector Public sector Third sector

Supranational Transnational Intergovernmental Nongovernmental
corporations organization organization
level

National National Twentieth-century National
level corporations model nonprofits

Subnational Local State and local Local
level business government Non-profit

(KAMARACK AND NYE JR., 2002)


THE CHALLENGES

 THE ACCOUNTABILITY PROBLEM PRESENTS NETWORKED
GOVERNMENT WITH ITS MOST DIFFICULT CHALLENGE.
 WHEN AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY ARE PARCELED
OUT ACROSS THE NETWORK, WHO IS TO BLAME WHEN
SOMETHING GOES WRONG? HOW DOES GOVERNMENT
RELINQUISH SOME CONTROL AND STILL ENSURE
RESULTS?


 HOW DO NETWORK MANAGERS BALANCE THE NEED FOR
ACCOUNTABILITY AGAINST THE BENEFITS OF FLEXIBILITY?
 GOVERNMENTS HAVE TRADITIONALLY TRIED TO
ADDRESS MOST OF THESE ISSUES OF GOVERNANCE AND
ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH NARROW AUDIT AND
CONTROL MECHANISMS. ALTHOUGH SUCH TOOLS HELP,
THEY SHOULD NOT CONSTITUTE THE GREATER PART OF
AN ACCOUNTABILITY REGIME.


 INFORMATION IS A CENTRAL RESOURCE FOR ALL
ACTIVITIES.
 IN PURSUING THE DEMOCRATIC/POLITICAL PROCESSES,
IN MANAGING RESOURCES, EXECUTING FUNCTIONS,
MEASURING PERFORMANCE AND IN SERVICE DELIVERY,
INFORMATION IS THE BASIC INGREDIENT' (ISAAC-HENRY
1997: I 32).


THE START OF SOMETHING BIG?

 OVER THE NEXT TEN TO FIFTEEN YEARS, THE
EXPANSION OF NETWORK-BASED
COMMUNICATIONS SHOULD EXERT A STRONG
INFLUENCE ON HOW COMMUNITIES ARE FORMED
AND GOVERNED.


THE ROLE OF THE INTERNET
 THE INTERNET IS A NETWORK OR NETWORKS OF ONE-TO-
ONE, ONE-TO-MANY, MANY-TO-MANY, AND MANY-TO-ONE,
LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND GLOBAL INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES WITH RELATIVELY OPEN
STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS AND COMPARATIVELY LOW
BARRIERS TO ENTRY.


CONVERGENCE
 GROWTH IN THE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT) SECTOR HAS EXPLODED OVER THE
PAST 20 YEARS. CONTINUOUS DYNAMIC MARKET AND
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS IN THIS SECTOR HAVE LED
TO A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS CONVERGENCE, WHICH
IS DEFINED AS THE EROSION OF BOUNDARIES BETWEEN
PREVIOUSLY SEPARATE ICT SERVICES, NETWORKS, AND
BUSINESS PRACTICES. SOME EXAMPLES INCLUDE CABLE
TELEVISION NETWORKS THAT OFFER PHONE SERVICE,
INTERNET TELEVISION, AND MERGERS BETWEEN MEDIA
AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS FIRMS.
(THE WORLD BANK, 2010)


OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS

 MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR IS BEING ALTERED,
AND MAY BE ALTERED EVEN MORE FUNDAMENTALLY IN
THE FUTURE BY RAPID ADVANCED OF TECHNOLOGY, IN
PARTICULAR INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY [ICT]. THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN
GOVERNMENT HAS BEEN INCREASING FOR DECADES, BUT
THE PACE OF CHANGE HAS BEEN ACCELERATING OVER
THE QUARTER OF THE LAST CENTURY.


THE EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRACY

DIRECT REPRESENTATIVE PARTICIPATORY DIRECT
DEMOCRACY DEMOCRACY DEMOCRACY DEMOCRACY

DARI MARY REID, “WHO NEEDS ELECTED REPRESENTATIVE?” (2005)


STRONG

TRADITIONAL PARTICIPATORY
REPRESENTATIVE REPRESENTATIVE
DEMOCRACY DEMOCRACY

CITIZEN
PARTICIPATORY STRONG
WEAK

DOMINANCE
BY THE
LOUDEST

DIRECT
WEAK DEMOCRACY

ELECTED
REPRESENTATIVES

MARY REID, IBID.


 FACEBOOK
BUAYA VS CICAK

 WIKILEAKS
 ARAB SPRING


CIVIL SOCIETY/MEDIA

JUDICIARY

LEGISLATIVE

SUBNATIONAL GOVERNMENTS AND
AUTONOMOUS OVERSIGHT AGENCIES

EXECUTIVE

Source: Levy, 2007


Development Administration chapter 4 (UNPAS 2012)

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