This document discusses different approaches and models for curriculum development. It describes curriculum as content, process, or product. Three common models are presented: Ralph Tyler's model focuses on planning with four basic principles; Hilda Taba's grassroots model emphasizes teacher participation with six steps; and Galen Saylor and William Alexander's linear model considers diagnosis, objectives, content selection, organization, experiences, and evaluation. Curriculum development is presented as a dynamic, purposeful, and planned process involving planning, design, implementation, and evaluation.

1. Lesson 2:
Approaches to the School Curriculum
In this lesson, let us look at the curriculum as either
a Content, a Process or a Product to fully understand the
different perspectives of what curriculum is all about. This
can be one way of approaching a curriculum.
Desired Learning Outcomes
1) Describe the different approaches to school curriculum;
2) Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the
definition of curriculum; and
3) Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with
each other.

2. Three Ways of Approaching
the Curriculum
1) Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge
2) Curriculum as a Process
3) Curriculum as Product

3. 1. CURRICULUM AS A CONTENT
OR BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum
to a topic outline, subject matter, or concepts to be included in the
syllabus or a book.
For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum
consists of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division,
distance, weight and many more.
If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be
the body of knowledge to be transmitted to students using
appropriate teaching method. There can be a likelihood that
teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and
principles of the subject matter, however, the content or subject
matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

4. Curriculum as a Content
or Body of Knowledge
 All curricula have content regardless of their design or
models.
 The fund of knowledge is the repository of accumulated
discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of
the earth and as products of research.
 In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a
body of knowledge or discipline.

5. Four ways of presenting the content in
the curriculum
1) Topical Approach where much content is based on
knowledge, and experiences are included;
2) Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around
major and sub-concepts and their interaction, with
relatedness emphasized;
3) Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that
develop conceptual structures, and
4) Modular Approach that leads to complete units of
instruction.

6. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
1. Significance.
Content should contribute to ideas, concepts,
principles and generalization that should attain the overall
purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content becomes
the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor
skills of the learner. As education is a way of preserving
culture, content will be significant when this will address the
cultural context of the learners.

7. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
2. Validity.
The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity.
Knowledge becomes obsolete with the fast-changing times.
Thus, there is a need for validity check and verification at a
regular interval, because content which may be valid in its
original form may not continue to be valid in the current times.

8. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
3. Utility.
Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative
to the learners who are going to use these. Utility can be
relative to time. It may have been useful in the past, but may
not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use
this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a
lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in solving
current concerns?

9. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
4. Learnability.
The complexity of the content should be within the
range of experiences of the learners. This is based on the
psychological principles of learning. Appropriate organization
of content standards and sequencing of contents are two
basic principles that would influence learnability.

10. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
5. Feasibility.
Can the subject content be learned within the time
allowed, resources available, expertise of the teachers and
the nature of the learners? Are there contents of learning
which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning
engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?

11. Criteria in the Selection of Content
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)
6. Interest.
Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are
the contents meaningful? What value will the contents have in
the present and future life of the learners? Interest is one of
the driving forces for students to learn better.

12. Guide in the Selection of the Content
in the Curriculum
1) Commonly used in the daily life
2) Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the
learners
3) Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the
future career
4) Related to other subject fields or discipline for
complementation and integration.
5) Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

13. B A S I C S: Fundamental Principles for
Curriculum Contents
• Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum
should be guided by Balance, Articulation, Sequence,
Integration and Continuity. However, in designing a
curriculum contents Hunkins and Ornstein (2018) added an
important element which is Scope, hence from BASIC to
BASICS (Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration,
Continuity, Scope).

14. BALANCE
• Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.
This will guarantee that significant contents should be
covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents
needed with in the time allocation.

15. Articulation
• As the content complexity progresses with the educational
levels, vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline
smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This
will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content.
Seamlessness in the content is desired and can be assured
if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a
need off team among writers and implementers of
curriculum.

16. Sequence
• The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence
or order. This can be done vertically for deepening the
content or horizontally for broadening the same content.
• In both ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex,
what is known to the unknown, what is current to something
in the future.

17. Integration
• Unified view vs. Segmentation
• Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It
has some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other
contents. Contents should be infused in other disciplines
whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view
of curriculum instead of segmentation. Contents which can be
integrated to other disciplines acquire a higher premium than
when isolated.

18. Continuity
• Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow
as it was before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the
future.
• It should be perennial. It endures time.
• Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in
the past since changes and developments in curriculum occur.
• Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content
are all elements of continuity.

19. Scope
• The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a
curriculum. Scope consists of all the contents, topics, learning
experiences comprising the curriculum. In layman's term scope
refers to coverage.
• The scope shall consider the cognitive level, affective domain
and psychomotor skills in identifying the contents.
• Other factors will be considered but caution is given to
overloading of contents. "More contents is not always better."

20. 2. CURRICULUM AS A PROCESS
 Curriculum can also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is
not seen as a physical thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action.
 It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a
process, curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions asked
by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the students.
 It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the
processes occur. Used in analogy of a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is
the content while the ways of cooking is the process.

21. Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about
the practice of teaching.
It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content
to be covered. The classroom is only part of the learning
environment where the teacher places action using the
content to achieve an outcome.

22.  Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the
central concern of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, and
heads-on, hands-on learning and many others.
 As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content
provides materials on what to teach, the process provides
curriculum on how to teach the content.
 When accomplished, the process will result to various
curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the
content and process is called the Pedagogical Content
Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question:
 If you have this content, how will you teach it?

23. To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of
the coin: instruction, implementation, and teaching. These three
words connote the process in the curriculum.
When educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using?
Some of the answers will be: 1.) Problem-based, 2.) Hands-on, Minds-
on, 3.) Cooperative Learning, 4.) Blended Curriculum, 5.) On-line, 6.)
Case-based, and many more.
These responses approach curriculum as a Process. These are
the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning,
methods of teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery
modes.
In all of these, there are activities and actions that every teacher
and learner does together or learners are guided by the teacher. Some
of the strategies are time-tested traditional methods while others are
emerging delivery modes.

24. 1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies is a means to
achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be
described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.
Guiding Principles when curriculum is
approached as a PROCESS

25.  Product is what the students desire to achieve as learning
outcomes.
 The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the
knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently.
The real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes
in students' pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement
of objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a
statement of changes to take place in the students.
3. CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCT

26.  Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioral
objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be
organized and the results evaluated.
 Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge,
skills, and values.
CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCT

27. Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes
which are referred to as the achieved learning outcomes. There
may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the process is
not successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved.
These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated
by the person who has meaningful experiences in the
curriculum. All of these are result of planning," content and
processes in the curriculum.

28. Instruction: Match the CONCEPT in Column II with the OPTIONS in Column III.
Write the letter of your ANSWER in Column I.
Quiz:
I II - Concept III. Options
B 1. Curriculum as a way of doing. A. Content
D 2. Authenticity of the content. B. Process
A 3. Curriculum as the subject matter. C. Product
E 4. Fair distribution of the content across the subjects. D. Validity
J 5. Curriculum as the outcome of learning. E. Balance
F 6. Seamless flow of content vertically or horizontally in
the curriculum.
F. Articulation
C 7. Evidence of successful teaching. G. Sequence
I 8. Enduring and perennial content, from past to future. H. Integration
H 9. Allowing the transfer of content to other fields. I. Continuity
G 10. Arranging of contents from easy to difficult. J. Learning Outcomes

29. Content Focus
1) Curriculum Development Process
2) Curriculum Development Process Models
Desired Learning Outcome
1) Explain the curriculum development processes
and models.
2) Summarize the curriculum development
processes and models.
Lesson 3. Curriculum Development:
Processes and Models

30. Curriculum is a dynamic process.
In curriculum development, there are always changes that
occur that are intended for improvement.
To do this, we will concentrate our discussion with the
curriculum models of the three well known curricularists like
Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen Saylor and William
Alexander which would help us clarify the process of
curriculum development.

31. Curriculum is a dynamic process involving many different
people and procedures.
Development connotes changes which is systematic. A
change for the better means alteration, modification or
improvement of existing condition.
To produce positive changes, development should be:
Purposeful
Planned, and
Progressive
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

32. Usually, development process is linear and follows
step-by-step fashion involving the following phases:
1) Curriculum planning
2) Curriculum design
3) Curriculum implementation
4) Curriculum evaluation

33.  Considers the school vision, mission and goals.
 It also includes the philosophy or strong education
belief of the school.
 All of these, eventually translate the classroom
desired learning outcomes for the learners.
1. Curriculum Planning

34.  Is the way curriculum is conceptualized to achieve learning
outcomes. It includes:
 the selection and organization of content,
 the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities, and
 the selection of the assessment procedure and tools
 Curriculum design also includes the resources to be utilized
and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.
2. Curriculum Designing

35.  Is putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the
learning environment.
Teacher plays as a facilitator of learning together with the
learners.
Uses the curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in
the classroom with the end in view of achieving the intended
learning outcomes.
 Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place.
 Involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s
classroom where learning becomes an active process.
3. Curriculum Implementing

36.  Determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have
been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out
the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of
learning (summative).
 Evaluation determines the factors that have hindered or
supported the implementation.
 It pinpoints where improvement can be made and corrective
measures to introduce.
 The result of evaluation, paths for decision-making of
curriculum planners and implementers.
4. Curriculum Evaluating

37. 1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles
 Also known as Tyler’s Rationale
 His curriculum development model emphasizes the planning
phase.
 He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as
answers to the following questions:
1) What education purposes should schools seek to attain?
2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
attain these purposes?
3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained
or not?
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS MODELS

38. Tyler’s Model shows that in curriculum
development, the following considerations should be
made:
1) Purposes of the school
2) Educational experiences related to the purposes
3) Organization of the experiences
4) Evaluation of the experiences

39. 2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach
 She improved on Tyler’s model.
 She believed that teachers should participate in
developing a curriculum.
 Her model begins from the bottom, rather than
from the top as what Tyler proposed.

40. She presented six major steps to her linear model which
are the following:
1) Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the
larger society
2) Formulation of objectives
3) Selection of learning contents
4) Organization of learning contents
5) Selection of learning experiences
6) Determination of what to evaluate and the means of
doing it

41. 3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model
(1974)
 Viewed curriculum development as consisting of four
steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning
opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and
related specific objectives for an identifiable population
served by a single school center”.
1) Goals, Objectives and Domains
2) Curriculum Designing
3) Curriculum Implementation
4) Evaluation

42. 1. Goals, Objectives and Domains
Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major
educational goals and specific objectives they wish to
accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain:
a) Personal development
b) Human relations
c) Continued learning skills and specialization
Goals, objectives and domains are identified and chosen
based on research findings, accreditation standards and views
of the different stakeholders.

43. 2. Curriculum Designing
Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning
opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is
provided.
In this stage of development process, the following
questions are needed to be answered:
a) Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic
disciplines?
b) Will the curriculum be designed according to student needs
and interests?
c) Will the curriculum be designed along the themes?

44. 3. Curriculum Implementation
A designed curriculum is now ready for
implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional
plans where instructional objectives are specified and
appropriate teaching methods and strategies are
utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes
among students.

45. 4. Evaluation
A comprehensive evaluation using a variety of
evaluation techniques is recommended.
Should involves the total educational programme
of the school and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of the instruction and the
achievement of students.
Curriculum planners and developers can
determine whether or not the goals of the school
and the objectives of instruction have been met.

46. What phase of the curriculum process do
you find very important as a teacher? Why?
Self-Reflect