This document summarizes changes that have occurred to science education curriculum in Botswana. It discusses how Botswana's curriculum was influenced by changes in other countries like Britain in response to events like the launch of Sputnik. Key changes included introducing science subjects earlier, using more investigative teaching methods, and making content more relevant to Botswana. While these changes aimed to better prepare students for technical careers, challenges also arose due to lack of teaching materials and teacher training. Overall, the curriculum changes sought to develop Botswana's workforce while drawing on influences from research and other nations.
This document provides an overview of curriculum models proposed by Hilda Taba, including a description of Taba's background and philosophical ideas. It outlines Taba's inductive model of curriculum development, which begins with diagnosing learner needs and involves teachers. The key steps in Taba's model are identifying student needs, formulating objectives, selecting and organizing content, choosing learning experiences, and determining evaluation. Taba's grassroots approach emphasizes addressing student needs and giving teachers a role in curriculum development.
The document describes Hilda Taba's model of curriculum development, which consists of 7 steps: 1) Diagnosing student needs, 2) Formulating learning objectives, 3) Selecting learning content, 4) Organizing the content, 5) Selecting learning experiences, 6) Organizing learning activities, and 7) Evaluating outcomes. Taba believed teachers should play a leading role in curriculum development by identifying student needs and designing content and activities accordingly through an inductive, "grass-roots" approach.
There are several problems with curriculum implementation in Pakistan. Economic problems are a major issue, as Pakistan only spends 2.4% of its GDP on education, which is not enough to fund teaching resources, teacher training, and other necessities. Political instability also hinders curriculum implementation, as different political parties have varying education policies. Additionally, teachers are often not properly trained or reluctant to accept changes to the curriculum. Other issues include a lack of sequencing in curriculum, uncertainty among parents regarding changes, and outdated curriculum that does not match students' current needs and skills. Proposed solutions include developing comprehensive implementation plans, increasing funding and resources, providing quality teacher training, and improving monitoring and evaluation of teachers.
The document discusses curriculum development in higher education. It defines curriculum and lists its key components. It describes different types of curriculums like discipline-based, competency-based, and integrated curriculums. It also lists the determinants and steps involved in curriculum planning. The document encourages participants to engage in discussions around curriculum evaluation and development to identify gaps and bring innovations, like integrating new content areas or teaching methods.
This document discusses higher education and new approaches to teaching the net generation of learners. It outlines several new learning environments and media, including web-based education, self-instructional materials, e-learning, blended learning, flipped classrooms, and mobile learning. It also discusses how pedagogy is changing with the influence of technology and globalization.
The Kemp ID model is an instructional design model developed in 1985 by Jerrold Kemp that includes 9 key elements - instructional problems, learner characteristics, task analysis, objectives, content sequencing, strategies, message design, delivery, and evaluation - and views the design process as continuous and iterative; the model is classroom-oriented and focuses on considering all factors in the learning environment in a holistic and flexible way. An example lesson plan demonstrates applying the 9 elements of the Kemp model to design an instructional objective for students to sequence the 8 phases of the moon.
Curriculum evaluation: The assessment of the merit and worth of any program curriculum.
Curriculum evaluation is an attempt to toss light on two questions: Do planned programs, courses, activities, and learning opportunities as developed and organized actually produce desired results/learning outcomes? How can the curriculum offerings best be improved?
Curriculum Evaluation Models: How can the merits and worth of such aspects of curriculum is determined? Evaluation specialists have proposed an array of models, an examination of which can provide useful background for the process curriculum evaluation.
This document discusses models of curriculum evaluation. It describes five models:
1) Provus' Discrepancy Evaluation Model which compares program performance to standards.
2) Tyler's model which involves establishing goals and objectives and comparing student performance to objectives.
3) Stufflebeam's CIPP Model which evaluates the context, inputs, processes, and products of a curriculum.
4) Stake's Congruency-Contingency Model which examines antecedents, transactions, and outcomes.
5) Eisner's Educational Connoisseurship Model which uses qualitative observation and interpretation to evaluate a curriculum.
This document provides an overview of curriculum models proposed by Hilda Taba, including a description of Taba's background and philosophical ideas. It outlines Taba's inductive model of curriculum development, which begins with diagnosing learner needs and involves teachers. The key steps in Taba's model are identifying student needs, formulating objectives, selecting and organizing content, choosing learning experiences, and determining evaluation. Taba's grassroots approach emphasizes addressing student needs and giving teachers a role in curriculum development.
The document describes Hilda Taba's model of curriculum development, which consists of 7 steps: 1) Diagnosing student needs, 2) Formulating learning objectives, 3) Selecting learning content, 4) Organizing the content, 5) Selecting learning experiences, 6) Organizing learning activities, and 7) Evaluating outcomes. Taba believed teachers should play a leading role in curriculum development by identifying student needs and designing content and activities accordingly through an inductive, "grass-roots" approach.
There are several problems with curriculum implementation in Pakistan. Economic problems are a major issue, as Pakistan only spends 2.4% of its GDP on education, which is not enough to fund teaching resources, teacher training, and other necessities. Political instability also hinders curriculum implementation, as different political parties have varying education policies. Additionally, teachers are often not properly trained or reluctant to accept changes to the curriculum. Other issues include a lack of sequencing in curriculum, uncertainty among parents regarding changes, and outdated curriculum that does not match students' current needs and skills. Proposed solutions include developing comprehensive implementation plans, increasing funding and resources, providing quality teacher training, and improving monitoring and evaluation of teachers.
The document discusses curriculum development in higher education. It defines curriculum and lists its key components. It describes different types of curriculums like discipline-based, competency-based, and integrated curriculums. It also lists the determinants and steps involved in curriculum planning. The document encourages participants to engage in discussions around curriculum evaluation and development to identify gaps and bring innovations, like integrating new content areas or teaching methods.
This document discusses higher education and new approaches to teaching the net generation of learners. It outlines several new learning environments and media, including web-based education, self-instructional materials, e-learning, blended learning, flipped classrooms, and mobile learning. It also discusses how pedagogy is changing with the influence of technology and globalization.
The Kemp ID model is an instructional design model developed in 1985 by Jerrold Kemp that includes 9 key elements - instructional problems, learner characteristics, task analysis, objectives, content sequencing, strategies, message design, delivery, and evaluation - and views the design process as continuous and iterative; the model is classroom-oriented and focuses on considering all factors in the learning environment in a holistic and flexible way. An example lesson plan demonstrates applying the 9 elements of the Kemp model to design an instructional objective for students to sequence the 8 phases of the moon.
Curriculum evaluation: The assessment of the merit and worth of any program curriculum.
Curriculum evaluation is an attempt to toss light on two questions: Do planned programs, courses, activities, and learning opportunities as developed and organized actually produce desired results/learning outcomes? How can the curriculum offerings best be improved?
Curriculum Evaluation Models: How can the merits and worth of such aspects of curriculum is determined? Evaluation specialists have proposed an array of models, an examination of which can provide useful background for the process curriculum evaluation.
This document discusses models of curriculum evaluation. It describes five models:
1) Provus' Discrepancy Evaluation Model which compares program performance to standards.
2) Tyler's model which involves establishing goals and objectives and comparing student performance to objectives.
3) Stufflebeam's CIPP Model which evaluates the context, inputs, processes, and products of a curriculum.
4) Stake's Congruency-Contingency Model which examines antecedents, transactions, and outcomes.
5) Eisner's Educational Connoisseurship Model which uses qualitative observation and interpretation to evaluate a curriculum.
The document outlines Hilda Taba's model of curriculum development. It discusses Taba's background and philosophical ideas, which emphasize involving teachers in curriculum development and seeing it as a long-term, bottom-up process. The document then details the 7 steps of Taba's model: 1) Diagnosing learner needs 2) Formulating objectives 3) Selecting content 4) Organizing content 5) Selecting learning experiences 6) Organizing activities 7) Determining evaluation. It assesses the model's strengths like its inductive approach and teacher involvement, and limitations like relying on teacher skills and balancing student needs.
A set of standards to be followed in assessment.
As they apply to curriculum, criteria are set of standards upon which the different elements of the curriculum are being tested.
This document discusses outcomes-based education (OBE) as a theory, systemic structure, and classroom practice. It outlines key concepts of OBE including defining learning outcomes, focusing on what students should be able to do, integrating subjects, and assessing student mastery through performance. OBE aims to ensure all students can learn and succeed by setting clear expectations and expanding opportunities. The document provides examples of desired outcomes for agriculturists and doctors and compares OBE and traditional content-based curricula and programming.
Factors affecting curriculum implementation art bermoy
This document discusses the various stakeholders involved in curriculum implementation, including learners, teachers, parents, school administrators/managers, community members, and other stakeholders like the government. It describes the key roles each stakeholder plays - learners are the primary beneficiaries, teachers develop and deliver the curriculum, parents and community provide support, while administrators oversee the process and ensure resources are available. The success of curriculum implementation requires participation and collaboration between all these stakeholders.
The document discusses several models of curriculum, including:
- The Tyler Model, which focuses on educational purposes, experiences, organization, and evaluation.
- The Taba Model, which is a grass-roots approach involving 7 steps like diagnosis of needs and selection of learning experiences.
- The Saylor and Alexander Model, which involves 4 steps of specifying goals and objectives, designing the curriculum, implementation, and evaluation.
- Models for students with special needs, including developmental, functional, and ecological approaches.
- The subject/teacher centered design which is based on teaching predefined subjects and has the objective of transferring cultural heritage. However, it ignores student interests.
This document discusses different aspects of curriculum content selection including definitions, elements, purposes, analysis, and procedures. It defines curriculum as all planned learning inside and outside of school. Content is the information to be learned and includes cognitive, skill, and affective components. Several procedures are described for selecting content including judgmental, experimental, analytical, and consensual. The analytical procedure involves job or activity analysis to determine useful knowledge. The goal of content selection is to choose material that meets objectives and learner needs.
This document provides an overview of curriculum evaluation, including reasons for evaluation, types of evaluation, and models of evaluation. It also discusses levels and approaches to curriculum improvement. Specifically, it outlines that curriculum evaluation establishes strengths and weaknesses, provides feedback for improvement, and informs strategic decisions. The two main types of evaluation are formative, which provides ongoing feedback, and summative, which measures outcomes. Several models of curriculum evaluation are also presented, including Tyler's objective-centered model, Stufflebeam's CIPP model, Taba's antecedents-transactions-outcomes model, Stake's responsive model, and Kirkpatrick's reaction-learning-behavior-results model.
The document discusses several curriculum models including subject-centered, learner-centered, and problem-centered models. It describes key aspects of each model, such as the subject-centered model focusing on content divided into subjects. The learner-centered model emphasizes the needs and interests of students, while the problem-centered model organizes curriculum around solving real-world problems. It also covers curriculum development models like Tyler's model and Taba's inductive model.
This document provides an overview of curriculum evaluation based on the CIPP model. It defines curriculum evaluation as making judgments about changes needed in students by using information to modify teaching and curriculum. The CIPP model evaluates the context, inputs, processes, and products of a curriculum. Context evaluation analyzes goals and needs. Input evaluation assesses resources and strategies. Process evaluation collects ongoing data on curriculum implementation. Product evaluation determines if goals were achieved by getting feedback from students, graduates, and employers.
Tyler's model of curriculum evaluation focuses on consistency between objectives, learning experiences, and outcomes. It emphasizes defining clear objectives based on input from learners, society, and subject matter. The model evaluates how well curriculum goals and objectives are supported by instructional strategies, content organization, and assessment. Strengths include clearly defined objectives and involvement of learners. Criticisms note the difficulty of constructing behavioral objectives, restricting curriculum, and inability to fully control all learning experiences.
This document discusses different curriculum design models:
1. Subject-centered design organizes curriculum around academic subjects and focuses on mastery of content. It is the most familiar model but can lead to compartmentalization of learning.
2. Learner-centered designs like child-centered, experience-centered, and humanistic models make the learner's interests, needs, and experiences the starting point for curriculum. They aim to develop the whole child.
3. Problem-centered design organizes subjects around problems for students to solve through inquiry. It engages students with authentic real-world problems.
The core design model focuses on common human activities and problems to provide general education through interdisciplinary study.
This document discusses educational planning and its importance. It defines planning as designing actions beforehand. Educational planning is significant as it helps ensure success of programs, saves time/money, avoids trial and error, utilizes resources efficiently, and contributes to smooth administration. The document outlines five types of educational planning: administrative, academic/curricular, co-curricular, instructional, and institutional. It also discusses grassroots planning which includes planning administration, academics, activities, community relations, discipline, development programs, and resource utilization.
The document discusses 6 key features of curriculum design: the teacher, learners, knowledge/skills/values, strategies/methods, performance, and community partnerships. It also outlines 3 approaches to curriculum design: learner-centered focuses on student needs/interests; subject-centered prioritizes subject matter; and problem-centered uses problem-solving to develop independent, civic-minded learners.
The document discusses different types of curriculum:
1. Recommended curriculum refers to curricula proposed by scholars and organizations.
2. Written curriculum includes documents and syllabi created by curriculum experts and teachers for implementation.
3. Taught curriculum is what is actually taught in classrooms which may differ from the written curriculum. Additional factors like available resources are considered.
The Taba Model was developed by Hilda Taba (1902 - 1967), an architect, a curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator.Taba believed that there has to be a definite order in creating a curriculum.
She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development which meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design, rather than the traditional deductive approach (starts with the general design and work towards the specifics) which was rooted in Tyler's model. Hilda Taba followed the grass-roots approach in developing curriculum
For her, it should be the teachers who should design the curriculum rather than the higher authorities (Oliva, 1992). More specifically stated, the Taba approach believes in allowing the curriculum to be developed and/or authored by the users (teachers). Under the Taba Model teachers are expected to begin each curriculum by creating specific teaching-learning units and building to a general design.
According to Khwaja, Akhtar, & Mirza (n.d.), "the Taba model was an attempt to ensure that decisions about curriculum are made on the basis of valid criteria and not whim or fancy." Her model of developing a curriculum consisted of seven main steps and over the years, these seven steps have formed the basis for Hilda Taba's ...
This solution provides information about Hilda Taba and her suggested approach to curriculum development. It also includes information about five of Taba's main elements required when developing a curriculum. The solution is referenced.
Diagnosis of needs
Formulation of learning objectives
Selection of learning content
Organization of learning content
Selection of learning experiences
Organization of learning activities
Evaluation and means of evaluation
Teacher-made tests are often flawed and emphasize lower-level thinking. However, they can be important parts of the teaching and learning process if integrated into daily classroom instruction. To be effective, teacher-made tests should be constructed prior to instruction, address a variety of intelligences and learning styles, and allow students multiple ways to demonstrate what they know. Modifications can make teacher-made tests accessible to all students. Involving students in test development helps ensure tests reflect essential learnings.
solo taxonomy is a systematic way of describing how a learners understanding develops from simple to complex when learning different subject or tasks. the solo stands for: structure of observed learning outcomes.
This document discusses four approaches to curriculum development: behavioral, managerial, systems, and humanistic. The behavioral approach focuses on specifying goals and objectives and arranging content and activities to meet those objectives, evaluating learning outcomes based on the goals. The managerial approach emphasizes the principal's role in setting policies, planning, and organizing curriculum implementation. The systems approach views all parts of the school as an interconnected system. The humanistic approach places the learner at the center and aims for their total development. Curriculum developers may draw from one or more of these approaches.
This document provides an overview of the SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) taxonomy, which is a model for describing levels of understanding in students' learning. It outlines the five main stages of the SOLO taxonomy from prestructural to extended abstract understanding. The document also discusses uses of the SOLO taxonomy in curriculum development and learning assessment, as well as its advantages over other frameworks like Bloom's taxonomy.
Contribution of peer counseling to student behavior change in Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the contribution of peer counseling skills like mentoring, role modeling, and academic tutoring to student behavior change in secondary schools in Maara Sub County, Kenya. The study employed a descriptive survey research design to collect data from questionnaires administered to students and peer counselors, as well as interviews with teacher counselors. The study found that peer counselors are effective in mentoring other students and addressing youth issues. Many peer counselors have above average academic performance, making them effective academic tutors. Peer counselors also have opportunities to model good behaviors. The study recommends that peer counselors require adequate training in basic counseling skills.
Credit risk assessment and management practices in islamic banks of pakistanAlexander Decker
This document discusses credit risk assessment and management practices in Islamic banks of Pakistan. It begins with an introduction to the history and growth of Islamic banking. It then explores the various types of credit risk faced by Islamic banks in Pakistan through different financing instruments like murabahah, musharakah, mudarabah, etc. The document proposes a conceptual framework for credit risk management in Islamic banks and discusses ways to minimize credit risk, such as through single-customer disclosure limits, controlling related-party financing, diversifying exposures across sectors and regions, and maintaining adequate loan loss provisions. It concludes that careful credit risk management is important for Islamic banks given restrictions on interest and penalties.
The document outlines Hilda Taba's model of curriculum development. It discusses Taba's background and philosophical ideas, which emphasize involving teachers in curriculum development and seeing it as a long-term, bottom-up process. The document then details the 7 steps of Taba's model: 1) Diagnosing learner needs 2) Formulating objectives 3) Selecting content 4) Organizing content 5) Selecting learning experiences 6) Organizing activities 7) Determining evaluation. It assesses the model's strengths like its inductive approach and teacher involvement, and limitations like relying on teacher skills and balancing student needs.
A set of standards to be followed in assessment.
As they apply to curriculum, criteria are set of standards upon which the different elements of the curriculum are being tested.
This document discusses outcomes-based education (OBE) as a theory, systemic structure, and classroom practice. It outlines key concepts of OBE including defining learning outcomes, focusing on what students should be able to do, integrating subjects, and assessing student mastery through performance. OBE aims to ensure all students can learn and succeed by setting clear expectations and expanding opportunities. The document provides examples of desired outcomes for agriculturists and doctors and compares OBE and traditional content-based curricula and programming.
Factors affecting curriculum implementation art bermoy
This document discusses the various stakeholders involved in curriculum implementation, including learners, teachers, parents, school administrators/managers, community members, and other stakeholders like the government. It describes the key roles each stakeholder plays - learners are the primary beneficiaries, teachers develop and deliver the curriculum, parents and community provide support, while administrators oversee the process and ensure resources are available. The success of curriculum implementation requires participation and collaboration between all these stakeholders.
The document discusses several models of curriculum, including:
- The Tyler Model, which focuses on educational purposes, experiences, organization, and evaluation.
- The Taba Model, which is a grass-roots approach involving 7 steps like diagnosis of needs and selection of learning experiences.
- The Saylor and Alexander Model, which involves 4 steps of specifying goals and objectives, designing the curriculum, implementation, and evaluation.
- Models for students with special needs, including developmental, functional, and ecological approaches.
- The subject/teacher centered design which is based on teaching predefined subjects and has the objective of transferring cultural heritage. However, it ignores student interests.
This document discusses different aspects of curriculum content selection including definitions, elements, purposes, analysis, and procedures. It defines curriculum as all planned learning inside and outside of school. Content is the information to be learned and includes cognitive, skill, and affective components. Several procedures are described for selecting content including judgmental, experimental, analytical, and consensual. The analytical procedure involves job or activity analysis to determine useful knowledge. The goal of content selection is to choose material that meets objectives and learner needs.
This document provides an overview of curriculum evaluation, including reasons for evaluation, types of evaluation, and models of evaluation. It also discusses levels and approaches to curriculum improvement. Specifically, it outlines that curriculum evaluation establishes strengths and weaknesses, provides feedback for improvement, and informs strategic decisions. The two main types of evaluation are formative, which provides ongoing feedback, and summative, which measures outcomes. Several models of curriculum evaluation are also presented, including Tyler's objective-centered model, Stufflebeam's CIPP model, Taba's antecedents-transactions-outcomes model, Stake's responsive model, and Kirkpatrick's reaction-learning-behavior-results model.
The document discusses several curriculum models including subject-centered, learner-centered, and problem-centered models. It describes key aspects of each model, such as the subject-centered model focusing on content divided into subjects. The learner-centered model emphasizes the needs and interests of students, while the problem-centered model organizes curriculum around solving real-world problems. It also covers curriculum development models like Tyler's model and Taba's inductive model.
This document provides an overview of curriculum evaluation based on the CIPP model. It defines curriculum evaluation as making judgments about changes needed in students by using information to modify teaching and curriculum. The CIPP model evaluates the context, inputs, processes, and products of a curriculum. Context evaluation analyzes goals and needs. Input evaluation assesses resources and strategies. Process evaluation collects ongoing data on curriculum implementation. Product evaluation determines if goals were achieved by getting feedback from students, graduates, and employers.
Tyler's model of curriculum evaluation focuses on consistency between objectives, learning experiences, and outcomes. It emphasizes defining clear objectives based on input from learners, society, and subject matter. The model evaluates how well curriculum goals and objectives are supported by instructional strategies, content organization, and assessment. Strengths include clearly defined objectives and involvement of learners. Criticisms note the difficulty of constructing behavioral objectives, restricting curriculum, and inability to fully control all learning experiences.
This document discusses different curriculum design models:
1. Subject-centered design organizes curriculum around academic subjects and focuses on mastery of content. It is the most familiar model but can lead to compartmentalization of learning.
2. Learner-centered designs like child-centered, experience-centered, and humanistic models make the learner's interests, needs, and experiences the starting point for curriculum. They aim to develop the whole child.
3. Problem-centered design organizes subjects around problems for students to solve through inquiry. It engages students with authentic real-world problems.
The core design model focuses on common human activities and problems to provide general education through interdisciplinary study.
This document discusses educational planning and its importance. It defines planning as designing actions beforehand. Educational planning is significant as it helps ensure success of programs, saves time/money, avoids trial and error, utilizes resources efficiently, and contributes to smooth administration. The document outlines five types of educational planning: administrative, academic/curricular, co-curricular, instructional, and institutional. It also discusses grassroots planning which includes planning administration, academics, activities, community relations, discipline, development programs, and resource utilization.
The document discusses 6 key features of curriculum design: the teacher, learners, knowledge/skills/values, strategies/methods, performance, and community partnerships. It also outlines 3 approaches to curriculum design: learner-centered focuses on student needs/interests; subject-centered prioritizes subject matter; and problem-centered uses problem-solving to develop independent, civic-minded learners.
The document discusses different types of curriculum:
1. Recommended curriculum refers to curricula proposed by scholars and organizations.
2. Written curriculum includes documents and syllabi created by curriculum experts and teachers for implementation.
3. Taught curriculum is what is actually taught in classrooms which may differ from the written curriculum. Additional factors like available resources are considered.
The Taba Model was developed by Hilda Taba (1902 - 1967), an architect, a curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator.Taba believed that there has to be a definite order in creating a curriculum.
She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development which meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design, rather than the traditional deductive approach (starts with the general design and work towards the specifics) which was rooted in Tyler's model. Hilda Taba followed the grass-roots approach in developing curriculum
For her, it should be the teachers who should design the curriculum rather than the higher authorities (Oliva, 1992). More specifically stated, the Taba approach believes in allowing the curriculum to be developed and/or authored by the users (teachers). Under the Taba Model teachers are expected to begin each curriculum by creating specific teaching-learning units and building to a general design.
According to Khwaja, Akhtar, & Mirza (n.d.), "the Taba model was an attempt to ensure that decisions about curriculum are made on the basis of valid criteria and not whim or fancy." Her model of developing a curriculum consisted of seven main steps and over the years, these seven steps have formed the basis for Hilda Taba's ...
This solution provides information about Hilda Taba and her suggested approach to curriculum development. It also includes information about five of Taba's main elements required when developing a curriculum. The solution is referenced.
Diagnosis of needs
Formulation of learning objectives
Selection of learning content
Organization of learning content
Selection of learning experiences
Organization of learning activities
Evaluation and means of evaluation
Teacher-made tests are often flawed and emphasize lower-level thinking. However, they can be important parts of the teaching and learning process if integrated into daily classroom instruction. To be effective, teacher-made tests should be constructed prior to instruction, address a variety of intelligences and learning styles, and allow students multiple ways to demonstrate what they know. Modifications can make teacher-made tests accessible to all students. Involving students in test development helps ensure tests reflect essential learnings.
solo taxonomy is a systematic way of describing how a learners understanding develops from simple to complex when learning different subject or tasks. the solo stands for: structure of observed learning outcomes.
This document discusses four approaches to curriculum development: behavioral, managerial, systems, and humanistic. The behavioral approach focuses on specifying goals and objectives and arranging content and activities to meet those objectives, evaluating learning outcomes based on the goals. The managerial approach emphasizes the principal's role in setting policies, planning, and organizing curriculum implementation. The systems approach views all parts of the school as an interconnected system. The humanistic approach places the learner at the center and aims for their total development. Curriculum developers may draw from one or more of these approaches.
This document provides an overview of the SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) taxonomy, which is a model for describing levels of understanding in students' learning. It outlines the five main stages of the SOLO taxonomy from prestructural to extended abstract understanding. The document also discusses uses of the SOLO taxonomy in curriculum development and learning assessment, as well as its advantages over other frameworks like Bloom's taxonomy.
Contribution of peer counseling to student behavior change in Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the contribution of peer counseling skills like mentoring, role modeling, and academic tutoring to student behavior change in secondary schools in Maara Sub County, Kenya. The study employed a descriptive survey research design to collect data from questionnaires administered to students and peer counselors, as well as interviews with teacher counselors. The study found that peer counselors are effective in mentoring other students and addressing youth issues. Many peer counselors have above average academic performance, making them effective academic tutors. Peer counselors also have opportunities to model good behaviors. The study recommends that peer counselors require adequate training in basic counseling skills.
Credit risk assessment and management practices in islamic banks of pakistanAlexander Decker
This document discusses credit risk assessment and management practices in Islamic banks of Pakistan. It begins with an introduction to the history and growth of Islamic banking. It then explores the various types of credit risk faced by Islamic banks in Pakistan through different financing instruments like murabahah, musharakah, mudarabah, etc. The document proposes a conceptual framework for credit risk management in Islamic banks and discusses ways to minimize credit risk, such as through single-customer disclosure limits, controlling related-party financing, diversifying exposures across sectors and regions, and maintaining adequate loan loss provisions. It concludes that careful credit risk management is important for Islamic banks given restrictions on interest and penalties.
Curriculum development and teaching methodology forAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on curriculum development and teaching methodology for effective learning in secondary schools in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. The study aimed to identify problems in curriculum distribution, factors affecting curriculum development and teaching, and the role of teachers and funding. A questionnaire was administered to 200 teachers and 40 education officers. The findings showed key problems as lack of teacher access to curricula, underproduction of curricula, and inadequate rural teacher information. Factors identified were use of inefficient writers and editors, frequent curriculum reviews, and insufficient time. The roles of teachers included classroom instruction planning, student counseling, and creating teaching materials. Problems with funding included diversion of funds, delayed releases, and irregular management. No
Corporate social responsibility in nigerian banking industryAlexander Decker
The document discusses corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices in the Nigerian banking industry. It analyzes CSR initiatives and expenditures for six commercial banks based on their 2011 annual reports. The results show that on average, banks spend less than 3% of their profit after tax on CSR initiatives. The document recommends that the Nigerian government develop a legal framework for CSR to ensure banks are not just paying lip service to CSR and truly give back to their operating communities.
Effectiveness of gefitinib as additional radiosensitizer to conventional chem...Alexander Decker
This randomized controlled study evaluated the effectiveness of adding the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib to conventional chemoradiation for locally advanced head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. 104 patients were randomized to receive either gefitinib plus cisplatin-based chemoradiation (experimental arm) or cisplatin-based chemoradiation alone (control arm). The study found a statistically significant difference in overall response rates favoring the gefitinib arm, as well as improved disease-free survival. However, the gefitinib arm also resulted in higher rates of manageable toxicities like dermatitis, mucositis, and diarrhea.
Competency based education and training in technical Alexander Decker
This document discusses competency-based education and training (CBET) and its potential implications for sustainable national security and development in Nigeria. It defines CBET as an approach that focuses on what learners can do upon completing training rather than the training process itself. The key characteristics of CBET include identifying clear competencies, integrating skills practice with supporting theory, self-paced learning, and assessing learners on demonstration of skills. The document argues that adopting CBET in technical and vocational education in Nigeria could help address the problem of graduates lacking employable skills, thereby reducing unemployment and supporting national security and development goals.
Crime mapping and analysis in the dansoman police subdivision, accra, ghana ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map and analyze crime distribution in the Dansoman Police Subdivision of Accra, Ghana. 142 crime incident records were analyzed in GIS software. Assault, Causing Damage, and Unlawful Entry had the highest counts, while Rape and Stealing had the lowest. Crime density maps showed Mamprobi district had high crime density despite its small size. Spatial analysis found crimes were randomly distributed except for Rape and Stealing, which were statistically dispersed. The mean centers of crimes were within 1 km radius. The study aims to help police better understand and respond to crime patterns.
This document summarizes a study on corporate entrepreneurship and innovation in the Ethiopian leather footwear industry. The study developed a conceptual model linking corporate entrepreneurship variables (management support, rewards, work discretion, and time availability) to innovation. It analyzed data from 6 leather footwear companies in Ethiopia. The results showed the corporate entrepreneurship variables and innovation were below average. There was a positive correlation between the entrepreneurship variables and innovation. Regression analysis found that rewards and time availability contributed most to innovation. The study provides insights to help managers improve innovation.
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
Yager, robert the development of science teacher programs focus v8 n1 2014William Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Yager, stuart exemplary science teacher education program nftej v 24 n3 2014William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Yager, stuart exemplary science teacher education program nftej v 24 n3 2014William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Students’ attitudes towards science have long occupied the interest of the scientific community. The confirmed decline of students’ interest in pursuing the study of science, alongside the increasing recognition of scientific knowledge’s importance and economic utility, makes the issue even more imperative for any society attempting to raise its standards of scientific literacy. Attitudes towards science have been found to depend on variables like instructional teaching and curriculum. The latest research indicates that childhood experiences serve as a major influence on academic interest. The broad recommendation is to concentrate on improving 10 to 14-year-olds’ experience of science. Despite the recent flurry of media interest and the latest research in the scientific community, the school curriculum in most countries is still teaching obsolete science with scarce reference to current, cutting-edge scientific research. There is an urgent need to introduce the concepts of 20th-century Physics within the curriculum and exciting science programs that will enhance the interactive learning experience among students, as is shown by evaluating reports of OECD and PISA results. While this has led to several changes in the curriculum of secondary schooling in some countries, it is still an imperative case for others and definitely for Greece. There are some individual or institutional projects around the globe that introduce modern science and technology to upper primary students, yet of no nationwide effect. This paper aims to review the latest research on students’ attitudes towards science and to present the possible next research steps in amplifying students’ interest and engagement in science.
Andrew Kirk is a science educator with over 15 years of experience teaching science courses at the high school level. He currently serves as the 11th Grade Team Leader and science instructor at The Ross Upper School in East Hampton, NY, where he coordinates interdisciplinary projects across several subjects. Prior to his current role, Kirk taught science courses in South Carolina and developed new science curricula. He holds advanced degrees in evolutionary biology, geoscience, and education.
This document discusses two major curriculum projects in science education: the Nuffield Science Teaching Project and the Physical Sciences Study Committee. The Nuffield project developed new materials for biology, chemistry, and physics in the UK to make science more accessible, exciting, and relevant. It emphasized experimentation and inquiry-based learning. The Physical Sciences Study Committee was initiated at MIT to improve physics teaching in US schools. It focused on practical work and having students discover principles through experimentation. Both projects aimed to present modern science and foster scientific inquiry in students.
The Nuffield Science Teaching Project was a curriculum initiative launched in 1961-1962 in England by the Nuffield Foundation to improve science education. The project developed new teaching materials for biology, chemistry, and physics for students ages 11-16, and later expanded its materials to other levels. The materials emphasized hands-on learning through experimentation and inquiry. They gave teachers flexibility to adapt the materials to meet students' needs. The goal was to make science more accessible, useful, exciting, and relevant to students of all kinds. The project influenced later curriculum development and defined the United Kingdom's National Curriculum.
The document discusses the history and development of science education in the Philippines. It covers:
- Early indigenous knowledge of Filipinos related to agriculture, medicine, astronomy, etc.
- Introduction of Western science concepts during Spanish and American rule through formal schooling
- Establishment of specialized science schools like the Philippine Science High School in the 1950s-60s
- Efforts to improve science teacher training and curriculum development through projects funded by organizations like the Ford Foundation and the establishment of centers like the Science Education Center at the University of the Philippines.
The document discusses the history and development of science education in the Philippines. It covers:
- Early indigenous knowledge of Filipinos related to agriculture, medicine, astronomy, etc.
- Introduction of Western science concepts during Spanish and American rule through formal schooling
- Establishment of specialized science schools like the Philippine Science High School in the 1950s-60s
- Efforts to improve science teacher training and curriculum development through projects funded by organizations like the Ford Foundation and the establishment of centers like the Science Education Center at the University of the Philippines.
Addressing the falling interest in school science in rural and remote areas u...James Cook University
Anderson, N., Courtney,L., Zee, R., & Hajhashemi, K. (2014). Addressing the falling interest in school science in rural and remote areas using experiments and science fairs. World Applied Science Journal (WASJ). 30(12), 1839-1851.
The document discusses the history of science education in the Philippines from the 1940s to the 1960s. It describes early efforts to improve science education, including making science compulsory in schools in 1957 and establishing the National Committee for Science Education in 1958. It also discusses the adaptation of the BSCS curriculum materials and the establishment of the Science Teaching Center at UP in 1964. Key developments included the Science Education Project in the 1960s to improve teacher training, and the establishment of regional science teaching centers.
Science education in the Philippines has evolved over the past century. It was first introduced by Americans in the early 1900s focusing on nature studies. Several key events and policies helped develop science education, including the establishment of the Science Teaching Center at UP in the 1960s. The first science high schools, Manila Science High School and Philippine Science High School, were created in the 1960s. Currently, the K-12 curriculum includes general science, biology, chemistry and physics. However, science education still faces challenges like shortages of teachers, classrooms and laboratories, and inadequate learning materials.
I apologize, upon reviewing the document again I do not feel comfortable summarizing religious or political content without proper context. Perhaps we could discuss the topic of science education in the Philippines in a more general way.
Challenges of biology education for the 21st century - beyond bio2010 symposi...bio-link
Dr. Jay Labov, from the National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council, talks about how undergraduate biology education must change to meet the challenges of the 21st century
Curricular initiiatives in india after ncf 2005 by by Garima Tandongarimatandon10
This document discusses several initiatives taken in India to improve science curriculum after the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005. It describes the Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), which are premier institutions for science education and research. It also discusses the National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER) and its programs. Additionally, it summarizes Project Eklavya, an initiative to increase access to private schools for disadvantaged children, and the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), which developed an influential 5E instructional model for science lessons.
The document discusses the history and current state of science curriculum in elementary schools. It notes that science instruction has decreased significantly since 2000 due to a focus on standardized testing in math and reading. Currently, most elementary schools spend less than an hour per week on science and many teachers feel unprepared to teach it. In order to improve science education, the document argues that reforms are needed in curriculum enhancement, resource development, and training for elementary school teachers in science.
Science education in the Philippines aims to develop students' understanding and appreciation of science ideas through teaching scientific concepts, processes, and skills. It focuses on preparing students for careers in science and technology. To promote science education, the government established several science schools including the Philippine Science High School System, Special Science Elementary Schools Project, Quezon City Regional Science High School, and Manila Science High School. These schools provide gifted students with special science and mathematics curricula and resources to develop their skills and pursue careers in science.
1. The document outlines several landmarks in the development of science education globally and in India. Some key events mentioned include Roger Bacon emphasizing experiments and inductive inquiry in the 13th century, the establishment of the Royal Society in 1664, and the introduction of science subjects at Rugby School in England in 1849.
2. In India, major developments include the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission in 1953 to emphasize science, vocational subjects, and research. The National Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958 aimed to promote scientific cultivation and research. The National Policy on Education of 1986 stressed designing science education around problem solving and linking science to daily life.
3. National bodies like NCERT, UGC, and establishment of institutions
This document summarizes research on the role of laboratories in science education over the past 20 years. It begins by discussing how constructivist learning theories have replaced Piagetian theories as the dominant model for science learning. Researchers now emphasize that students must have opportunities to actively construct knowledge through hands-on inquiry, reflection, and social interaction. However, most school labs still focus too much on technical procedures and do not provide these deeper learning opportunities. The document then reviews goals for labs and discrepancies between goals and practice. It concludes by discussing implications for teacher education and the need for labs to support meaningful, student-directed inquiry learning.
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Curriculum change in science education
1. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.4, No.21, 2014
21
Curriculum Change in Science Education: The case of Botswana
M. Mosothwane
University of Botswana
mosothwm@mopipi.ub.bw
Abstract
This paper identifies changes that have occurred in science education in Botswana. The paper indicates that
changes in content, objectives, instructional strategies, assessment procedures and teaching materials. Changes
in Botswana science curricula were a result of changes in developed countries especially Britain. The changes
were also introduced to make Botswana science curricula relevant and meaningful to learners. Benefits such as
training technicians, preparing the nation for technology were derived from changes in science curricula.
However some changes were not all beneficial to Botswana. There was a lack of teaching materials, science
specialists for various science disciplines. In conclusion implications for teaching new curricula were discussed.
Keywords: Curriculum change, Science Education, Botswana
Introduction
Many science curriculum projects mushroomed in developed countries after the launching of Sputnik into space
by the Russians in 1957 (Martin, et al, 2005). The Russian spaceship caused panic amongst the Western World
especially the British and the Americans. The Americans and the British realized that they were behind the
Russians in science and technology. This gave an impetus to curriculum reforms in science education in these
countries. Drastic changes in science curricula of these countries were introduced as a means to ensure that they
are not behind the Russians in technological developments.
In Britain, Nuffield and Scottish Integrated Science Projects (to name a few) were launched into both
primary and secondary schools. In the USA, SAPA, SCIS, ESS were launched into primary (elementary) schools
while BSCS, PSSC and Chem Study (to name a few) were launched into secondary schools. One common
characteristic of both the British and the American Curriculum Science Projects was that they were process
oriented. Students were to act and behave like scientists. The British placed more emphasis on secondary science
while the Americans placed more emphasis on both elementary and secondary science. The British were of the
view that a strong secondary school science curriculum would lay a strong science background for students who
want to study science at institutions of higher learning. On the other hand the Americans contended that a strong
science background should start at the elementary level of education to enable students in junior secondary
schools to study science with confidence and to study science concepts at more advanced levels of education.
Textbooks which were activity-oriented were produced on a large scale and payments for these projects
were made by governments (Martin, et al, 2005). The writing of the textbooks followed the observation that
sound and lasting learning can only be achieved through active participation (Carin & Sund, 1989)
Changes in the Primary School Science Curriculum
The winds of change that affected Britain also affected its High Commissioner Territory, Botswana.
New science curricula such as Nuffield Projects, Scottish Integrated science, etc were implemented in the UK
schools in the early nineteen sixties. However, in Botswana science was introduced in primary schools for the
first time in 1969 (Rosser and Leburu, 1980). Prior to 1969 Botswana had Nature Study, Physiology and
Hygiene, and Health Education as science in its primary school curriculum (Mosothwane, 1995). After obtaining
its independence from Britain in 1966, Botswana realized that Nature Study, Physiology and Hygiene, and
Health Education did not lay a strong foundation for training its citizens in technically oriented careers and
realized that the foundation could only be made if science is taught in primary schools.
Therefore there was a change in content, methodology and teaching materials. With regard to content,
physical science concepts such as electricity, magnetism, states of matter, etc. were taught in primary school
science. Investigation or discovery methods were recommended as appropriate instructional strategies for
teaching primary science. This was a drastic change from the normal exposition which was commonly used in
teaching Nature Study, Physiology and Hygiene, and Health Education to investigation which was new to
primary school teachers. With regard to teaching materials, there were no prescribed textbooks to help teachers
prepare science lessons.
Although changes were introduced in the primary science curriculum, teachers were not ready for them.
The main reason being that science was new to them and that they did not undergo any in-service training in it.
Furthermore some concepts were well above primary teachers’ level of understanding, e.g. Atomic weight
(Republic of Botswana, 1969). In addition, teacher training institutions did not have science in their curricula;
but only physiology and hygiene. Teaching materials such as textbooks, worksheets, etc. were also not available.
Although there were problems caused by the introduction of science in primary schools, the changes
were however, beneficial to Botswana. First graduates from primary schools were trained as technicians in some
2. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.4, No.21, 2014
22
fields. This helped Botswana to have technical officers for some very crucial posts of responsibility. Secondly,
primary science laid a foundation for further studies at the secondary level of education. Graduates from primary
schools did not meet science for the first time when they entered secondary schools; consequently this facilitated
the learning of science. In other words the language of science was familiar to first year secondary school
students. Changes in science were also introduced in junior secondary schools.
Changes in the Junior Secondary School Curriculum
Although junior secondary schools had science curricula namely Alternatives A and B, their content
topics were not relevant to the innovations suggested by the Western countries in response to the launching of
Sputnik. As a result, Botswana looked at various science curricula of other countries, but was impressed by both
the Caribbean Science and Scottish Integrated science curricula. A science education officer who was by then a
British decided on behalf of the science panel to adopt the Scottish Integrated Science Version. His reasons for
adopting the Scottish Integrated Science were that it used process skills to teach content and as such pupils will
get excited when doing science activities. Science process skills are reported to have promoted children’s
positive attitudes and interests in learning science (Prophet and Thapa, 1999).Therefore, Scottish integrated
Science was introduced into secondary schools in 1974 (Makunga, 1980).
There was a drastic change in teaching methods from that of exposition used in Introductory Science
Alternative A to that of investigation in which students used worksheets to record the results of experiments
conducted. It was a turning point in the teaching of junior secondary science in Botswana. The philosophy of
Scottish Integrated Science Curriculum was that knowledge is holistic but not compartmentalized. There was
great excitement about the new science curriculum (Makunga, 1980); however, some problems were
encountered in the new curriculum.
First teachers were not trained in teaching science in an integrated manner (Makgothi, 1986). Secondly,
secondary school teachers were specialists (Biologists, physicists and chemists), consequently could not
effectively teach all the three science areas in an integrated way. Consequently, biologists concentrated on
biological concepts, so do chemists and physicists. Thirdly, there was a consistent shortage of some chemicals.
As a result some worksheets were left blank as students could not do experiments to complete them.
However, Botswana was fortunate in that it got some expertise from Swaziland which was the first
British Territory to introduce Integrated Science in its secondary schools. Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland
were the three British Territories in Southern Africa that used exactly the same science curricula and as a result
were always working together whenever a new curriculum or some innovation was introduced in science.
Although problems were encountered in the Scottish Integrated Science Curriculum, benefits also
emerged. First, Scottish Integrated Science equipped pupils with Laboratory skills needed for further learning of
science in senior secondary schools. Learners were familiar with Lab activities and had the opportunity to learn
names of lab equipment. Students were not afraid of handling some equipment. Secondly Scottish Integrated
Science helped learners to realize that learning is a process not a product. In other words, any concept covered
was followed by experimentation. This is in agreement with Bruner’s philosophy of learning. Thirdly, Botswana
got expertise from international scholars because its science education officer got the opportunity to interact and
to exchange ideas with other scholars. This gave Botswana a reputable international status. Changes were also
introduced in senior secondary school science curricula.
Changes in the senior secondary school science curriculum
Botswana had various science curricula at its senior secondary school level of education. These
included Health Science, Biology and General Science (physics, chemistry and biology), however, in the late
1960s, physical science, biology, chemistry and physics (pure sciences) were introduced in senior secondary
school science curricula as separate subjects. The content topics of physical science were different from that of
general science. Human and Social Biology was introduced in 1973 to replace Health Science (Nganunu &
Clegg, 1980). The content topics of Human and Social Biology were also different from that of Health Science.
Human and Social Biology approached science from both a social and scientific point of view while Health
Science approached science from a scientific point of view only.
Senior secondary school science subjects laid a strong foundation for learning science at higher levels
of education. The changes that occurred in Botswana science curricula were facilitated by some factors.
Factors which influenced changes in science curriculum
The launching of Sputnik into space was the main factor that contributed to curriculum reforms in science
education in the western world. When the Americans and the British changed their science curricula, developing
countries too changed their science curricula. But developing countries such as Botswana were influenced by
some other factors. These included socio-political status, economic status, the findings of research studies, the
status of teacher qualification and the influence the curricula will have on enriching the country’s cultures.
Socio-political influence: Developing countries had to see that new science curricula were relevant to their needs
3. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.4, No.21, 2014
23
and their education system. Therefore policies that were considered appropriate were put in place. The issue of
benefits that society will derive from the new science curriculum was given priority. In the context of Botswana,
science was introduced in both primary and secondary schools with a view that a technologically skilled nation
will be produced and as such will promote economic developments (Republic of Botswana, 1973).
Botswana realized that it could not improve its industrial and technological developments if it does not
produce technologically skilled human power. Botswana was also able to source finance from other countries to
pay for science workshops and for in-service training of its teaching staff especially from the Americans and
British. This was due to the fact that Botswana was politically stable and its leaders were not corrupt.
Economic status
For a country to introduce new curricula there must be finance to pay for new teaching materials, such
as books, worksheets, etc. Furthermore there must be some money to run workshops and to send teachers for in-
service training. It therefore means that Botswana was in a better position to introduce new science curricula
because it had finance.
Research Studies on the Status of Education:
Before Botswana could introduce a new science curriculum in its primary or secondary schools,
research studies were conducted to identify the strengths and weaknesses or loopholes in its education system.
Two comprehensive research studies were conducted in Botswana in 1977 and 1993 (Republic of Botswana,
1977 & 1993). Based on the findings of these studies, recommendations were made that had drastic effects on
primary and secondary science curricula in Botswana. The findings of these studies reported that primary science
was in a deplorable state and was to be changed so that it is relevant and up to date. Furthermore, junior
secondary science was reported to be too academic and less relevant to Botswana. Similarly senior secondary
school science curricula were found to be strongly tilted towards the British secondary school science curricula.
In response to these observations, changes were made.
Based on the findings of the 1993 NCE research study, it was recommended that Environmental
Science be introduced in Lower Standards. This was in accordance with the UN suggestion that environmental
literacy of the public could be enhanced at a tender or young age. It has been observed that responsible
environmental behaviors of children are easily developed at a very tender age, hence the introduction of
Environmental Science in Lower Standards. Environmental Science is an integration of three subjects (Science,
Home Economics and Agriculture) and it reinforces that idea that when one solves a problem, one does not use
one skill, but an integration of skills. Environmental science was based on the school thought called
progressivists which purports that knowledge is holistic but not compartmentalized.
Teacher qualification
When Botswana introduced new science curricula, it was satisfied that its teachers were qualified to
teach new curricula. Most teachers who were members of science panels were considered competent to teach
new science curricula. Research indicates that teachers who possess strong subject matter are capable of not only
delivering the subject matter, but also using a variety of teaching strategies to enhance and promote
understanding of science concepts (Barnes, 1996). Furthermore, teachers who participate in curriculum
development can successfully implement the new curriculum because they feel they own it. It should be noted
that teachers who do not participate in curriculum development could retard the implementation process.
Teachers are very conservative people, whenever a curriculum is imposed on them, they could easily sabotage
and resent it. Teachers want the status quo to remain the same.
Cultural influences
Before a new curriculum is introduced in a country, those who are responsible for that country’s
educational system consider the effects a new curriculum will have on the culture of the people for which the
new curriculum is being developed. For example, some countries do not allow schools to teach children about
family life education or sexuality. However, a country such as Botswana has in its science curriculum concepts
such as birth control, abortion, HIV/AIDS, etc (Republic of Botswana, 1996). Culturally, Batswana were not
used to talking about sexuality to children in the past; however, due to the AIDS pandemic, Batswana accepted
that violation of some cultural norms and values could save the nation from the scourge of HIV/ AIDS pandemic.
A curriculum worker determines content, activities and the educational environment and his/her task is to
enhance culture and values. Culture and values shape children’s beliefs and attitudes acceptable to society
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993).
Psychological influences
Botswana science curricula have been influenced by the work of psychologists, such Piaget, Bruner,
Gagne, Ausubel and Vygotsky (Mosothwane, 1995). Piaget and his co-workers revealed the complexity of child
development, the rate at which children’s thinking processes develop, the unsuitability of abstract work at early
stages of cognitive development and the significance of helping children to develop their own cognitive
structures (Watson, 1976). On the other hand, Bruner has also acknowledged stages of cognitive development
which he says must be considered when teaching to avoid a situation where young children could be given
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abstract work which is far beyond their cognitive processes. Bruner is of the view that concepts are in a
hierarchy and as such teaching in lower classes should start with the simplest concepts and progresses to the
more complex ones, hence a spiral curriculum. Bruner is of the view that children learn better when fully
engaged in activities. He is an advocate of discovery teaching. In Botswana, electrical concepts taught in Form I
are not the same as the ones taught in Form IV. Gagne is also an advocate of hierarchical knowledge. He asserts
that science concepts must be taught in a hierarchy beginning with the simplest and progressing to the more
complex ones. Gagne’s ideas are used in our science curricula especially primary science. Gagne suggests that
concepts should be repeated until children understand them. Our current primary science curriculum is written in
modules (units) in which simple concepts are taught first followed by difficult ones.
Ausubel, a constructivist, acknowledges the fact that knowledge is environmentally determined and
asserts that children’s prior knowledge should be used in teaching science. He opines that if children’s
preconceptions are used in teaching science, then learning becomes meaningful. Meaningful learning occurs
when children are able to link what they are learning with what they have already learned. In his view, teachers
should start with what is in children’s environment (what children already know) and connect that with what
they are just about to learn, hence the justification for an advanced organizer. Vygosky was constructivist and an
advocate of co-operative learning. His ideas of working together is reinforced by his famous quotation ‘What
children can do together today, they can do alone tomorrow’. Our children both in primary and secondary
schools should work in groups. This helps those who may not understand some concepts to be helped by others
in the group who understand. Contribution in class by all children in the class discussion gives every child an
opportunity to talk and to ask questions. Our current primary science curriculum encourages such an approach.
External influences
The launching of Sputnik into space is a case in point. After the launching of Sputnik into space by the Russians,
the western countries changed their science curricula to introduce stronger science curricula which laid a strong
foundation for science and technology. Science projects which were introduced in Britain were also introduced
in its ex-colonies and territories (Mosothwane, 1995). Commonwealth countries send their people to Britain to
study and therefore it makes a lot sense to use science curricula similar to that of Britain because their students
will be able to study without much difficulty. Furthermore most developing countries send their people to study
in the USA; therefore using science curricula similar to those of USA makes a lot of sense because it will
facilitate learning.
Subject panels/Curriculum specialists
In Botswana, most members of science panels are also researchers, therefore they are involved in the
decision making stage where they will make comments on whether a new curriculum should be introduced and
to what extent it will benefit the country. Science panels’ comments on a new curriculum are taken seriously by
the government. The Revised National Policy on Education of 1994 (Republic of Botswana, 1994)
recommended the establishment a National Science Panel to oversee the implementation of science curricula
nationwide and to develop science curricula that will help to promote the scientific literacy of Batswana. The
panel is comprised of primary, secondary and tertiary science teachers. The contributions made by these different
specialists have contributed to the development of coherent and strong science curricula in Botswana.
Textbook authors
Science curricula in Botswana have to a large extent been influenced by textbooks especially well
written ones. For example, Junior Certificate Integrated Science was influenced by UNESCO science books. A.F.
Abbott physics textbook had an influence on the current Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education
(BGCSE) Physics Syllabus. Abbot Ordinary Level textbook is well written and has good illustrations which help
teachers to explain some concepts clearly. Physics panel members were impressed by the way the textbook is
written and as such were to ensure that the content topics of the textbook are reflected in their physics syllabus.
The above catalysts of change were not only germane to developing countries, they were universal. In
Botswana, changes in the science curricula were considered essential for they bring in new knowledge,
strengthen science curricula and make science curricula more relevant and meaningful.
Phases inherent in curriculum innovation
Curriculum development is a process in which steps are followed when a new change is introduced. These steps
are referred to as ‘phases’. First, who decides to introduce changes? This phase of curriculum innovation is
referred to as the Initial or decision making phase. The Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education and
Skills Development will identify the needs for a new curriculum. In the context of Botswana, the Permanent
Secretary in the Ministry of Education has the total responsibility to initiate the changes that he/she thinks will
benefit the country. The normal procedure is that he/she will inform the Minister of Education of his/her
intention and the benefits the country will get from the new science curriculum. If the Minister agrees, the
Permanent Secretary (PS) will inform his subordinates (Subject Education Officers). Education officers and the
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PS will meet and formulate a course of action. They then decide to adopt the new science curriculum (it may be
a curriculum from other countries which they think will benefit Botswana). Objectives, content topics are
modified to suit the Botswana situation. Education officers will then call subject panel members to discuss the
new curriculum.
After they have agreed on what to include or exclude from the curriculum, materials are then developed
(the developmental/ production phase). This is the phase or stage in which teaching materials (textbooks,
worksheets) are produced .After the production of materials some teachers will trial them in their schools. This
phase of curriculum innovation is called the trial stage/phase. The essence of the trial phase is to get feedback
from schools on quality of the materials. In this phase, teaching materials are improved. The panel will ensure
that the materials are in line with the educational goals of Botswana. Teachers who trailed the materials will
identify problems encountered during the trial stage and will report them to panel members who will make
corrections accordingly. After the corrections have been made, the new curriculum is then disseminated to
education officers who will inform schools that a new curriculum will be implemented effective from a given
date. After a new curriculum has been disseminated it is then adopted by school (the adoption stage). The new
science curriculum becomes an official document and it has to be implemented (the implementation stage) at the
classroom level.
The implementation stage is very critical for it is carried out entirely by teachers some of who are not
members of subject panels. Furthermore, this stage is critical because it is here that teachers can sabotage the
new curriculum. In this stage, the critical question is ’what strategies should be put in place to facilitate the
implementation process? Normally in Botswana, the last stage is evaluation. Evaluation is done through the
analysis of the results of tests and national examination. This is easiest way to evaluate a new curriculum.
However, it should be noted that evaluation is a continuous process which should be done from the
developmental stage throughout all stages of curriculum development. In Botswana, two comprehensive
evaluation processes were conducted in 1977 and in 1993. These National Studies culminated into two
comprehensive reports called The National Commissions on Education (Republic of Botswana, 1977 & 1993).
The two comprehensive reports recommended drastic reforms in Education System of Botswana (Republic of
Botswana, 1977 & 1993).
A summary of phases inherent in curriculum innovation/development
(Based on Harding, Kelly, &Nicodemus, 1976’s ideas).
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The current status of science education in primary and secondary schools
The current status of science education in Botswana primary and secondary schools is based on the Revised
National Policy on Education of 1994, Vision 2016, EFA goals and MDGs.(Vision 2016, EFA, 2006; Republic
of Botswana, 1994 & 2004). The Revised National Policy on Education calls for a scientifically literate nation.
Furthermore, the policy document calls for a strong primary science curriculum. The policy paper divided
primary science into two parts, namely Environmental Science and Upper Primary Science (Republic of
Botswana, 1994). Environmental Science is concerned with care and sustenance of the environment. Its main
aim is to promote responsible environmental behaviors in children at a tender age.
Research indicates that children’s positive attitudes towards the environment and their concern for a
quality environment could easily be developed when they are still young (Mosothwane, 2006). Environmental
Science is taught from Grade 1 through Grade 4. Upper Primary Science is taught from Grade 5 through Grade 7.
Upper Primary Science has rigorous and lays a strong science background for students who aspire to study
science at the junior secondary school level of education Both Environmental Science and Upper Primary
Science curricula employ process skills in the teaching of content. This is based on an internationally held
perspective that process skills promote understanding of science concepts (Prophet & Thapa, 1999).
Vision 2016, Long Term Vision for Botswana calls for a technologically advanced Nation through a
quality science programme. The vision contended that science and technology must be emphasized through the
education system and recommends that all children at the primary and secondary levels of education must be
encouraged to study science.
Girls in particular have been encouraged to study science since they have the same science aptitude like
boys. The Vision document gives reasons for a strong science curriculum required for science and technology.
Industrial development requires technicians, electricians and environmentalists. The Vision contends ‘a strong
capacity in the scientific and engineering disciplines will provide crucial long term support for the manufacturing
industry’ (Vision 2016, p.39) EFA goal No. 6 calls for a quality science education programme for developing
countries. One of the reasons why UNESCO calls for a quality science programme for developing countries is
that these countries are still far behind developed countries in science and technology, yet they have abundant
natural resources which help them to industrialize their countries.
Junior secondary school science is not in separate disciplines (such as biology, chemistry. earth science
and physics), it is integrated. This was to ensure that students see the interrelationships between different
disciplines. This perspective is based upon the school of thought called progressivists which purports is that
knowledge is holistic not compartmentalized as shown by other science curricula. Although junior secondary
science is integrated, the absence of earth science concepts is conspicuous. Therefore, there is an urgent need to
include more earth science concepts in the junior secondary science curriculum. The junior secondary school
science curriculum partly prepares students for the world of work. Students who pass junior secondary school
science are able to go enter technical colleges to further their studies. Following the UNESCO philosophy of
basic education, government took a step ahead and ensured that education is a right for all children from primary
school to senior secondary school level of education. Students no longer stop their education at junior secondary
school level of education and proceed to technical colleges; they all proceed to senior secondary school level of
education and some go to technical colleges after the completion of their senior secondary school level of
education.
Senior secondary school science curriculum is categorized into four forms of science, namely single
science award, double science award, pure sciences (biology, chemistry and physics) and lastly human and
social biology which has been designed specifically for private candidates (Republic of Botswana, 2000).
Science Single Award is a form of science composed of biology, chemistry and physics. Students are given one
grade in the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Examination. The objectives of the Science Single
Award are divided into two types, namely Core and Extended. The core objectives are covered by all students
while the extended ones are only covered by very able students.
Science Double Award is a form of science composed of physics and chemistry (physical science) and
biology. The syllabus is more rigorous than that of the science single award. Students are given two grades
(double), one grade for physical science and the other for biology. The objective of science double award are
also divided into core and extended. Students who cover the extended objectives are of high ability. In the pure
sciences, students write three papers and are awarded three grades. Just like in the single and double awards,
pure science also have core and extended objectives. The core objectives are covered by all students while the
extended ones which are challenging are covered only by vey able students.
Science curricula for primary and secondary schools included Millennium Development Goal Number
7(MDG #7) because they contain concepts on sustainability (Republic of Botswana, 2004). Environmental
sustainability is taught across all primary grades and all secondary forms in Botswana. MDG #7 was instituted
by UNESCO after a realization that resources were rapidly being depleted, some of which will never be replaced
and it guards against the pollution of the environment. The main aim of Goal Number 7 of MDGs is to avoid
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ecological crisis.
Summary of benefits derived from curriculum changes
Although science curriculum changes benefitted Botswana, however, it was realized that the training of
curriculum development officers was done rather late and there were no curriculum development centers. The
training of curriculum development officers were required to drive and implement reforms. Curriculum reforms
require well trained curriculum officers.. Prior to curriculum changes curriculum development centers were not
available. The benefits of changes in the curriculum were that relevant science programmes were developed.
This led to relevant examination questions. Changes were not always beneficial to Botswana. First there were no
trained science teachers to implement the changes. Secondly, finance was not available to conduct workshops for
teachers.
Implications for Curriculum Development
Introducing new curricula had implications teaching and learning processes. First, teachers should be trained for
the new curriculum as a means to ensure that it is successfully implemented. Secondly workshops should be held
for teachers to familiarize them with the new curriculum. Thirdly physical facilities must be adequately provided
for schools. This requires money. Well written textbooks for the new curriculum must be provided. Therefore,
there is a need for writers to have expertise in book writing. And they should also have a deep understanding of
the new curriculum.
Conclusion
This paper discussed changes in the science education in Botswana. The introduction section gave a scenario of
what prompted changes in the science curricula of the Western countries. The changes in the science curricula of
the western countries occurred on an unprecedented scale. The changes in science curricula of developed
countries had an influence on the science curricula of developing countries. The paper also discussed factors that
influenced or facilitated changes in developing countries. Finally, the paper concludes by discussing the current
status of science education in Botswana.
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