Describe, in detail, what second messengers are and what their functi.pdf
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Describe, in detail, what second messengers are and what their function is with regard to signal- transduction pathways. Solution Cell signalling is initiated with the release of messenger molecule by the cell which is engaged in sending messages to other cells in the body. Cells can only respond to an extracellular message if they ezpress receptors that specificallt recognizes and bond that particular messenger molecule. In most cases the messenger molecule or logand binds to a receptor at the extracellular surface of the responding cell. This interaction causes a signal to be relayed across the mebrane to the receptors cytoplasmic domain. Once it has reached to the inner surface of the plasma membrane, there are two routes by which the signal is transmitted into cell interior where it elicits the appropriate response. The particular route takendepends on the type of receptor that is activated. One type of receptor transmits a signal drom its cytoplasmic domain to a nearby enzyme which generates a molecule called as second messenger. Because it vrings about (effects) the cellular response by generating a second messenger, the enzyme responsible is called as effector. Another type of receptor transmits a signal by transforming its cytoplasmic domain into a r3cruiting station for cellular signalling protiens. Signalling patways therefore are the information superhighways of the cell. Each cell signalling pathway consists of a series of distinct protiens that operate in sequence. Signals transmitted along such signalkibg pathways ultimately reach target protiens involved in celkular process . Depending upon the type of cell and message, the response initiated by the target protien may involve change in gene expression,an alteration of activity of metabolic enzymes, an increase or decrease in cell motility, a change in ion permeability. This over all process in which information carried by extracelkular messenger molecules is translated into changes that occur inside the cell is referred as signal transduction. Second messengers are molecules that relay signals received at receptors on the cell surface — such as the arrival of protein hormones, growth factors, etc. — to target molecules in the cytosol and/or nucleus. Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell to trigger physiological changes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, survival, and apoptosis. Secondary messengers are therefore one of the initiating components of intracellular signal transduction cascades. The cell releases second messenger molecules in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules termed as first messengers. First messengers therefore are extracellular factors, often hormones or neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine, growth hormone, and serotonin. There are 3 major classes of second messengers: Cyclic AMP is the second messenger that is capable of diffusing to other sites within the cell. The synthesis of cyc.
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Signal transduction
Hormones act as chemical messengers that bind to receptors and elicit responses in target cells. There are three main types of chemical messengers based on their method of travel: endocrine (travel via bloodstream), paracrine (travel between nearby cells), and autocrine (act on the producing cell). Hormone receptors contain sites for ligand binding and signal transmission. When a hormone binds its receptor, it triggers intracellular responses such as changes in gene expression that produce physiological effects. Termination of signaling is important to regulate responses and prevent improper cell growth.
General principles of cell communication
Cell signaling allows cells to communicate and coordinate their functions. There are several forms of cell signaling, including endocrine signaling where hormones travel through the bloodstream, paracrine signaling between neighboring cells, contact-dependent signaling through cell junctions, and synaptic signaling across nerve cell junctions. In intracellular signaling, receptor activation leads to the production of second messengers that transmit signals within the cell by activating intracellular signaling pathways, ultimately triggering responses like transcription, survival, movement, or metabolic changes.
Cell signaling
Cells of multicellular organisms detect and respond to countless internal and extracellular signals that control their growth, division, and differentiation during development, as well as their behavior in adult tissues.
At the heart of all these communication systems are regulatory proteins that produce chemical signals, which are sent from one place to another in the body or within a cell, usually being processed along the way and integrated with other signals to provide clear and effective communication.
Study of cell signaling has traditionally focused on the mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells communicate with each other using extracellular signal molecules such as hormones and growth factors.
Many bacteria, respond to chemical signals that are secreted by their neighbors and accumulate at higher population density. This process, called quorum sensing, allows bacteria to coordinate their behavior, including their motility, antibiotic production, spore formation, and sexual conjugation.
Communication between cells in multicellular organisms is mediated mainly by extracellular signal molecules.
Most cells in multicellular organisms both emit and receive signals. Reception of the signals depends on receptor proteins, usually (but not always) at the cell surface, which bind the signal molecule. The binding activates the receptor, which in turn activates one or more intracellular signaling pathways or systems.
These systems depend on intracellular signaling proteins, which process the signal inside the receiving cell and distribute it to the appropriate intracellular targets.
The targets that lie at the end of signaling pathways are generally called effector proteins, which are altered in some way by the incoming signal and implement the appropriate change in cell behavior.
Depending on the signal and the type and state of the receiving cell, these effectors can be transcription regulators, ion channels, components of a metabolic pathway, or parts of the cytoskeleton.
ubaid afzal
Signal transduction involves the conversion of a stimulus into a cellular response. A stimulus binds to a receptor on the cell surface or inside the cell. This triggers a signaling pathway that often involves second messengers amplifying the signal and regulating transcription factors to control gene expression and cellular responses. Bacteria also use two-component regulatory systems of transmitters and receivers to sense extracellular signals and regulate responses like chemotaxis and sporulation via phosphorylation cascades.
4183 abcdefghijklmnofqrstuvwxyz12345.ppt
Cells within multicellular organisms communicate via secreted molecules or direct contact. These signals integrate and coordinate cell functions. Cells signal locally through diffusible molecules or contact between nearby cells. They also signal over long distances using hormones transported in body fluids. Signaling involves reception of the signal, transduction through intracellular pathways, and cellular responses. Key pathways include receptor tyrosine kinases, MAPK pathways, JAK/STAT, and PI3K/Akt pathways. Signaling controls processes like cell growth, differentiation, and responses to stimuli.
1901711085034_CELL SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION_ALOK KUMAR.pptx
Cell signaling, also known as signal transduction, is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external cues. There are numerous cell signaling pathways that involve complex interactions. Cell signaling relies on ligands, receptors, transducers, and second messengers to transmit signals from the cell surface to intracellular targets, resulting in changes in gene expression. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is an important cell signaling process that eliminates damaged or unneeded cells and is involved in development, immune response, and neurodegenerative diseases.
Introduction to cell signalling
Cell signaling involves chemical communication between cells through signaling molecules that bind to receptors on other cells. When a signaling molecule binds its receptor, it triggers a change within the cell through a process called signal transduction. This allows cells to respond to their environment and coordinate their actions. There are several types of cell signaling including paracrine signaling between nearby cells, endocrine signaling through hormones carried in the bloodstream, and autocrine signaling where cells produce factors to stimulate themselves. Cell surface receptors that span the membrane play an important role in signal transduction.
Cell Communication.pptx
Cell communication focuses on how a cell gives and receives messages with its environment and with itself.
Cell needs to be able to communicate to other cells and responds to environment changes.
External signals are converted into responses within the cell.
Cells typically communicate using chemical signals. These chemical signals, which are proteins or other molecules produced by a sending cell, are often secreted from the cell and released into the extracellular space.
Cell Signaling and Signal Transduction
Cell Signaling: it is about communication between different groups of cells and tissues i.e., how one group of cells informs another group of cells what to do.
Signal Transduction: refers to how the presence of an extracellular signal can produce a change in the intracellular state of the cell without the initial signal crossing the membrane.
Communication between cell requires:
Ligand: the signaling molecule
Receptor protein: the molecule to which the receptor binds- may be on the plasma membrane or within the cell
When a signaling molecule binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell.
Signaling molecules are often called ligands, a general term for molecules that bind specifically to other molecules (such as receptors).
The message carried by a ligand is often relayed through a chain of chemical messengers inside the cell.
Ultimately, it leads to a change in the cell, such as alteration in the activity of a gene or even the induction of a whole process, such as cell division.
Thus, the original intercellular (between-cells) signal is converted into an intracellular (within-cell) signal that triggers a response.
Mechanism of Cell Communication
There are five basic mechanisms for cellular communication:
a) Contact-dependent (Direct contact)
b) Paracrine
c) Autocrine
d) Synaptic
e) Endocrine
Contact-dependent (Direct contact)
Gap junctions in animals and plasmodesmata in plants are tiny channels that directly connect neighboring cells.
These water-filled channels allow small signaling molecules, called intracellular mediators, to diffuse between the two cells.
Small molecules, such as calcium ions are able to move between cells, but large molecules like proteins and DNA cannot fit through the channels without special assistance.
In another form of direct signaling, two cells may bind to one another because they carry complementary proteins on their surfaces.
When the proteins bind to one another, this interaction changes the shape of one or both proteins, transmitting a signal.
This kind of signaling is especially important in the immune system, where immune cells use cell-surface markers to recognize “self” cells (the body's own cells) and cells infected by pathogens.
Paracrine Communication
Often, cells that are near one another communicate through the release of chemical messengers (ligands that can diffuse through the space between the cells).
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Signal transduction
Hormones act as chemical messengers that bind to receptors and elicit responses in target cells. There are three main types of chemical messengers based on their method of travel: endocrine (travel via bloodstream), paracrine (travel between nearby cells), and autocrine (act on the producing cell). Hormone receptors contain sites for ligand binding and signal transmission. When a hormone binds its receptor, it triggers intracellular responses such as changes in gene expression that produce physiological effects. Termination of signaling is important to regulate responses and prevent improper cell growth.
General principles of cell communication
Cell signaling allows cells to communicate and coordinate their functions. There are several forms of cell signaling, including endocrine signaling where hormones travel through the bloodstream, paracrine signaling between neighboring cells, contact-dependent signaling through cell junctions, and synaptic signaling across nerve cell junctions. In intracellular signaling, receptor activation leads to the production of second messengers that transmit signals within the cell by activating intracellular signaling pathways, ultimately triggering responses like transcription, survival, movement, or metabolic changes.
Cell signaling
Cells of multicellular organisms detect and respond to countless internal and extracellular signals that control their growth, division, and differentiation during development, as well as their behavior in adult tissues.
At the heart of all these communication systems are regulatory proteins that produce chemical signals, which are sent from one place to another in the body or within a cell, usually being processed along the way and integrated with other signals to provide clear and effective communication.
Study of cell signaling has traditionally focused on the mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells communicate with each other using extracellular signal molecules such as hormones and growth factors.
Many bacteria, respond to chemical signals that are secreted by their neighbors and accumulate at higher population density. This process, called quorum sensing, allows bacteria to coordinate their behavior, including their motility, antibiotic production, spore formation, and sexual conjugation.
Communication between cells in multicellular organisms is mediated mainly by extracellular signal molecules.
Most cells in multicellular organisms both emit and receive signals. Reception of the signals depends on receptor proteins, usually (but not always) at the cell surface, which bind the signal molecule. The binding activates the receptor, which in turn activates one or more intracellular signaling pathways or systems.
These systems depend on intracellular signaling proteins, which process the signal inside the receiving cell and distribute it to the appropriate intracellular targets.
The targets that lie at the end of signaling pathways are generally called effector proteins, which are altered in some way by the incoming signal and implement the appropriate change in cell behavior.
Depending on the signal and the type and state of the receiving cell, these effectors can be transcription regulators, ion channels, components of a metabolic pathway, or parts of the cytoskeleton.
ubaid afzal
Signal transduction involves the conversion of a stimulus into a cellular response. A stimulus binds to a receptor on the cell surface or inside the cell. This triggers a signaling pathway that often involves second messengers amplifying the signal and regulating transcription factors to control gene expression and cellular responses. Bacteria also use two-component regulatory systems of transmitters and receivers to sense extracellular signals and regulate responses like chemotaxis and sporulation via phosphorylation cascades.
4183 abcdefghijklmnofqrstuvwxyz12345.ppt
Cells within multicellular organisms communicate via secreted molecules or direct contact. These signals integrate and coordinate cell functions. Cells signal locally through diffusible molecules or contact between nearby cells. They also signal over long distances using hormones transported in body fluids. Signaling involves reception of the signal, transduction through intracellular pathways, and cellular responses. Key pathways include receptor tyrosine kinases, MAPK pathways, JAK/STAT, and PI3K/Akt pathways. Signaling controls processes like cell growth, differentiation, and responses to stimuli.
1901711085034_CELL SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION_ALOK KUMAR.pptx
Cell signaling, also known as signal transduction, is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external cues. There are numerous cell signaling pathways that involve complex interactions. Cell signaling relies on ligands, receptors, transducers, and second messengers to transmit signals from the cell surface to intracellular targets, resulting in changes in gene expression. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is an important cell signaling process that eliminates damaged or unneeded cells and is involved in development, immune response, and neurodegenerative diseases.
Introduction to cell signalling
Cell signaling involves chemical communication between cells through signaling molecules that bind to receptors on other cells. When a signaling molecule binds its receptor, it triggers a change within the cell through a process called signal transduction. This allows cells to respond to their environment and coordinate their actions. There are several types of cell signaling including paracrine signaling between nearby cells, endocrine signaling through hormones carried in the bloodstream, and autocrine signaling where cells produce factors to stimulate themselves. Cell surface receptors that span the membrane play an important role in signal transduction.
Cell Communication.pptx
Cell communication focuses on how a cell gives and receives messages with its environment and with itself.
Cell needs to be able to communicate to other cells and responds to environment changes.
External signals are converted into responses within the cell.
Cells typically communicate using chemical signals. These chemical signals, which are proteins or other molecules produced by a sending cell, are often secreted from the cell and released into the extracellular space.
Cell Signaling and Signal Transduction
Cell Signaling: it is about communication between different groups of cells and tissues i.e., how one group of cells informs another group of cells what to do.
Signal Transduction: refers to how the presence of an extracellular signal can produce a change in the intracellular state of the cell without the initial signal crossing the membrane.
Communication between cell requires:
Ligand: the signaling molecule
Receptor protein: the molecule to which the receptor binds- may be on the plasma membrane or within the cell
When a signaling molecule binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell.
Signaling molecules are often called ligands, a general term for molecules that bind specifically to other molecules (such as receptors).
The message carried by a ligand is often relayed through a chain of chemical messengers inside the cell.
Ultimately, it leads to a change in the cell, such as alteration in the activity of a gene or even the induction of a whole process, such as cell division.
Thus, the original intercellular (between-cells) signal is converted into an intracellular (within-cell) signal that triggers a response.
Mechanism of Cell Communication
There are five basic mechanisms for cellular communication:
a) Contact-dependent (Direct contact)
b) Paracrine
c) Autocrine
d) Synaptic
e) Endocrine
Contact-dependent (Direct contact)
Gap junctions in animals and plasmodesmata in plants are tiny channels that directly connect neighboring cells.
These water-filled channels allow small signaling molecules, called intracellular mediators, to diffuse between the two cells.
Small molecules, such as calcium ions are able to move between cells, but large molecules like proteins and DNA cannot fit through the channels without special assistance.
In another form of direct signaling, two cells may bind to one another because they carry complementary proteins on their surfaces.
When the proteins bind to one another, this interaction changes the shape of one or both proteins, transmitting a signal.
This kind of signaling is especially important in the immune system, where immune cells use cell-surface markers to recognize “self” cells (the body's own cells) and cells infected by pathogens.
Paracrine Communication
Often, cells that are near one another communicate through the release of chemical messengers (ligands that can diffuse through the space between the cells).
Cell signaling
Cell signaling allows cells to communicate and coordinate their activities in response to environmental changes. Specialized receptors called integrins provide communication links between the interior and exterior of cells. They interact with enzymes and are involved in many cellular processes. The formation of specialized tissues in multicellular organisms depends on coordinated regulation of cell number, location, morphology, and function through complex communication networks between cells. Signals are received and processed in target cells to trigger intracellular reactions that dictate physiological functions.
Cell signaling
Cellular communication occurs through chemical signaling via ligands and receptors. There are several forms of cellular signaling including autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, synaptic, and cell-cell contact signaling. Ligands can be small hydrophobic molecules that pass through the cell membrane or bind to extracellular domains of cell surface receptors. Receptors can be intracellular or cell surface receptors. Common types of receptors include G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and ion channel receptors. Binding of ligands to receptors triggers downstream signaling pathways involving second messengers like cAMP, cGMP, calcium ions, and inositol phosphates to produce a cellular response.
Signal transduction
1) Cells use signal transduction pathways to respond to their environment. Signals like hormones bind to receptors on the cell surface which triggers a transduction cascade of protein interactions inside the cell.
2) Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by protein kinases is a key mechanism in signal transduction cascades, altering the behavior of proteins and turning pathways on and off.
3) Membrane receptors transfer information about external signals to the cell interior by undergoing a conformational change upon ligand binding, starting intracellular signaling cascades.
_Cell Signalling .pptx
Cell signaling is the process where cell communicate with each other with the help of signaling molecules and receptors. Cell signaling is done by different types of signaling processes such as autocrine, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine, contact dependent signaling
Cell Communication, Cell Junction and Cell Signaling.pptx
-Cellular Communication
-There are three stages of cell: communication
a.Reception
b.Transduction
c. Response
-Receptors And Ligands
There are two basic types of receptors:
a.Internal receptors
b.Cell surface receptors
-Internal receptors-often steroid hormones
-There are several different types of ligands
a.Hydrophobic ligands
b. Water soluble hydrophilic ligands
-Three stages of cell communication
-How insulin works
Cell Junction
-There are three types of cell junctions:
1.Adhesive (Anchoring) junctions
2.Tight Junctions
3.Gap Junactions
-The two main kinds of adhesive cell-cell junctions are:
a.Adherens junctions
b.Desmosomes
a. Adherens junctions:
Adherens junction is the cell to cell junction, which connects the actin filaments. In adherens junction, the membranes of the adjacent cells are held together by some transmembrane proteins called cadherins.
b. Desmosome
Desmosome is a cell to cell junction, where the intermediate filaments connect two adjacent cells. Desmosome is also called macula adherens. Desmosomes function like tight junctions. The trans-membrane proteins involved in desmosome are mainly cadherins.
2. Tight Junctions
The cell membranes are connected by strands of trans-membrane proteins such as claudins and occludins.
Tight junctions bind cells together, prevent molecules from passing in between the cells, and also help to maintain the polarity of cells.
-Functions of Tight Junctions:
Another function of tight junctions is simply to hold cells together.
3. Gap Junction
Gap junctions are a type of cell junction in which adjacent cells are connected through protein channels. Gap junctions are made up of connexin proteins. Groups of six connexins form a connexon, and two connexons are put together to form a channel that molecules can pass through. Other channels in gap junctions are made up of pannexin proteins.
-Functions of Gap Junction
The main function of gap junctions is to connect cells together so that molecules may pass from one cell to other.
This allows for cell-to-cell communication.
-Cell Signaling
Cell signaling is the process of cellular communication within the body. The binding of extracellular signaling molecules to their receptors
-Modes of cell-cell signaling
1.Direct cell-cell signaling
2. Signaling by secreted molecule
a.Endocrine signaling:
-E. g. hormones produced by endocrine glands including pituitary, pancreas, adrenal, parathyroid glands etc.
b.Paracrine signaling:
-E.g. action of neurotransmitters in carrying signals between nerve cells at a synapse.
c.Autocrine signaling:
-When interleukin-1 is produced in response to external stimuli, it can bind to cell-surface receptors on the same cell that produced it.
d.Synaptic signaling:
-Types of signaling molecules
a.Nitric oxide
b.Carbon monoxide
c.Neurotransmitter
d.Peptide hormone
-Intracellular signaling pathway activated by an extracellular signal molecule
Signal transduction
This document discusses signal transduction in cells. It explains that membrane proteins in bacterial cells detect environmental changes and generate signals to trigger responses. In multicellular organisms, cells exchange various signals, such as plant cells responding to growth hormones and sunlight. The document then provides details on the specific and sensitive nature of signal transduction pathways, including different types of receptors and some important signal transduction pathways like G protein-coupled receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases. It also discusses two-component regulatory systems in bacteria and plants.
Cell Signaling
Cell Signaling is a phenomenon in which cells receive and respond to the signals or chemical messages from their internal environment or from the neighbouring cells.
Introduction to cell signaling (article) _ Khan Academy.pdf
Cells communicate with one another through different types of short- and long-range signaling. Short-range signaling includes paracrine signaling between neighboring cells, as well as autocrine signaling when a cell signals to itself. Long-range signaling is carried out through the endocrine system, with hormones released into the bloodstream carrying messages between distant cells and tissues. Cells can also signal through direct contact using gap junctions between animal cells and plasmodesmata between plant cells. Understanding these various forms of cell signaling is crucial for learning how cells coordinate their activities both locally and throughout the entire body.
Introduction to Cell signalling
Cell signalling allows cells to communicate with each other and respond to changes in their environment. There are three main stages of cell signalling: reception, transduction, and response. During reception, a signalling molecule binds to a receptor on the cell surface. Transduction involves a cascade of molecular changes that amplify the signal and propagate it inside the cell. This ultimately leads to the cellular response. Key aspects of signal transduction include the use of second messengers, protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, cross-talk between pathways, and signal amplification to ensure even small extracellular signals elicit a strong intracellular response.
11.16 (dr. surriya sheikh) cell signalling 1 1 neurotransmitter
The document summarizes key aspects of cell signaling and communication. It discusses:
1. Cell signaling involves three main stages - reception of a signal by a receptor, transduction of the signal through a signaling pathway, and cellular response.
2. Cells can communicate over short or long distances through direct contact, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, or hormones.
3. The main types of receptors are G-protein coupled receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors, and ion channel receptors. Binding of a ligand induces a conformational change in the receptor to initiate signaling.
Cell signal lecture
Cells receive signals from their environment and neighboring cells and transduce these signals through receptor-mediated pathways to elicit responses. Most signals bind to cell surface receptors which activate intracellular signaling cascades involving intermediate proteins and second messengers. This ultimately effects changes in the cytoplasm and nucleus. Receptor tyrosine kinases like the insulin receptor undergo autophosphorylation upon ligand binding to stimulate its kinase activity and create recruitment sites to propagate the signal through downstream targets. Second messengers like cyclic AMP are also synthesized or mobilized during signaling transduction to amplify and spread the signal within the cell.
Signal transduction mechanism
Introduction
Definition
History
Basic element in signal transduction
Basic Pathway of signal transduction
Types of signal transduction
Second messenger
Pathway of signal transduction
Conclusion
References
Second messenger and signal transduction pathways
Second messenger and signal transduction pathways
Calcium pathway , Receptor, Ligand, G- protein, cAMP pathway
Intercellular and intracellular cell signaling pathway
This document summarizes intercellular and intracellular signaling pathways. It describes four types of intercellular signaling: autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and juxtacrine. Intracellular signaling pathways involve signal transduction after a ligand binds to a cell surface receptor. Examples of intracellular pathways discussed are G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, and second messenger pathways like cyclic AMP. The document provides details on the mechanisms and key steps in several of these signaling pathways.
Presentation cellmole
This document discusses cell signaling via cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathways. It begins by explaining primary and secondary messengers, with an emphasis on the role of cAMP as a secondary messenger. It then describes the steps of the cAMP pathway in detail, including the G protein-coupled receptor, activation of adenylyl cyclase and conversion of ATP to cAMP, activation of protein kinase A by cAMP, and regulation of glycogen metabolism. The document discusses mechanisms of feedback regulation of the cAMP pathway to terminate the cellular response, such as receptor desensitization and degradation of cAMP by phosphodiesterase.
A discussion on cells signalling on the course cell biology oligy
Cell communication occurs through three stages: reception, transduction, and response. In reception, a signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein on the cell surface. Transduction involves intracellular relay molecules and second messengers that transmit the signal within the cell. Responses include changes in cell behavior or physiology. Local signaling transfers signals between nearby cells through mechanisms like gap junctions or paracrine signaling. Long-distance signaling uses hormones to coordinate distant cells through the circulatory system. Common second messengers include cyclic AMP and calcium ions that amplify and transmit signals to target intracellular processes.
intracellular receptors
intracellular receptors, cell signaling by intracellular receptors, drug interaction and plasma protein binding
Signal transduction
Signal transduction is the process by which a signal from outside the cell is converted to a functional change within the cell. There are three main types of intercellular communication: autocrine signals target the emitting cell itself, paracrine signals target nearby cells, and endocrine signals target distant cells by traveling through the bloodstream. Hormones are an example of an endocrine signal - they are synthesized by one cell type and transported via blood to act on another distant cell type. The basic steps of hormone signaling involve detection and binding of the hormone signal by a specific receptor, which leads to changes through second messengers and activation or inhibition of effector molecules within the target cell.
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon termina.pdf
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon terminal of a neuron and
directly communicates with other cells? Which type of chemical messenger, when released,
binds to receptors on the same cell that released the chemical messenger? Lipophilic chemical
messengers can cross the plasma membrane, true/false? Name 2 physiological processes (cell
responses) that are regulated by cell signaling. \'Receptor-ligand binding is specific\' What does
this phrase mean?
Solution
Please find the answers below:
Part 1: Neurotransmitter (any chemical or bio-molecule released from the neuron terminal which
transmite information from one neuron to another and help in communication)
Part 2: Autocrine chemicals (Autocrine chemicals and transmitters are those biomolecules which
are secreted by the cells and receptors for this ligand are present on the same cell. This
chemical/ligand is then internalized by teh same cell. Examples include TNF alpha, interleukins
etc.)
Part 3: True (The plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer by structure. Thus, only lipophilic
substances can pass through the membrane easily without being repulsed by it)
Part 4: Following intracellular signalling cascades and physiological processes are performed by
cell signalling:
Part 5: Receptor-ligand binding is specific in nature by the manner that every receptor has a
specific ligand which binds onto it. This ligand is structurally compatible to its receptor in the
same manner as the substrate is specific for the enzyme. Thus, only a ligand can bind to its
receptor and activate the intracellular signalling..
Cell Communication.pptx
Cells need to communicate both within multicellular organisms and between unicellular organisms. Communication involves signals being received by cell surface or intracellular receptors and transmitted via signal transduction pathways. Reception involves signal binding to receptors, transduction moves the signal through a phosphorylation cascade, and response regulates cellular activities like gene expression. Pathways amplify signals and allow for specificity between cell types through different protein components. Termination ensures signals are turned off through reversal of ligand binding or receptor inactivation.
All programming assignments should include the name, or names, of th.pdf
All programming assignments should include the name, or names, of the
students. This information should be placed in the introductory comments
section. The introductory comments should also contain the purpose of the
program. Clear, concise, commenting is an important skill to develop and
will be part of the grade for each program. Programs should be submitted
via Blackboard as “.cpp” source programs. Each member of a team should
submit a copy of the program.
The purpose of PSA 7 is practice our programming style and techniques on
a fairly simple real world example of an application. PSA7.cpp is a program
that analyzes various aspects of the clients at an animal shelter. Your task
is to fill in the three routines that provide the necessary information to the
main routine. You may not alter the code in main. You must use the
interfaces as defined.
The first two routines are almost trivial and the only thing that is special
about one of them is the need to use a persistent variable.
The third one, shotRecord is a bit challenging. You must determine if each
animal has had the correct shots. These are for Parvovirus, Rabies, and
Bordetella. One confusion factor here is that they could have also received
a shot for Leptospirosis; that is not a required shot. Further complicating
things is the fact that the only thing that is important is that they received
the shot; they may have received their inoculations in differing orders.
Programme it using \"CODE::BLOCK and also use the main function below:
#include
#include
#include
#include
using namespace std;
#define numberSpecies 4
#define numberShots 3
enum species {dog, cat, bird, rabbit};
enum shots {Parvovirus, Rabies, Bordetella, Leptospirosis};
string outString;
struct animal
{
string name;
unsigned int stay;
enum species animalType;
enum shots status[numberShots];
};
int displayAnimal(struct animal *animal)
{
cout << \"Name:\\t\\t\" << animal->name << endl;
cout << \"Species:\\t\";
switch (animal->animalType)
{
case dog:
cout << \"Dog\";
break;
case cat:
cout << \"Cat\";
break;
case bird:
cout << \"Bird\";
break;
case rabbit:
cout << \"Rabbit\";
break;
default:
cout << \"Unknown\";
}
cout << endl;
cout << \"Length of stay: \" << animal->stay << endl << endl;
return 0;
}
double averageStay(struct animal *animal)
{
// Your code goes here.
// Hint you will need to use a type we have not used before.
}
int countPopulation(struct animal census[], enum species kindAnimal, unsigned int k)
{
unsigned int j, animalCount;
// Your code goes here.
return animalCount;
}
bool shotRecord(struct animal *animal)
{
unsigned int temp, m, shot;
temp = 0;
// Your code goes here.
// This is the trickiest one!
return (temp == 3) ? true: false;
}
int main()
{
#define censusSize 6
struct animal census[censusSize];
census[0].animalType = dog;
census[0].name = \"Fred\";
census[0].stay = 13;
census[0].status[0] = Rabies;
census[0].status[1] = Bordetella;
census[0].status[2] = Parvovirus;
census[1].animalType = cat;
census[.
After a (not very successful) trick or treating round, Candice has 1.pdf
After a (not very successful) trick or treating round, Candice has 10 Tootsie rolls and 12
Twizzlers in her pillow case. Her mother asks her to share the loot with her three younger
brothers.
(A) How many different ways can she do this?
(B) How many different ways can she do this after her Mother warns her to give at least one of
each type of candies to each of her brothers?
Solution.
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Cell signaling
Cell signaling allows cells to communicate and coordinate their activities in response to environmental changes. Specialized receptors called integrins provide communication links between the interior and exterior of cells. They interact with enzymes and are involved in many cellular processes. The formation of specialized tissues in multicellular organisms depends on coordinated regulation of cell number, location, morphology, and function through complex communication networks between cells. Signals are received and processed in target cells to trigger intracellular reactions that dictate physiological functions.
Cell signaling
Cellular communication occurs through chemical signaling via ligands and receptors. There are several forms of cellular signaling including autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, synaptic, and cell-cell contact signaling. Ligands can be small hydrophobic molecules that pass through the cell membrane or bind to extracellular domains of cell surface receptors. Receptors can be intracellular or cell surface receptors. Common types of receptors include G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and ion channel receptors. Binding of ligands to receptors triggers downstream signaling pathways involving second messengers like cAMP, cGMP, calcium ions, and inositol phosphates to produce a cellular response.
Signal transduction
1) Cells use signal transduction pathways to respond to their environment. Signals like hormones bind to receptors on the cell surface which triggers a transduction cascade of protein interactions inside the cell.
2) Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by protein kinases is a key mechanism in signal transduction cascades, altering the behavior of proteins and turning pathways on and off.
3) Membrane receptors transfer information about external signals to the cell interior by undergoing a conformational change upon ligand binding, starting intracellular signaling cascades.
_Cell Signalling .pptx
Cell signaling is the process where cell communicate with each other with the help of signaling molecules and receptors. Cell signaling is done by different types of signaling processes such as autocrine, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine, contact dependent signaling
Cell Communication, Cell Junction and Cell Signaling.pptx
-Cellular Communication
-There are three stages of cell: communication
a.Reception
b.Transduction
c. Response
-Receptors And Ligands
There are two basic types of receptors:
a.Internal receptors
b.Cell surface receptors
-Internal receptors-often steroid hormones
-There are several different types of ligands
a.Hydrophobic ligands
b. Water soluble hydrophilic ligands
-Three stages of cell communication
-How insulin works
Cell Junction
-There are three types of cell junctions:
1.Adhesive (Anchoring) junctions
2.Tight Junctions
3.Gap Junactions
-The two main kinds of adhesive cell-cell junctions are:
a.Adherens junctions
b.Desmosomes
a. Adherens junctions:
Adherens junction is the cell to cell junction, which connects the actin filaments. In adherens junction, the membranes of the adjacent cells are held together by some transmembrane proteins called cadherins.
b. Desmosome
Desmosome is a cell to cell junction, where the intermediate filaments connect two adjacent cells. Desmosome is also called macula adherens. Desmosomes function like tight junctions. The trans-membrane proteins involved in desmosome are mainly cadherins.
2. Tight Junctions
The cell membranes are connected by strands of trans-membrane proteins such as claudins and occludins.
Tight junctions bind cells together, prevent molecules from passing in between the cells, and also help to maintain the polarity of cells.
-Functions of Tight Junctions:
Another function of tight junctions is simply to hold cells together.
3. Gap Junction
Gap junctions are a type of cell junction in which adjacent cells are connected through protein channels. Gap junctions are made up of connexin proteins. Groups of six connexins form a connexon, and two connexons are put together to form a channel that molecules can pass through. Other channels in gap junctions are made up of pannexin proteins.
-Functions of Gap Junction
The main function of gap junctions is to connect cells together so that molecules may pass from one cell to other.
This allows for cell-to-cell communication.
-Cell Signaling
Cell signaling is the process of cellular communication within the body. The binding of extracellular signaling molecules to their receptors
-Modes of cell-cell signaling
1.Direct cell-cell signaling
2. Signaling by secreted molecule
a.Endocrine signaling:
-E. g. hormones produced by endocrine glands including pituitary, pancreas, adrenal, parathyroid glands etc.
b.Paracrine signaling:
-E.g. action of neurotransmitters in carrying signals between nerve cells at a synapse.
c.Autocrine signaling:
-When interleukin-1 is produced in response to external stimuli, it can bind to cell-surface receptors on the same cell that produced it.
d.Synaptic signaling:
-Types of signaling molecules
a.Nitric oxide
b.Carbon monoxide
c.Neurotransmitter
d.Peptide hormone
-Intracellular signaling pathway activated by an extracellular signal molecule
Signal transduction
This document discusses signal transduction in cells. It explains that membrane proteins in bacterial cells detect environmental changes and generate signals to trigger responses. In multicellular organisms, cells exchange various signals, such as plant cells responding to growth hormones and sunlight. The document then provides details on the specific and sensitive nature of signal transduction pathways, including different types of receptors and some important signal transduction pathways like G protein-coupled receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases. It also discusses two-component regulatory systems in bacteria and plants.
Cell Signaling
Cell Signaling is a phenomenon in which cells receive and respond to the signals or chemical messages from their internal environment or from the neighbouring cells.
Introduction to cell signaling (article) _ Khan Academy.pdf
Cells communicate with one another through different types of short- and long-range signaling. Short-range signaling includes paracrine signaling between neighboring cells, as well as autocrine signaling when a cell signals to itself. Long-range signaling is carried out through the endocrine system, with hormones released into the bloodstream carrying messages between distant cells and tissues. Cells can also signal through direct contact using gap junctions between animal cells and plasmodesmata between plant cells. Understanding these various forms of cell signaling is crucial for learning how cells coordinate their activities both locally and throughout the entire body.
Introduction to Cell signalling
Cell signalling allows cells to communicate with each other and respond to changes in their environment. There are three main stages of cell signalling: reception, transduction, and response. During reception, a signalling molecule binds to a receptor on the cell surface. Transduction involves a cascade of molecular changes that amplify the signal and propagate it inside the cell. This ultimately leads to the cellular response. Key aspects of signal transduction include the use of second messengers, protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, cross-talk between pathways, and signal amplification to ensure even small extracellular signals elicit a strong intracellular response.
11.16 (dr. surriya sheikh) cell signalling 1 1 neurotransmitter
The document summarizes key aspects of cell signaling and communication. It discusses:
1. Cell signaling involves three main stages - reception of a signal by a receptor, transduction of the signal through a signaling pathway, and cellular response.
2. Cells can communicate over short or long distances through direct contact, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, or hormones.
3. The main types of receptors are G-protein coupled receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors, and ion channel receptors. Binding of a ligand induces a conformational change in the receptor to initiate signaling.
Cell signal lecture
Cells receive signals from their environment and neighboring cells and transduce these signals through receptor-mediated pathways to elicit responses. Most signals bind to cell surface receptors which activate intracellular signaling cascades involving intermediate proteins and second messengers. This ultimately effects changes in the cytoplasm and nucleus. Receptor tyrosine kinases like the insulin receptor undergo autophosphorylation upon ligand binding to stimulate its kinase activity and create recruitment sites to propagate the signal through downstream targets. Second messengers like cyclic AMP are also synthesized or mobilized during signaling transduction to amplify and spread the signal within the cell.
Signal transduction mechanism
Introduction
Definition
History
Basic element in signal transduction
Basic Pathway of signal transduction
Types of signal transduction
Second messenger
Pathway of signal transduction
Conclusion
References
Second messenger and signal transduction pathways
Second messenger and signal transduction pathways
Calcium pathway , Receptor, Ligand, G- protein, cAMP pathway
Intercellular and intracellular cell signaling pathway
This document summarizes intercellular and intracellular signaling pathways. It describes four types of intercellular signaling: autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and juxtacrine. Intracellular signaling pathways involve signal transduction after a ligand binds to a cell surface receptor. Examples of intracellular pathways discussed are G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, and second messenger pathways like cyclic AMP. The document provides details on the mechanisms and key steps in several of these signaling pathways.
Presentation cellmole
This document discusses cell signaling via cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathways. It begins by explaining primary and secondary messengers, with an emphasis on the role of cAMP as a secondary messenger. It then describes the steps of the cAMP pathway in detail, including the G protein-coupled receptor, activation of adenylyl cyclase and conversion of ATP to cAMP, activation of protein kinase A by cAMP, and regulation of glycogen metabolism. The document discusses mechanisms of feedback regulation of the cAMP pathway to terminate the cellular response, such as receptor desensitization and degradation of cAMP by phosphodiesterase.
A discussion on cells signalling on the course cell biology oligy
Cell communication occurs through three stages: reception, transduction, and response. In reception, a signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein on the cell surface. Transduction involves intracellular relay molecules and second messengers that transmit the signal within the cell. Responses include changes in cell behavior or physiology. Local signaling transfers signals between nearby cells through mechanisms like gap junctions or paracrine signaling. Long-distance signaling uses hormones to coordinate distant cells through the circulatory system. Common second messengers include cyclic AMP and calcium ions that amplify and transmit signals to target intracellular processes.
intracellular receptors
intracellular receptors, cell signaling by intracellular receptors, drug interaction and plasma protein binding
Signal transduction
Signal transduction is the process by which a signal from outside the cell is converted to a functional change within the cell. There are three main types of intercellular communication: autocrine signals target the emitting cell itself, paracrine signals target nearby cells, and endocrine signals target distant cells by traveling through the bloodstream. Hormones are an example of an endocrine signal - they are synthesized by one cell type and transported via blood to act on another distant cell type. The basic steps of hormone signaling involve detection and binding of the hormone signal by a specific receptor, which leads to changes through second messengers and activation or inhibition of effector molecules within the target cell.
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon termina.pdf
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon terminal of a neuron and
directly communicates with other cells? Which type of chemical messenger, when released,
binds to receptors on the same cell that released the chemical messenger? Lipophilic chemical
messengers can cross the plasma membrane, true/false? Name 2 physiological processes (cell
responses) that are regulated by cell signaling. \'Receptor-ligand binding is specific\' What does
this phrase mean?
Solution
Please find the answers below:
Part 1: Neurotransmitter (any chemical or bio-molecule released from the neuron terminal which
transmite information from one neuron to another and help in communication)
Part 2: Autocrine chemicals (Autocrine chemicals and transmitters are those biomolecules which
are secreted by the cells and receptors for this ligand are present on the same cell. This
chemical/ligand is then internalized by teh same cell. Examples include TNF alpha, interleukins
etc.)
Part 3: True (The plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer by structure. Thus, only lipophilic
substances can pass through the membrane easily without being repulsed by it)
Part 4: Following intracellular signalling cascades and physiological processes are performed by
cell signalling:
Part 5: Receptor-ligand binding is specific in nature by the manner that every receptor has a
specific ligand which binds onto it. This ligand is structurally compatible to its receptor in the
same manner as the substrate is specific for the enzyme. Thus, only a ligand can bind to its
receptor and activate the intracellular signalling..
Cell Communication.pptx
Cells need to communicate both within multicellular organisms and between unicellular organisms. Communication involves signals being received by cell surface or intracellular receptors and transmitted via signal transduction pathways. Reception involves signal binding to receptors, transduction moves the signal through a phosphorylation cascade, and response regulates cellular activities like gene expression. Pathways amplify signals and allow for specificity between cell types through different protein components. Termination ensures signals are turned off through reversal of ligand binding or receptor inactivation.
Similar to Describe, in detail, what second messengers are and what their functi.pdf (20)
Cell Communication, Cell Junction and Cell Signaling.pptx
Cell Communication, Cell Junction and Cell Signaling.pptx
Introduction to cell signaling (article) _ Khan Academy.pdf
Introduction to cell signaling (article) _ Khan Academy.pdf
11.16 (dr. surriya sheikh) cell signalling 1 1 neurotransmitter
11.16 (dr. surriya sheikh) cell signalling 1 1 neurotransmitter
Intercellular and intracellular cell signaling pathway
Intercellular and intracellular cell signaling pathway
A discussion on cells signalling on the course cell biology oligy
A discussion on cells signalling on the course cell biology oligy
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon termina.pdf
Name the type of chemical messenger is released from the axon termina.pdf
More from fashioncollection2
All programming assignments should include the name, or names, of th.pdf
All programming assignments should include the name, or names, of the
students. This information should be placed in the introductory comments
section. The introductory comments should also contain the purpose of the
program. Clear, concise, commenting is an important skill to develop and
will be part of the grade for each program. Programs should be submitted
via Blackboard as “.cpp” source programs. Each member of a team should
submit a copy of the program.
The purpose of PSA 7 is practice our programming style and techniques on
a fairly simple real world example of an application. PSA7.cpp is a program
that analyzes various aspects of the clients at an animal shelter. Your task
is to fill in the three routines that provide the necessary information to the
main routine. You may not alter the code in main. You must use the
interfaces as defined.
The first two routines are almost trivial and the only thing that is special
about one of them is the need to use a persistent variable.
The third one, shotRecord is a bit challenging. You must determine if each
animal has had the correct shots. These are for Parvovirus, Rabies, and
Bordetella. One confusion factor here is that they could have also received
a shot for Leptospirosis; that is not a required shot. Further complicating
things is the fact that the only thing that is important is that they received
the shot; they may have received their inoculations in differing orders.
Programme it using \"CODE::BLOCK and also use the main function below:
#include
#include
#include
#include
using namespace std;
#define numberSpecies 4
#define numberShots 3
enum species {dog, cat, bird, rabbit};
enum shots {Parvovirus, Rabies, Bordetella, Leptospirosis};
string outString;
struct animal
{
string name;
unsigned int stay;
enum species animalType;
enum shots status[numberShots];
};
int displayAnimal(struct animal *animal)
{
cout << \"Name:\\t\\t\" << animal->name << endl;
cout << \"Species:\\t\";
switch (animal->animalType)
{
case dog:
cout << \"Dog\";
break;
case cat:
cout << \"Cat\";
break;
case bird:
cout << \"Bird\";
break;
case rabbit:
cout << \"Rabbit\";
break;
default:
cout << \"Unknown\";
}
cout << endl;
cout << \"Length of stay: \" << animal->stay << endl << endl;
return 0;
}
double averageStay(struct animal *animal)
{
// Your code goes here.
// Hint you will need to use a type we have not used before.
}
int countPopulation(struct animal census[], enum species kindAnimal, unsigned int k)
{
unsigned int j, animalCount;
// Your code goes here.
return animalCount;
}
bool shotRecord(struct animal *animal)
{
unsigned int temp, m, shot;
temp = 0;
// Your code goes here.
// This is the trickiest one!
return (temp == 3) ? true: false;
}
int main()
{
#define censusSize 6
struct animal census[censusSize];
census[0].animalType = dog;
census[0].name = \"Fred\";
census[0].stay = 13;
census[0].status[0] = Rabies;
census[0].status[1] = Bordetella;
census[0].status[2] = Parvovirus;
census[1].animalType = cat;
census[.
After a (not very successful) trick or treating round, Candice has 1.pdf
After a (not very successful) trick or treating round, Candice has 10 Tootsie rolls and 12
Twizzlers in her pillow case. Her mother asks her to share the loot with her three younger
brothers.
(A) How many different ways can she do this?
(B) How many different ways can she do this after her Mother warns her to give at least one of
each type of candies to each of her brothers?
Solution.
Why steroids can cross the cell membraneWhy steroids can cross .pdf
Why steroids can cross the cell membrane?
Why steroids can cross the cell membrane?
Solution
Steroids are organic molecules, found in our body in the form of cholesterol, steroid hormones,
vitamin D and also in the form of medicinal drugs. The steroids are non-polar and are similar to
lipids. These molecules play a very important role in cell membrane stability and also in signal
transduction in the body.
To carry out the different functions in the body, the steroid molecules must enter the cell and
bind to its target receptor and initiate the cascade of cellular response. The cell membrane is
made of phospholipids with polar head groups of lipids on the exterior of cell surface and
towards the cytosol, and the non-polar chains in the middle.
This architecture of the cell membrane allows steroids to cross the cell membrane being
lipophilic. The entry of steroids in the cell might take place with the help of receptors or carrier
proteins..
Write a method called uniqueNumbers that takes an int array as param.pdf
Write a method called uniqueNumbers that takes an int array as parameter, and returns a
different int array, which only contains the list of unique numbers in the original array. Hint: Use
the isPresent method defined below to accomplish your
here is the code we need to add too
Solution
solution
package com.mt.classes;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;
public class Lab8e {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] numbers = new int[20];
// Generate random numbers between 0 and 99 and fill up the array
for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
numbers[i] = (int) (Math.random() * 50);
}
System.out.println(\"The list is:\");
printNumbers(numbers);
// Task 1
System.out.println(\"The smallest number in the list is \"
+ smallestNumber(numbers));
// Task 2
System.out.println(\"The largest number in the list is \"
+ largestNumber(numbers));
// Task 3
System.out.println(\"The average of numbers in the list is \"
+ averageOfNumbers(numbers));
// Task 4: Extra Credit. Uncomment the following
// two lines if you complete this task.
System.out.println(\"The list of unique numbers is:\");
uniqueNumbers(numbers);
}
private static void uniqueNumbers(int[] numbers) {
for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
boolean isDuplicate = false;
for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (numbers[i] == numbers[j]) {
isDuplicate = true;
break;
}
}
if (!isDuplicate) {
System.out.print(numbers[i] + \" \");
}
}
}
public static void printNumbers(int[] list) {
for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) {
System.out.print(list[i] + \" \");
}
System.out.println();
}
// 1. Write a method called smallestNumber that
// takes an int array as parameter, and returns the
// smallest number
public static int smallestNumber(int[] list) {
int small = 100;
for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) {
if (list[i] < small) {
small = list[i];
}
}
return small;
}
// 2. Write a method called largestNumber that
// takes an int array as parameter, and returns the
// largest number
public static int largestNumber(int[] list) {
int large = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) {
if (list[i] > large) {
large = list[i];
}
}
return large;
}
// 3. Write a method called averageOfNumbers that
// takes an int array as parameter, and returns the
// average of the numbers
public static double averageOfNumbers(int[] list) {
double average = 0.0;
for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) {
average = average + list[i];
}
average = average / list.length;
return average;
}
public static boolean isPresent(int[] list, int target) {
boolean found = false;
for (int i = 0; i < list.length && !found && list[i] != 0; i++) {
if (list[i] == target) {
found = true;
}
}
return found;
}
}
output
The list is:
16 14 11 31 7 8 18 49 27 43 9 39 38 18 6 16 8 30 32 15
The smallest number in the list is 6
The largest number in the list is 49
The average of numbers in the list is 21.75
The list of unique numbers is:
16 14 11 31 7 8 18 49 27 43 9 39 38 6 30 32 15.
Write a command in unixlinux to Display all the files whose names e.pdf
Write a command in unix/linux to Display all the files whose names end with lab1 in the
directory /home/dropbox by modification time. You should find all the variations of lab1 file,
such as Lab1, LAB1, laB1, etc.
Solution
- r : stand for recursive, so it will search all files and will not stop after first match
- n: line number
-w : match the word
-e : defines the pattern for which we want to search.
Why is “Profit” a problematic target Please consider in your answer.pdf
Why is “Profit” a problematic target? Please consider in your answer different types of profit, the
possible differences between profit and turnover (=sales) as a measure and also the definitions
and meaning of profit/capital ratio(s).
Solution
\"Profit\" is a problematic target because it includes wide range of emotions and and issues
among respondents i.e. they ranged acceptable profit to profit effect on decision making and
future variability of capitalization. in same way today\'s cash is driven by yesterday;s decision
making on pricing. Profit is the difference between income a business generates and expenses
incurred in business running.
Types of Profit -
1. Gross Profit - Gross profit is difference between all sales of the company and cost of
producing the products for a company. this mainly used by company officials when making
decision about pricing and what material to be used in manufacturing part of business.
2. Net Profit - Net profit subtracts all of the expenses of company from its gross sales. The net
profit is and indicator that how business performing over the time.
3. Net Profit after Interest and Tax - Net profit of a company further reduced when interest and
taxes are deducted from profit.
4. Retained Profit - Retained profit is any profit remaining after the shareholders receive their
dividends.most of the time this funds will reinvested in company.
Differences between profit and turnover -
Turnover is net sales generated by firm while profit is earning of a firm after all expenses have
been charged against net sales.Thus Turnover and Profit is beginning and ending points of the
income statements.
A difference between turnover and profit is that a rising in turnover may be a sign that business
is growing but profit is and indicator of health of business.
The definitions and meaning of profit/capital ratio - Profit capital ratio expressed as percentage,
complements ratio by add a company\'s debt liabilities, or funded debt, to equity to reflect
company\'s total capital. This ratio measures narrow focus to gain a better understanding of
company\'s ability to generate returns from available sources..
Which of the following statements about protists is falsea) There a.pdf
Which of the following statements about protists is false?a) There are protists that resemble fungi
and plants more than they do other protists
Solution
d) All protists are unicellular, microscopic forms of life.
Protists can be unicellular (single-celled) or multicellular (many-celled). Seaweed and kelp are
examples of multicellular, plant-like protists. Kelp can be as large as trees and form a \"forest\"
in the ocean.Plant-like protists include algae, kelp, and seaweed..
Which cable type would be used to connect a router to a switchA. .pdf
Which cable type would be used to connect a router to a switch?
A. Straight-through
B. Crossover
C. Rollover
D. None of the above
Solution
A is correct. Switches and routers have different pinouts; therefore, a straight-through cable
should be used.
B, C, and D are incorrect. B is incorrect because a crossover cable will not work between two
devices of different pinouts. C is incorrect because rollover cables are used between a PC and a
router/switch console port. D is incorrect..
What is the role of abiotic factors in the formation of biomesS.pdf
What is the role of abiotic factors in the formation of biomes?
Solution
A biome is a large terrestrial region characterized by a specific type of climate and dominant
plant life. There are a variety of terrestrial biomes contributing to the biodiversity on the earth.
The living components of a biome include the organisms with life such as plants, animals,
microbes and all living organisms. The non living components or abiotic factors include the
components without life such as water, air, nutrients, heat and solar energy.
For example, biomes like tropical rain forests are found at the equator with hot, moisture air rises
dumping the moisture in the land. These forests have warm temperatures, high humidity and
heavy rain fall daily. The forests are dominated by broad leaf ever green plants and much of
animal life specifically large insects, bats and birds are abundant. Tree climbing animals and
decomposers are heavily populated in tropical rain forests. These forests show great biodiversity
with suitable climatic conditions for survival of all type of animals.
The abiotic factors such as warm temperatures, moist air and rainfall daily keep the vegetation of
the forest growing to provide nutrition for all kinds of organisms live in the biome. The sunlight
helps the plants to synthesize nutrients and to provide them to plant dependent organisms. Thus,
abiotic factors like temperature, sunlight, air and nutrients influence the growth, reproduction
and survival of organisms in the ecological food chain in a biome..
What information needs to be encoded in a loadstorebranchALU inst.pdf
What information needs to be encoded in a load/store/branch/ALU instruction?
Solution
The information needed to be encoded in a load/store/branch/ALU instruction is information
about the operands. Because any instruction stores information about its operands. And performs
that operation on the stored operands. The operands in the registers needs to be encoded..
What are the major terrestrial adaptations of plants1- List the F.pdf
What are the major terrestrial adaptations of plants?
1- List the FOUR major challenges plants encountered as they evolved on to land.
2- Next to each challenge, provide at least ONE (or more) example(s) of an adaptation that meets
that challenge. Refer to Ch 17, Section 17.1 (pp 342-43)
Follow format below:
Challenge 1- Adaptation(s)
Challenge 2- Adaptation(s)
Challenge 3- Adaptation(s)
Challenge 4- Adaptation(s)
Solution
the four major challenges observed in all terrestrial plants include the following.
there is an alternation of generations,
a sporangium formation is seen,
a gametangium giving rise to haploid cells,
Apical meristem tissue which develops from roots and shoots.
challenge 1- Alternation of generations: Ferns reproduce using alteration of generations. it is a
diploid sporophyte and by meiosis produces single-celled haploid spores which are dispersed by
air, wind or floating water. after the spore reaches appropriate conditions, it will germinate and
form prothallus which carries out sexual reproduction forming a sporophyte.
challenge 2- Sporangia in the Seedless Plants: sporophytes of seedless plants are diploid and are
a result of syngamy or fusion of 2 gametes. sporophyte contains sporangia which are a
reproductive sac containing spores. inside the sporangia, diploid sporocytes or mother cells
produce haploids by meiosis thereby reducing chromosome number from 2n to n. These spores
get dispersed in the environment. ferns, mosses are one such
challenge 3- Gametangia in the Seedless Plants: seedless plants produce sperm with flagella and
swim into a moist environment to the archegonia which are the female gametangium. later, the
embryo develops inside as sporophyte. Liverwort plants are one example for such adaptation.
challenge 4- Apical Meristems: by rapid cell division in the tissues, the length of roots and
shoots increases which give rise to apical meristem. it is a small zone of cells present at the shoot
tip or root tip. Elongation of these shoots and roots helps the plants to access additional use
natural resources such as light by shoots and water by roots. Apple seedlings are examples where
apical meristems give rise to new shoots and root growth.
The total lung capacity of a patient is 5.5 liters. Find the patient.pdf
The total lung capacity of a patient is 5.5 liters. Find the patient’s inspiratory reserve volume if
the patient’s vital capacity was 4.2 liters, the tidal volume was 500 ml, and the expiratory reserve
volume was 1.2 liters.
Solution
Answer:
Inspiratory reseve volume (IRV )= VC - (TV + ERV)
VC= Vital capacity
TV= Tidal volume
ERV= Expiratory reseve volume
= 4.2- (0.5 + 1.2)
= 2.5 Liters.
The insatiable demand for everything wireless, video, and Web-enable.pdf
The insatiable demand for everything wireless, video, and Web-enabled everywhere will be the
driving force
behind developments in telecommunications, networking, and computing technologies for the
foreseeable
future. Do you agree or disagree? Why
Solution
There is undoubtedly the insatiable demand for everything wireless is a growth area.
This making is called internet generation since internet has got lots of control over our existence.
All we do, internet has got more to do with it. We converse study, work and learn during internet
so internet has been an essential part of our life. Growth of telecommunications was occurring
far before the development of internet; however internet has assisted in bringing the one form of
telecommunications into more than a few forms. The enlargement of telecommunications and its
fame has lot to do by internet. Internet completes the telecommunication procedure much easier
and earlier. As it attaches a system with another system, Network is in addition a form of
internet, we name it intranets. Internet was developed in 90s and that is the period since when
information technology has been getting expanded in a faster speed.
Internet has been the catalyst for the act and development as well as exactness, growth and fame
of telecommunications, networking and information technologies consequently I think its
praiseworthy to say that as of internet, development of telecommunications, networks and other
information technologies get the speed..
Technology is an ever-growing system that provides advantages and in.pdf
Technology is an ever-growing system that provides advantages and introduces disadvantages
into organizations. Identify an organization that has introduced new or improved technologies to
enhance its information systems. Discuss the technologies that were selected to enhance the
company\'s competitive advantage. Explore some advantages and related disadvantages
introduced through this technology integration.
Answer needs to be 200 - 300 words.
Solution
Health care organizations have had to adapt to many changes in the world around them, from
advances in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures to the emergence of administrative
innovations such as managed care and the invention of new information technologies. The
Internet represents a particularly profound change that will enable or force significant changes in
organizational form and processes—a transformation as profound as any that have gone before.
The Internet\'s capability to empower consumers, support dynamic information exchanges
among organizations, and \"flatten\" organizational hierarchies promises to result in new
operational strategies, business models, service delivery modes, and management mechanisms.
The changes will have such far-reaching implications that health care organizations need to start
preparing now to adopt the advanced Internet applications that are expected to appear in the near
future. Organizations need to evaluate the potential and implications of new Internet
technologies, adapt them to local needs and conditions, minimize the risks associated with new
product and service deployment, and plan to demonstrate the value of their efforts.
This chapter examines challenges to the adoption of Internet-based technologies by health care
organizations. It attempts to identity fundamental impediments to greater use of the Internet that
may be expected to persist for some time. The first section of the chapter provides a context for
the analysis by reviewing the experiences of other industries that have achieved some success in
changing business practices by adopting Internet technologies. The second section discusses in
general terms why more health care organizations should be interested in adopting the Internet:
because it can advance their strategic interests. The third section deals with organizational
barriers that hinder Internet use. The discussion there addresses internal and external factors,
such as policy and technical barriers, that influence and constrain the form and extent of Internet
use, as well as the range of uncertainties that inhibit decision making regarding the Internet. The
last section addresses the importance of organizational leadership..
Suppose that the proportions of blood phenotypes in a particular pop.pdf
Suppose that the proportions of blood phenotypes in a particular population are as follows:
Assuming that the phenotypes of two randomly selected individuals are independent of one
another, what is the probability that both phenotypes are O? (Enter your answer to four decimal
places.)
What is the probability that the phenotypes of two randomly selected individuals match? (Enter
your answer to four decimal places.)A B AB O0.41 0.13 0.02 0.44
Solution.
Select all of the following that are true regarding evolution. Altho.pdf
Select all of the following that are true regarding evolution. Although not all transitional
organsisms have been preserved, scientists have unearthed many, including the tiktaalik.
Evolution is a theory about how life originated Complex human structures did not evolves as a
single functioning unit, but slowly over millions of years, piece by piece. Evolution is a theory
or a well-established and accepted scientific model that is based on extensive experimentation
and observation. Mutations that cause variation originate spontaneously by chance, but natural
selections drives evolution and is not random. Evolution is both observable and testable;
populations have been observed evolving in the laboratory and in the field. Evolution is a theory
about how the diversity of life emerged after life originated. Human traits are too complex to
have originated by random chance. Evolution is not observable or testable. Evolution is just a
theory and therefore does not have much evidence to support it. There are no transitional fossils.
Solution
Following are the true statements regarding Evolution.
Role of involvement in consumer decision-making. Identify the level .pdf
Role of involvement in consumer decision-making. Identify the level of involvement a customer
might use to make a purchase/no purchase decision of a cell phone. Then, discuss which type of
buying behavior is most consistent with that level of involvement.
Solution
Consumer involvement refers to degree of information processing or extent of importance that a
consumer attaches to a product.The degree of involvement has a very significant effect on
consumer behaviour. When more expensive products are to be purchased, the consumer gets
more involved in purchase process but he may not be equally involved in a product which is just
a rupee or two priced.
When consumers decide to buy a product based on the interest and importance of the product to
them, this is defined as involvement level. In other words, it measures how personally, socially
and economically involved the customer is with the product in order to buy it.
Levels of Involvment:
LOW INVOLVEMENT- Low involvement purchases are not really important to consumers,
have little relevance and need very limited information processing.(Example:Tea,
toothbrush,Washing powder.)
SOME INVOLVEMENT- Some involvement purchases are of little bit importance to customers.
It includes some evaluation of alternatives.(Ex: Skin cream,Torch, snacks)
HIGH INVOLVEMENT- High involvement purchases are those which are important to
consumers such as complex, expensive, risky or ego-intensive products & require extensive
information processing.(Ex: Cars, diamond, cell phone)
Therefore, it is evidend from the above analysis that the decision to purchase a cell phone
requires high involvement.
Extensive decision making is most consistent with that level of involvement.
Questionsa What are some of the barriers to understanding an issu.pdf
Questions
a: What are some of the barriers to understanding an issue as complex as Climate Change?
b: Are you surprised by how people have ‘used’ the information about a hiatus?
c: Are arguments establishing global warming sufficient to promote action on climate change or
not?
d: Assuming you were to believe in anthropocentric climate change, using the arguments in this
subject, are you in favour of taxes or cap and trade for addressing climate change? Why or why
not? PLANETOZ BYGRAHAMREADFEARN Global warming has not stopped. People should
understand that the planet is a closed system. As we increase our emissions of greenhouse gases,
the fundamental thermal dynamics tells us we have added heat into the system. Once it\'s
trapped, it can go to a myriad of places-land surface, oceans, ice shelves, ice sheets, glaciers for
example HOSTED BY THE GUARDIAN England explained how the winds help the ocean to
absorb heat into the thermocline-that\'s roughly the area between 100 metres and 300 metres
deep. He says once the trade winds drop which is likely to come within years rather than decades
- then the averaged surface temperatures will rise sharply again. The \'pause\' in global warming
is not even a thing Media outlets across the world have extensively covered England\'s paper.
National Geographic told us the study revealed how the heat had been \"hiding\" in the oceans.
All signs point to an acceleration of human-caused climate change. So why all this talk of a
pause? Over at the ABC, we were told the paper gave an explanation for \"a pause in global
warming\" and that \"over the past 15 years the rate of global warming has slowed - and more
recently almost stalled.\" The IPCC in 2013 pointed out that more than 90% of the world?s extra
heat is being soaked up by the oceans, rather than lingering on the surface. Photograph:
Universal History Archive\'Getty Images On The Conversation, we had \"Global warming stalled
by strong winds driving heat into oceans The idea that global warming has \"paused\" or is
currently chillaxing in a comfy chair with the words \"hiatus\" written on it has been getting a
good run in the media of late. Even though these reports spoke in detail about the complexity of
the research (England feels the coverage generally has been very good), they could inadvertently
cement the idea that global warming has in some way stopped, when it hasn\'t. Much of this is
down to a new study analysing why one single measure of climate change- the temperatures on
the surface averaged out across the entire globe - might not have been rising quite so quickly as
some thought they might. But this is almost unavoidable. You can hardly blame journalists and
commentators for repeating the phrase that \"global warming is in a hiatus\" when the offending
word is in the itle of the scientific paper itself (Recent intensification of wind-driven circulation
in the Pacific and the ongoing warming hiatus But here\'s the thing. There never was a \"paus.
Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency Graph ear Reture Period torm Du.pdf
Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency Graph ear Reture Period torm Duration (minutes 3. The
Village of Aurora was never flooded before the Year 2016. Ever since a new development in the
neighboring city, the area started to experience the flood in 2017. An investigation was launched
and found that the new development was the cause of the flood for the downstream area
including the Aurora Village. What measures can be applied to mitigate the flood for the
downstream area?
Solution
The major development project which causes the flooding of the down stream areas are dams,
dams have both advantages and disadvantages in their own way, compared to the disadvantages
the advantages are more when compared in the long run, one of the major problem is flooding of
villages in the down stream areas and a lot of ecosystem is submerged while construction of the
dam, the following measures can be taken to prevent the flooding of areas in the down stream:
1. Design the dam in such a way that there would be minimum impact on the environment and
the population living nearby
2. If the soil is not fertile, then stabilize the soil if not done the erosion takes place
3. Remeandering of rivers is to be done so that they are in their natural course itself
4. Provide more reservouir for storing of water
5. Provide an alarming system for reducing of impact on the surrounding population
6. Provide sufficient number of crest gates to control the flow in case of floods
7. Construct the buildings above the ground level in flood prone areas, so that the houses will not
be damaged
The above measures would be sufficient enough to diminish the effect of flood in a given area..
Quality software project managementHow are tasks, activities, and .pdf
Quality software project management
How are tasks, activities, and phases most typically related to each other with respect to a
project? chapter 1
Solution
Answer :-
Software Project Management :
Tasks :
The during the development phase, everything that will be needed to implement the project is
arranged. Potential suppliers or subcontractors are brought in, a schedule is made, materials and
tools are ordered, instructions are given to the personnel and so forth. The development phase is
complete when implementation is ready to start. All matters must be clear for the parties that will
carry out the implementation
Activitie :
An activity is a major unit of work to be completed in achieving the objectives of a process. An
activity has precise starting and ending dates, incorporates a set of tasks to be completed,
consumes resources, and results in work products. An activity may have a precedence
relationship with other activities. For example, finish-to-start, start-to-start, finish-to-finish .
Phases :
The 5 Phases of a Project :
1) Project Initiation Phase :
A project is formally started, named and defined at a broad level during this phase. Project
sponsors and other important stakeholders due diligently decide whether or not to commit to a
project. Depending on the nature of the project, feasibility studies are conducted. Or, as it may
require, in an IT project – requirement gathering and analysis are performed in this phase. In the
construction industry a project charter is completed in this phase.
2) Project Planning Phase :
A project management plan is developed comprehensively of individual plans for – cost, scope,
duration, quality, communication, risk and resources. Some of the important activities that mark
this phase are -making WBS, development of schedule, milestone charts, GANTT charts,
estimating and reserving resources, planning dates and modes of communication with
stakeholders based on milestones, deadlines and important deliveries. A plan for managing
identified and unidentified risks is determined as this may affect aspects of a project later on.
Risk management planning includes: risk identification and analysis, risk mitigation approaches,
and risk response planning.
3) Project Execution Phase :
A project deliverable is developed and completed, adhering to a mapped-out plan. A lot of tasks
during this phase capture project metrics through tasks like status meetings and project status
updates, other status reports, human resource needs and performance reports. An important phase
as it will help you understand whether your project will be a success or failure.
4) Project Monitoring and Control Phase :
Project Monitoring and Control Phase occurring at the same time as the execution phase, this one
mostly deals with measuring the project performance and progression in accordance to the
project plan. Scope verification and control occur to check and monitor for scope creep, change
control to track and manage changes to proje.
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