This document discusses electric current and metallic conductors. It defines current as the rate of flow of electric charge and gives its unit as the ampere. Current density is defined as current per unit cross-sectional area and follows the continuity equation. Metallic conductors allow the flow of electrons known as free or conduction electrons under the influence of an electric field due to their electronic band structure. Mobility and conductivity relate the drift velocity and current density of electrons in a conductor to the applied electric field.
Electromagnetic Theory,coulombs law ,electric field intensity, electric flux density, charge distribution, gauss law, electric potential, relation between e & v, ampere's law, continuity equation, faraday law,Maxwell's law,biot savarat law,motional emf ,static emf ,numericals ,electromagnetic field ,voltage and emf relation ,divergence ,gradient.Application of Ampere’s law : Infinite Sheet Current
The Poynting theorem represents the time rate change of electromagnetic energy within a certain volume plus the time rate of energy flowing out through the boundary surface is equal to the power transferred into the electromagnetic field.
This statement follows the conservation of energy in electromagnetism and is known as the Poynting theorem.
Alternating Current(AC) notes for diploma and Class 12 CBSE board with all important derivation in it. So that the students not need to search derivation any where.
Electromagnetic Theory,coulombs law ,electric field intensity, electric flux density, charge distribution, gauss law, electric potential, relation between e & v, ampere's law, continuity equation, faraday law,Maxwell's law,biot savarat law,motional emf ,static emf ,numericals ,electromagnetic field ,voltage and emf relation ,divergence ,gradient.Application of Ampere’s law : Infinite Sheet Current
The Poynting theorem represents the time rate change of electromagnetic energy within a certain volume plus the time rate of energy flowing out through the boundary surface is equal to the power transferred into the electromagnetic field.
This statement follows the conservation of energy in electromagnetism and is known as the Poynting theorem.
Alternating Current(AC) notes for diploma and Class 12 CBSE board with all important derivation in it. So that the students not need to search derivation any where.
Current Electricity and Effects of CurrentOleepari
Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s law; Resistance, Resistivity,
Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of resistors,
parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life. Heating effect of electric
current and its applications in daily life. Electric power, Interrelation between P, V, I and R
These are the basics of Linear circuit analysis that will help you to strong your basics in this subject.Guideline for this book is 'Electric Circuits, by Nilsson & Riedel 2009'.
Hope this will help you.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptx
Current And Conductor
1. Current And Conductor
Department of Electrical Engineering
GC University, Lahore
Muhammad Salman 14-BSEE-15
Asim Hussain Farooqi 12-BSEE-15
Touseef Ahmed 09 -BSEE-15
Rana Nadeem 11-BSEE-15
2. Contents
1. Current
2. Current Density
3. D 5.1
4. Continuity Of Current
5. D 5.2
6. Metallic Conductor
7. D 5.3
8. D 5.4
3. Electric Current
• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge
through any cross sectional area of the conductor.
• 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Current is denoted by “I”
• 𝐼 =
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡
4. Electric Current Unit
• The SI and base unit of electric current is Ampere’s
• 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
• 1𝐴 =
1𝐶
1𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑠−1
• Ampere
• When one coulomb charge flow through any cross sectional area in
one second then electric will be one Ampere.
5. Conti…
• Electric current is taken as scalar
• Electric current is a SCALAR quantity! Sure it has magnitude and
direction, but it still is a scalar quantity!
• Confusing? Let us see why it is not a vector as Scalar Quantity .
• First let us define a vector! A physical quantity having both
magnitude and a specific direction is a vector quantity.
• Is that all? No! This definition is incomplete! A vector quantity also
follows the triangle law of vector addition.
6. Conti…
• For example
• What will be the total displacement ?
• 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0
• Because last vector head joined with first vector tail.
Home Uni
Market
7. Conti…
• Now consider a triangular loop in an electric circuit with vertices A,B
and C.
• The current flows from A→ B, B→C and C→A.
• Now had current been a vector quantity, following the triangle law of
vector addition, the net current in the loop should have been zero!
• But that is not the case, right? You wont be having a very pleasant
experience if you touch an exposed high current loop
8. Result
• So current does not follow triangular vector addition that’s why
current is a scalar quantity not a vector
9. Current Density
• Electric current density is electric current per unit cross sectional area
of the conductor.
• It is represented by “J”
• 𝐽 =
𝐼
𝐴
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Magnitude
10. Unit
• Unit of electric current density is ampere per meter square.
• 𝐽 =
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟2
• Electric current density is a vector quantity .
• Its direction is same as electric current.
• In vector form
• 𝐼 = 𝑱. 𝑨
• 𝐼 = 𝐽𝐴𝐶𝑂𝑆∅
J I
11. Conti..
• Current density, J, yields current in Amps when it is integrated over
a cross-sectional area. The assumption is that the direction of J is
normal to the surface, and so we would write:
12. Current Density as a Vector Field
n
In reality, the direction of current flow may not be normal to the surface
in question, so we treat
current density as a vector, and write the incremental surface through the
small surface in the usual way:
where S = n da
Then, the current through a large surface
is found through the integral:
13. Relation of Current to Charge Velocity
Consider a charge Q, occupying volume v, moving in the
positive x direction at velocity vx
In terms of the volume charge density, we may write:
Suppose that in time t, the charge moves through a distance x = L =
vx t
The motion of the charge represents a
current given by:
14. Relation of Current Density to Charge Velocity
The current density is then:
So in general form
15. Continuity of Current
Conservation of Charge:-
“The Principle of conservation of charge
states that Charge can be neither created nor
destroyed, Although equal amounts of positive and
negative charge may be simultaneously created,
obtained by separation, destroyed or lost by
recombination”.
16. •Equation of Continuity:-
“The total current flowing out of some volume is equal
to the rate of decrease of charge within that volume”.
• Let us consider a volume V bounded by a surface S. A net
charge Q exists within this region. If a net current I flows
across the surface out of this region, from the principle of
conservation of
17. charge this current can be equated to the time rate of
decrease of charge within this volume. Similarly, if a net
current flows into the region, the charge in the volume must
increase at a rate equal to the current. Thus we can write the
current through closed surface is
18. • This outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a
decrease of positive charge( or perhaps an increase of
negative charge) within the closed surface.
• If the charge inside the closed surface is denoted by Qi, then
the rate of decrease is –dQi/dt and principle of conservation
of charge requires.
19. • The above equation is the integral form of the
continuity equation, and the differential, or point, form is
obtained by using the Divergence Theorem to change the
surface integral into volume integral:
20. • We next represent the enclosed charge Qi by the volume
integral of the charge density,
• If we agree to keep the surface constant, the derivative
becomes a partial derivative and may appear within the
integral,
21. • Since the expression is true for any volume, however small, it is
true for incremental volume,
• From which we have our point form of the continuity equation,
22. • This equation indicates that the current, or charge per second,
diverging from a small volume or per unit volume is equal to
the rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.
•Numerical Example:
• Let us consider a current density that is radially outward and
decreases exponentially with time,
23.
24. • The velocity is greater at r=6 than it is at r=5.
• We conclude that a current density that is inversely
proportional to r.
• A charge density that is inversely proportional to r².
• A velocity and total current that are proportional to r.All
quantities vary as e^-t.
27. METALLIC CONDUCTORS
• The behavior of the electrons surrounding the positive
atomic nucleus in terms of the total energy of the electron
with respect to a zero reference level for an electron at an
infinite distance from the nucleus.
• The total energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies, it is convenient to associate these energy values
with orbits surrounding the nucleus, the more negative
energies corresponding to orbits of smaller radius.
• According to the quantum theory, only certain discrete
energy levels, or energy states, are permissible in a given
atom, and an electron must therefore absorb or emit
discrete amounts of energy, or quanta, in passing from one
level to another.
28. Cont……..
• In a crystalline solid, such as a metal or a diamond, atoms
are packed closely together, many more electrons are
present, and many more permissible energy levels are
available because of the interaction forces between adjacent
atoms.
• We find that the allowed energies of electrons are grouped
into broad ranges, or “bands,” each band consisting of very
numerous, closely spaced, discrete levels.
• At a temperature of absolute zero, the normal solid also has
every level occupied, starting with the lowest and
proceeding in order until all the electrons are located. The
electrons with the highest (least negative) energy levels, the
valence electrons, are located in the valence band.
29.
30. Metallic conductor:
• If there are permissible higher-energy levels in the valence
band, or if the valence band merges smoothly into a
conduction band
• Additional kinetic energy may be given to the valence
electrons by an external field, resulting in an electron flow.
The solid is called a metallic conductor.
31. Insulator:
• If the electron with the greatest energy occupies the top
level in the valence band and a gap exists between the
valence band and the conduction band, then the electron
cannot accept additional energy in small amounts, and the
material is an insulator.
• Note that if a relatively large amount of energy can be
transferred to the electron, it may be sufficiently excited to
jump the gap into the next band where conduction can
occur easily. Here the insulator breaks down.
32. Semiconductors:
• An intermediate condition occurs when only a small
“forbidden region” separates the two bands, as
illustrated by Figure . Small amounts of energy in the
form of heat, light, or an electric field may raise the
energy of the electrons at the top of the filled band and
provide the basis for conduction.
• These materials are insulators which display many of
the properties of conductors and are called
semiconductors.
33.
34. METALLIC CONDUCTORS
• In conductor valence electrons, or conduction, or free,
electrons, move under the influence of an electric field. With
a field E, an electron having a charge 𝑄 = −𝑒 will
experience a force
𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸
35. METALLIC CONDUCTORS
(cont.…)
• In free space electron move and continuously increase its
velocity.
The velocity is drift velocity which is related to the electric
field intensity by the mobility of the electron µ (mu)
𝑉𝑑= −𝜇 𝑒 𝐸
• The unit of mobility is square meter per volt-second
36. Mobility of Metallic Conductor
Metallic Conductor Value (
𝑚2
𝑣𝑠
)
Aluminum 0.0012
Copper 0.0032
Silver 0.0056
37. METALLIC CONDUCTORS
(cont.…)
• For these good conductors, a drift velocity of a few
centimeters per second is sufficient to produce a noticeable
temperature rise and can cause the wire to melt if the heat
cannot be quickly removed by thermal conduction or
radiation.
• As we know that
𝐽 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑉𝑑 …….(1)
𝑉𝑑= −𝜇 𝑒 𝐸
Put value of 𝑉𝑑 in eq.1
𝐽 = −𝜌 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒 𝐸
38. Relationship between J and E
• The relationship between J and E for a metallic conductor,
however is specified by the conductivity 𝜎 (sigma)
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
Where 𝜎 is measured in Siemens per meter (
𝑆
𝑚
). One Siemens
is the basic unit of conductance in the SI system and is defined
as one ampere per volt. The unit of conductance was called the
mho and symbolized by an interval 𝛀 The reciprocal unit of
resistance, which we call the Ohm.
39. Conductivity of Metallic Conductor
Metallic Conductor Value (
𝑺
𝒎
)
Aluminum 3.82x107
Copper 5.80x107
Silver 6.17x107
40. METALLIC CONDUCTORS
(cont.…)
• Conductivity can be expressed in term of the charge density
and electric mobility as
• 𝜎 = 𝜌 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒
Higher temperature infers a greater crystalline lattice
vibration, more impeded electron progress for a given electric
field strength, lower drift velocity, lower mobility, lower
conductivity and higher resistivity.
41. Cylindrical Representation of conductor
Let J and E are in uniform, are as they are in
cylindrical region as shown in figure
𝐼 =
𝑆
𝐽. 𝑑𝑠
So 𝐼 = 𝐽𝑆
And 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = − 𝑏
𝑎
𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
= −𝐸
𝑏
𝑎
𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
= −𝐸. 𝐿 𝑏𝑎
= 𝐸. 𝐿 𝑎𝑏
As 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐿
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐽 = 𝜎
𝑉
𝐿
𝑉 =
𝐿
𝜎𝑆
𝐼
42. Conti….
• According to ohm law
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑅 =
𝐼𝐿
𝜎𝑆
𝑅 =
𝐿
𝜎𝑆
When field are non-uniform
𝑅 =
𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝐼
=
− 𝑏
𝑎
𝐸𝑑𝐿
𝑆
𝜎𝐸. 𝑑𝑠