Cultural Differences in Parenting.docxRunning Head CULTURAL D.docx

Cultural Differences in Parenting.docx
Running Head: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PARENTING
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CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PARENTING
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Annotated Bibliography
Chang, M. (2007). Cultural differences in parenting styles and
their effects on teens' self-esteem, perceived parental
relationship satisfaction, and self-satisfaction (Doctoral
dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University).
This resource looks at the influence different types of parenting
may have on children. Using a study involving 156 teenagers
from New Jersey, the research determines this effect on

teenagers’ self-esteem and overall satisfaction with themselves
and their parents. In many cases, a parent’s role in their
relationship with their children plays a huge part in their
development. The results of the research showed that there was
no significant disparity between race and parenting but there
was significant difference indicating a huge difference in
parenting between races.
Chao, R., & Kanatsu, A. (2008). Beyond socioeconomics:
Explaining ethnic group differences in parenting through
cultural and immigration processes. Applied Development
Science, 12(4), 181-187.
This study examines culture and socioeconomic factors in
understanding the difference in monitoring, behavioural control
and warmth. Some of the variables of this study include the
education and employment levels of parents, the number of
siblings in a home and homeownership among many others. The
study was conducted on 591 European Americans, 123 African
Americans, 1614 Asian Americans and 597 Latino students in
9th grade. Differences were found between different groups and
explained as factors of ethnicity and nationality.
Ho, C., Bluestein, D. N., & Jenkins, J. M. (2008). Cultural
differences in the relationship between parenting and children's
behaviour. Developmental psychology, 44(2), 507.
The study in this paper observed the relationship between
ethnicity and children’s affinity for aggression and emotional
problems. Data from 14990 children were collected and
analysed and an association was noted between parental
harshness and aggression in children. However, the relationship
between parental harshness with the emotional problems of the
child did not differ with regards to different ethnic groups.
Shapka, J. D., & Law, D. M. (2013). Does one size fit all?
Ethnic differences in parenting behaviours and motivations for
adolescent engagement in cyberbullying. Journal of youth and
adolescence, 42(5), 723-738.
This paper was important because it brings a modern
problem which is cyberbullying on adolescents and its

association to different ethnic groups. Parenting behaviours and
their effect on cyber aggression were explored. Adolescents
completed self-report questionnaires about their engagement in
cyberbullying, perceptions of their parents’ behaviours about
their online activities, their motivations for cyberbullying, as
well as several other relevant psychosocial and demographic
variables.
Synthesis Essay
Around the world, different people have different styles of
parenting. In some cultures, children are expected to be quiet at
all times and respect their elders while in other children are
expected to be expressive and to speak up with the aim of being
their independence. In this paper, we analyse the different types
of parenting across different ethnic groups with relation to child
behaviour on factors such as aggression, self-esteem and overall
satisfaction with themselves and their parents.
Different researchers argue differently about this topic.
For instance, Chang (2007), observed that there was no
significant difference between a child confidence level and the
type of parenting at home. Chao (2008) on the other hand
observed that socioeconomic factors played a key role in
children’s behaviour. Ho (2008) concluded that the relationship
between parental harshness with the emotional problems of the
child did not differ with regards to different ethnic groups.
Lastly, Shapka (2013) observed that while cyber aggression was
a factor of the parenting conditions at home, it was not a factor
of ethnic differences. All these researchers collected data from
children at different levels of growth and development making
the data unbiased and consistent.
The conclusion is that although parenting methods may differ
from different ethnic groups, there is no one group that exhibits
one strong character than the rest. It is not possible to say for
instance, that children brought up with an authoritarian form of
parenting have more self-esteem or aggression than the rest.
While it is important for children to be brought up within their

cultures, it really does not impact how they end up behaving
towards other children or adults at school or in the playground.
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Council for Standards in Human Service Education
(CSHSE) Standards Covered in this Text
The Council for Standards in Human Service Education
(CSHSE) developed ten national standards that guide
Human Services departments and help students understand the
knowledge, values, and skills of developing human
service practitioners. These guidelines reflect the
interdisciplinary nature of human services.
Standard Chapter
Professional History
Understanding and Mastery. . .
Historical roots of human services 4
Creation of human services profession
Historical and current legislation affecting services delivery
How public and private attitudes influence legislation and the
interpretation of policies related to

human services
Differences between systems of governance and economics 4, 5
Exposure to a spectrum of political ideologies 12, 13
Skills to analyze and interpret historical data application in
advocacy and social changes
Human Systems
Theories of human development
How small groups are utilized, theories of group dynamics, and
group facilitation skills 3, 6, 13
Changing family structures and roles
Organizational structures of communities
1, 2, 4, 11,
12, 15
An understanding of capacities, limitations, and resiliency of
human systems 2, 6, 14
Emphasis on context and the role of diversity in determining
and meeting human needs 1, 2
Processes to effect social change through advocacy (e.g.,
community development, community and
grassroots organizing, local and global activism)
4, 8, 11, 12,
14
Processes to analyze, interpret, and effect policies and laws at
local, state, and national levels 2, 12
Human Services Delivery Systems
Range and characteristics of human services delivery systems
and organizations 10
Range of populations served and needs addressed by human
services
Major models used to conceptualize and integrate prevention,

maintenance, intervention,
rehabilitation, and healthy functioning
Economic and social class systems including systemic causes of
poverty 13, 15
Political and ideological aspects of human services 12
International and global influences on services delivery 15
Skills to effect and influence social policy 11, 12
Adapted from the October 2010 Revised CSHSE National
Standards
Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE)
Standards Covered in this Text
3
Standard Chapter
Information Management
Obtain information through interviewing, active listening,
consultation with others, library or other
research, and the observation of clients and systems
7
Recording, organizing, and assessing the relevance, adequacy,
accuracy, and validity of information
provided by others
Compiling, synthesizing, and categorizing information 7, 9
Disseminating routine and critical information to clients,
colleagues, or other members of the related
services system that is provided in written or oral form and in a
timely manner

9
Maintaining client confidentiality and appropriate use of client
data
Using technology for word processing, sending e-mail, and
locating and evaluating information 7, 9
Performing elementary community needs assessment 1, 7
Conducting basic program evaluation
Utilizing research findings and other information for community
education and public relations and
using technology to create and manage spreadsheets and
databases
Planning and Evaluating
Analysis and assessment of the needs of clients or client groups
1, 5
Skills to develop goals and design and implement a plan of
action 8
Skills to evaluate the outcomes of the plan and the impact on
the client or client group
Program design, implementation, and evaluation 5–10
Interventions and Direct Services
Theory and knowledge bases of prevention, intervention, and
maintenance strategies to achieve
maximum autonomy and functioning
Skills to facilitate appropriate direct services and interventions
related to specific client or client group
goals
Knowledge and skill development in case management, intake
interviewing, individual counseling,
group facilitation and counseling, location and use of
appropriate resources and referrals, and use of
consultation
Interpersonal Communication

Clarifying expectations
Dealing effectively with conflict
Establishing rapport with clients
Developing and sustaining behaviors that are congruent with the
values and ethics of the profession 10, 13
Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE)
Standards Covered in this Text
Standard Chapter
Administration
Managing organizations through leadership and strategic
planning 5, 9
Supervision and human resource management
Planning and evaluating programs, services, and operational
functions 8, 9
4
Developing budgets and monitoring expenditures 10
Grant and contract negotiation
Legal and regulatory issues and risk management 10, 12
Managing professional development of staff
Recruiting and managing volunteers 6, 15
Constituency building and other advocacy techniques such as
lobbying, grassroots movements, and
community development and organizing
4, 6, 14
Client-related Values and Attitudes
The least intrusive intervention in the least restrictive

environment
Client self-determination 4
Confidentiality of information
The worth and uniqueness of individuals including ethnicity,
culture, gender, sexual orientation, and
other expressions of diversity
3, 13
Belief that individuals, services systems, and society change
Interdisciplinary team approaches to problem solving 8
Appropriate professional boundaries
Integration of the ethical standards outlined by the National
Organization for Human Services and
Council for Standards in Human Service Education
13, 15
Self-Development
Conscious use of self
3, 11,
13
Clarification of personal and professional values 13
Awareness of diversity
Strategies for self-care
Reflection on professional self (e.g., journaling, development of
a portfolio, project demonstrating
competency)
3
Standards for Excellence Series

Designed to help students advance their knowledge, values, and
skills, the Standards for Excellence Series assists
students in associating the Council for Standards in Human
Service Education (CSHSE) National Standards to all
levels of human services practice.
Features Include
Standards for Excellence grid—highlighting chapters where
various standards are addressed.
Standards for Excellence critical thinking questions—challenges
students to think critically about the
standards in relation to chapter content.
Multimedia links—correlates content to multimedia assets
throughout the text, including video, additional
readings, and more.
Self-study quizzes—found throughout the text, self-study
quizzes test student knowledge and
comprehension of key chapter topics.
Chapter review—links to a scenario-based chapter review
including short-answer discussion questions.
5
6
Community Organizing
Theory and Practice

Joyce S. McKnight
Empire State College, State University of New York
Joanna McKnight Plummer
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper
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8
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McKnight, Joyce S.
Community organizing : theory and practice / Joyce S.
McKnight, Empire State College, State University of New
York, Joanna McKnight Plummer.
pages cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-51681-0
ISBN-10: 0-205-51681-5
1. Community organization. 2. Community development. I.
Title.
HM766.M43 2013

307.1'4—dc23
2013035553
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-205-51681-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-205-51681-0
9
Contents
1. Preface xiv
1. 1. A Look at Communities 1
1. Case Study 1: The Smithville Neighborhood 2
2. Case Study 2: The Town of Middle View 3
3. Variations on the Theme 6
1. Summary 8
2. 2. Systems Thinking and the Kaleidoscopic Community 9
1. Systems Thinking 9
2. Analyzing Community Systems 11
1. Micro-systems 12

2. Cooperation and Conflict among Meta-systems 14
3. The Impact of Mezzo-systems 15
4. Macro-systems: Broad Natural, Economic, Social, and
Cultural Environments 16
3. Kaleidoscopic Community Systems 20
1. Individuals to Other Groups and Organizations 25
2. Quasi-groups to Other Individuals, Groups, and
Organizations 25
3. Primary Groups to Individuals, Groups, and Organizations 26
4. Associations to Individuals, Quasi-groups, Primary Groups,
and Formal Organizations 26
5. Formal Organizations to Individuals, Groups, and
Organizations 27
4. Bringing People Together 27
5. Kaleidoscopic, Non-geographic Communities 28
1. Communities of Interest 29
2. Virtual Communities 29
1. Summary 31
3. 3. Living and Working in Communities 32
1. Building Your Internal Picture of the Focal Community 32

2. Getting Acquainted with the Focal System 34
3. Learning the “Rules” 35
10
4. “Fitting In” to Community Life 37
5. Using Symbolic Interaction Theories 39
6. Integration into Community Life 42
1. Overcoming Reticence 44
2. Discerning Expected Behaviors 44
3. Trying New Roles 45
4. Becoming Part of Things 46
1. Summary 46
4. 4. Varieties of Community Organizing 48
1. Place-based Relational Organizing 49
2. Social Entrepreneurship and Social Innovation 50
3. Economic Mutual Aid 54
4. Self-help Groups 58
5. Community-based Advocacy 59

6. Social Movements 65
7. Collaborations 67
8. Mixing and Matching 71
1. Summary 72
5. 5. The Community Organizing Cycle 73
1. Focus on Leadership 75
2. Focus on Participatory Research 80
3. Focus on Planning 81
4. Focus on Implementation 84
5. Focus on Management 85
6. Focus on Evaluation 88
1. Summary 90
6. 6. Building an Effective Leadership Team 92
1. Recruiting a Leadership Team 94
1. Large-Scale Strategies for Leadership Recruitment 94
2. Leadership Arising from “Organic” Initiatives 96
11

2. The Evolving Leadership Team: The Form, Storm, Norm,
Perform, and Adjourn Cycle 97
3. Leadership Teams as Living Systems 100
1. Communication Patterns 101
2. Team-Directed Learning 103
4. Facilitating Effective Community Leadership Teams 104
5. Interactional Processes 108
6. Power in Leadership Teams 109
7. Roles Team Members Play 110
1. Summary 113
7. 7. Participatory Research 114
1. Connected Knowing: The “Engine” of Participatory Research
115
2. Data Gathering and Consolidation of Information 117
3. Analytical Frameworks 122
4. The Asset-based Approach 122
5. The Problem-centered Approach 124
6. Gap Analysis 125
7. Sustainability Analysis 126

1. Summary 129
8. 8. Planning and Implementation 130
1. Four Types of Planning 131
2. The Planning Questions 133
3. Assessing the Situation 136
4. Implementation: Defining the Next Steps 139
1. Relational Implementation 140
2. Locality Development 143
3. Social Action 145
4. Popular Education: Implementation of Participatory Research
149
5. Mixing and Phasing the Implementation Strategies 150
6. Training and Pilot Projects 150
1. Summary 152
12
9. 9. Management and Evaluation 153
1. Five Types of Management 154
2. Evaluation 161

1. Summary 168
10. 10. Organizational Structures, Budgeting, and Funding 169
1. Organizational Structures 169
2. Organizing Internationally: Non-governmental Organizations
(NGOs) 177
3. Budgeting Basics 178
4. Guiding the Budgeting Process 179
5. Expenditure Budgeting 179
6. Zero-based Budgeting 180
7. Income Budgeting and Funding 181
8. Budget Management throughout the Year 183
9. Accountability and Audits 184
10. Cash Flow Problems 184
11. Ethical Budget Management 185
1. Summary 187
11. 11. Power and Empowerment 188
1. Two Ways of Discerning Power 188
2. Power as an Individual Attribute 188

3. Power as an Attribute of Certain Classes or Categories of
People 189
1. Elitism 189
2. Pluralism 191
3. Elitism and Pluralism: A Dynamic Balance 191
4. Power as a Product of Interaction 191
1. Five Types of Interactional Power and Related Behaviors 192
5. Interactive Power Transactions 194
6. Power and Authority 195
7. How Others Perceive Your Power 197
8. Power within the Varieties of Community Organizing 198
13
9. Empowerment: Increasing the Power of Individuals and
Communities 199
10. Maximizing Your Own and Others’ Individual Power 200
1. Perceived Knowledge and Skill Development 200
2. Perceived Participatory Competencies 201
3. Expectations for Future Individual Contributions 201

4. Perceptions of Group or Organizational Accomplishments
201
5. Belief in the Value of the Cause 202
6. Cost–Benefit Analysis: Expectations of Success versus
Likelihood of Success 203
11. Organizational Empowerment 204
12. Community Empowerment 205
13. Forces against Community Empowerment 206
1. Summary 207
12. 12. Navigating the Political Labyrinth 209
1. Why We Have Governments 209
2. Three Views of the Role of Government 210
3. Political Negotiations 213
4. Six Dimensions of Public Policy 213
1. Level One: Values and Social Policy 214
2. Level Two: Regimes and Regime Policies 215
5. Level Three: Sectorial Policies 218
1. Level Four: Jurisdictional Policies 220
2. Level Five: Organizational Policies 222

3. Level Six: Street Level Policies 223
6. A Real-World Example 225
7. Playing the Political Game 226
8. How to Play the Political Game with Politicians 228
9. Playing the Policy Game with Bureaucrats 230
1. Rule Making Phase 231
2. Rule Application Phase 232
3. Rule Adjudication Phase 232
14
1. Summary 236
13. 13. Value Systems and Ethics 237
1. Quality of Life Values 237
2. Competing Value Systems: Modernism and the Quality of
Life 238
3. Ethical Viewpoints 239
1. Post-modernism 239
2. Critical Theory 241
3. Foucault’s Ethics of Power 242

4. The Ethics of Non-violence 244
5. An Ethics of Care 246
6. The Classical Tradition: Ethical Behavior as a Rational
Choice 247
7. An Ethics of Joyful Sharing 249
8. Practicing Cultural Humility 249
9. Spirituality, Religious Beliefs, and Practice 251
4. Professional Ethical Standards and Codes of Ethics 252
1. Summary 253
14. 14. Community Organizing with Web-based Tools 255
1. The Impact of the Internet and Social Networking on
Community Organizing 255
1. Broad Impact of the Internet on Community Organizing 256
2. Internal Communication Goals and Web-based Tools 257
3. Web Presence 259
4. Social Networking 260
5. Using Digital Storytelling 262
2. Horizontal Community Organizing 263
3. Connectivism and Community Organizing 264

1. Connectivity, Asset-building, and Sustainability 265
4. Strengths of Using the Web for Community Organizing 266
5. Weaknesses, Dangers, and Threats of the Internet or to the
Internet 267
1. Summary 268
15. 15. Organizations That Support Community Organizing 269
15
1. The Community Development Model 270
1. The United Nations: International Economic Development
270
2. Local Comprehensive Planning 273
3. Community Development Corporations 274
4. Land Grant Universities: Cooperative Extension 275
2. The Social Action Model 278
3. Supports for Participatory Research and Popular Education
281
1. Facilitating Popular Education: The Highlander Approach
281
2. Literacy for Social Justice: Paulo Freire 283

3. Use of the Theater and Other Arts 284
4. Internet-based Organizations 285
4. Volunteer Efforts and Movements 286
1. The Corporation for National and Community Service and
Points of Light Foundation 286
2. Service Learning 286
5. Faith-based Communities Working For and Modeling Social
Change 287
1. Hospitality and Radical Politics: The Catholic Worker
Movement 287
2. Institute for Cultural Affairs 288
3. Koinonia Farm 289
4. Shinnyo-en Buddhist Community 290
5. To Heal, Repair, and Transform the World: A Jewish
Community 291
6. Service Organizations 291
1. Summary 292
1. Appendix A: Details of Participatory Research Strategies 293
2. Appendix B: Expanded Coverage of Budgeting and Fund-
raising

3. Notes 331
4. Index 293
16
Preface
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed
citizens can change the world. Indeed, it’s the only
thing that ever has.
—Margaret Mead
This text was designed to be a textbook and “how to” reference
guide for thoughtful, dedicated citizens who are
determined to change their world (or at least part of it) through
their commitment and loyalty to one another and
their dedication to fostering “common unity.”
This text provides a unique approach to community organizing
for the human services and social work profession
by providing practical tips, templates, and in-text and online
resources that give future community organizers a
road map to navigate a number of best practices in the field.
While the main theories that support community
organizing are illustrated through an urban and rural community
case study approach, the book illustrates how
these theories inform and can help direct the type of organizing
that will work best for a specific community based
on its personality, needs, and resources.
This text and its accompanying resources were developed with
the following premises:

1. People know what they need and can work together to
achieve it when given effective intellectual tools and
analytical frameworks.
2. Everyone can and should be included in community building.
3. Local action is often the most effective action.
17
Chapter Themes
Chapter 1 provides detailed cases studies based on urban and
rural communities, and compares and
contrasts the complexities of these communities and community
organizing.
Chapter 2 introduces community organizing thinking, including
systems thinking, focal systems, and
community formation.
Chapter 3 introduces the ever-changing kaleidoscopic
community and how disciplines like cognitive
psychology, sociology, and social psychology aid in
understanding community life.
Chapter 4 explores varieties of grassroots community
organizing including place-based relational organizing,
social entrepreneurship and innovation, mutual economic aid,
self-help, community-based advocacy, social
movements, and collaboration among organizations.
Chapter 5 provides an overview of the community organizing
cycle by outlining the development and
function of the leadership team, a participatory approach to

community research, and participatory
approaches to planning, implementation, management, and
evaluation.
Chapter 6 explores how to create and sustain a diverse
leadership team to help you understand and thrive
within these interpersonal dynamics and provides you with
concrete tools to lead, manage conflict, and
successfully navigate challenges.
Chapter 7 provides guidance on how to address inadequate
information and an inadequate understanding of
community assets, weaknesses, and service gaps. (An expanded
discussion of research strategies appears in
Appendix A.)
Chapter 8 examines the planning and implementation phases of
the community organizing cycle, including
defining the mission, setting measurable outcomes and
evaluation criteria, and deciding on the major
processes and action steps to begin work.
Chapter 9 explores ongoing management and evaluation issues
such as choosing a management approach or
approaches and creating a management information system.
Chapter 10 addresses practical organizational questions
including the best ways to structure your continuing
effort, issues involved with budget development and
management, fund-raising concerns, financial
accountability, and ethical standards for financial management
and marketing. (An expanded discussion of
budgeting and fund-raising appears in Appendix B.)
Chapter 11 focuses on power and helps you analyze power
relationships within your focal community, learn

to identify and use different kinds of power, and focus on ways
your organizing team can generate “people
power” to gain and maintain control of your destinies.
Chapter 12 explores policies, politics, laws, and regulations
through the analogy of a football game to guide
you through the political maze of multiple levels of policy, the
challenges of the legislative process, and the
morass of regulation.
Chapter 13 focuses on the belief that we can create and sustain
healthful, attractive geographic communities
and emotionally satisfying non-geographically based
communities by working together locally and
networking globally, and it guides you through a wide variety of
ethical frameworks that undergird effective
organizing.
Chapter 14 provides many practical suggestions for making
optimal use of Web resources for community
organizing and community building and explores the many
possibilities of online communities and
18
networks.
Chapter 15 explores organizations that support community
organizing.
Online Features
There are many features of this text to enhance your experience;
however, they are only as useful as you make
them. By engaging with this text and its resources, you’ll gain a

variety of community organizing skills through:
Web resources, including links to important Web resources for
community organizers
Online handbooks addressing topics such as place-based and
relational organizing, social entrepreneurship
and social innovation, economic mutual aid, self-help,
community-based advocacy, social movements, and
interagency collaboration.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to achieve a variety of learning outcomes
by using this text and its resources, including:
Community Organizing skills—students can develop skills
involving leadership, planning, and
implementation.
Oral communication skills—students can develop their oral
communication skills by engaging with others
in and out of class to discuss their comprehension of the chapter
based on the chapter’s learning objectives.
Research skills—students can develop research skills and
techniques, including how to collect the needed
data and assemble the information they will need to create a
clear, complete picture of the assets, needs, and
service gaps of the focal community
Assessment and writing skills—students can develop their
assessment and writing skills in preparation for
future licensing exams by completing topic-based and chapter
review assessments for each chapter.
CSHSE national standards—students can develop their

understanding and mastery of CSHSE’s national
standards by discussing the critical thinking questions presented
in the Standards boxes.
We hope you enjoy using this book and the resources we have
prepared as you work with other thoughtful,
committed people to change the world for the better.
Acknowledgments
This book is dedicated to Hugh F. McKnight for his unflagging
support, to all of those students and community
members whose lives and struggles are reflected in the pages,
and to all those who will use its insights to improve
the quality of life for us all.
Many thanks to those who made this book possible: Dr. Drew
Hyman, professor emeritus at the Pennsylvania
State University, for the initial concepts and inspiration; Hugh
McKnight, husband, father, attorney, pastor,
professor, behind-the-scenes editor, and extraordinary human
being; Jimmy R. Plummer, husband to Joanna
McKnight Plummer for all of his support and technological
knowledge; Dean Thomas Mackey of the Center for
Distance Learning of the SUNY/Empire State College for his
patience with the “endless book” ; all of the upper-
level and graduate students who vetted earlier editions; and
Barbara Smith-Decker, Doug Bell, and Carly Czech,
the editors who helped turn an academic tome into a
comprehensive guide.
19
Joyce S. McKnight

Joanna McKnight Plummer
This text is available in a variety of formats—digital and print.
To learn more about our programs, pricing
options, and customization, visit www.pearsonhighered.com.
20
http://www.pearsonhighered.com
Chapter 1 A Look at Communities
Pete Ryan/National Geographic Image Collection/Alamy
Learning Objectives
21
Chapter Outline
1. Case Study 1: The Smithville Neighborhood 2
2. Case Study 2: The Town of Middle View 3
3. Variations on the Theme 6
1. Summary 8
What is a community? The word community can be divided into
two parts: “common” and “unity.”
Communities are comprised of people who share common
bonds, often feel responsible for the well-being of one
another, and work together for the betterment of life for all.
There are several types of communities including

geographic, partial, dispersed, interest, and virtual, but most
community organizing is done in geographic
communities.
Information Management
Understanding and Mastery: Performing elementary community-
needs assessment
Critical Thinking Question
Choose a place with which you are already familiar. Drive or
walk through it, carefully observing its sights,
sounds, and smells. What are your overall impressions of the
community’s assets and needs? What led to
these impressions? What immediately jumps out at you as likely
to need attention?
Geographic communities are places where people live in
proximity to one another and share the experiences of
daily life. Geographic community organizing involves shared
efforts, often over many years, by people committed
to improving the quality of life for everyone living in a
particular geographic locale. Places chosen for community
organizing frequently have a sense of history. They have names,
recognized boundaries and enough services to
enable residents to live comfortably without having to leave the
area. For instance, many places that are suitable
for geographic community organizing have elementary schools,
churches and other places of worship, doctors’
offices, service organizations, fire and police protection,
municipal governments, grocery stores, and community
parks. Some examples of geographic places that you might
choose as the focus of community organizing include:
City neighborhoods consisting of several blocks, often with
historical names like “Little Italy,”
“Chinatown,” “the French Quarter,” or “Chelsea.”

Incorporated towns and villages of less than 25,000 people
(larger cities seem to work better when organized
as neighborhoods).
Rural school districts encompassing a large geographic area but
a relatively small population.
Case Study 1: The Smithville Neighborhood
Imagine that you are walking on a major street in a medium-
sized city in the Northeastern United States. You are
in the downtown area around 6 p.m. on a warm June evening
and head west on the way to a friend’s house,
passing through a section of city that has been gentrified with
many bustling small shops, upscale restaurants, and
sidewalk cafes. A number of well-dressed people chat in front
of the gilded entrance of a live theater company.
There are comfortable benches and flower gardens. Street lights
start to come on and white lights twinkle from the
22
trees. At the border of the shopping district, renovated
brownstones look like upscale single family residences. A
uniformed police officer says “good evening” as you pass.
As you head further west, you enter Smithville, a so-called
inner city neighborhood where you note that the
ambience is changing. You notice more ethnic groceries, pawn
shops, and second-hand stores. Most are closed for
the evening with steel folding gates covering their doors and
windows. The curbs and sidewalks are broken; there
are no trash receptacles, and …

Stakeholders in Community-Based Organizations
Community-based organizations must be cognizant of their
various stakeholders. In a scholarly-supported response of no
less than 500 words, profile a local community-based
organization, analyzing its specific stakeholders. Present the
initial information in a diagram and then define and evaluate
each group of stakeholders. Why is each group considered a
stakeholder? What conflicts may exist between each stakeholder
group, and how should an organization leader best consider
these interests? Respond to at least two of your classmates with
responses of no less than 350 words each.
Professor’s Notes:Introduction: Community Organizations,
Constituents, and Diversity
Last week, we talked about organizations and their relationship
within a larger environment. This week, we are going to spend
time examining how these organizations are linked to people.
Community-based organizations are often designed to serve
specific constituents, and for an applied sociologist, it is critical
to understand who those people are, what barriers may exist in
preventing organizations from reaching those people, and how
organizations must be cognizant to issues of diversity and
changing demographic trends.
First, there are many different stakeholders who have an interest
in community-based organizations and should be considered in
various decision-making processes. Stakeholders are those who
have an interest in the organization, including employees,
boards of directors, target groups, funders, supporters,
employee families, and more. One important consideration is
that not everyone’s interest is the same, so an organization must
weigh interests in decision-making processes.
Second, barriers may exist between organizations and their
target groups they wish to serve. Once an organization has
formed, it must reach those groups. Various barriers include
communication, language, funding, trust, and even public
opinion. For example, consider the Boy Scouts of America and
the problems that group encountered when they took a

conservative view towards homosexual members and leaders.
Various stakeholders stopped supporting the BSA and conflict
between the various councils, members, and other interested
parties helped encourage the group to change its stance. Read
here for an interesting article on the BSA:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on-
leadership/wp/2015/07/14/how-the-boy-scouts-of-america-
changed-itself-from-within-on-the-issue-of-gay-leaders/
Third, organizations must actively overcome these barriers.
They can form various task forces, outreach programs, recruit
gatekeepers, build trust, and even collaborate with other
community-based organizations. Creative thought and active
outreach are key to meeting the needs of those an organization
wishes to serve.
Finally, community-based organizations must be cognizant of
diversity issues. According to Hayes (2012), around 43% of
people entering the workforce are those of color, yet around
82% of non-profit employees are white. Minorities are even less
represented in management positions. This is an important
consideration because many of those organizations serve are
minorities. Furthermore, there a lack of women in management
positions, and many community-based organizations do not
consider women as potential major donors or decision-makers.
Consequently, community-based organizations must consider
diversity issues when they are working with their stakeholders
and making decisions. As the 14th Dalai Lama noted, “[o]ur
every action has a universal dimension, a potential impact on
others’ happiness.”
Reference:
Hayes, J. (2012). Is the nonprofit sector doing enough for
diversity? Profiles in Diversity Journal. Retrieved from
http://www.diversityjournal.com/9897-is-the-nonprofit-sector-
doing-enough-for-diversity/
ResourcesRequired Text

McKnight, J. & McKnight Plummer, J. (2015). Community
organizing: Theory and practice. Retrieved from
https://redshelf.com
Chapter 11: Power and EmpowermentRequired References
Concha, M. (2014). Exploring collaboration, its antecedents,
and perceived outcomes in service partnerships of community-
based organizations in South Florida. International Journal of
Public Administration, 37(1), 44-52.
Flippen, C. A., & Parrado, E. A. (2012). Forging Hispanic
communities in new destinations: A case study of Durham,
North Carolina. City & Community, 11(1), 1-30.
Molyneux, C., Hutchison, B., Chuma, J., & Gilson, L. (2007).
The role of community-based organizations, in household
ability to pay for health care in Kilifi District, Kenya. Health
Policy and Planning, 22(6), 381-392.
Philadelphia Fed. (2014, June 13). The future of CDCs: Three
compelling visions [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqQHVQwKv4U
Tran, V. C., Graif, C., Jones, A. D., Small, M. L, & Winship, C.
(2013). Patricipation in context: Neighborhood diversity and
organizational involvement in Boston. City & Community,
12(3), 187-210.
WHROTV. (2010, March 23). Another view - African-American
mega churches [Video file]. Retrieved
from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0R4fSXv_2E (Links
to an external site.)
Recommended References
Bartlett, A., Alix-Garcia, J., and Saah, D.S. (2012). City growth
under conflict conditions: The view from Nyala, Darfur. City &
Community, 12(2), 134-155.
Kuebler, M. (2013). Lending in the modern era: Does racial
composition of neighborhoods matter when individuals seek
home financing? A pilot study in New England. City &
Community, 11(1), 31-50.
Makedon, A. (1996). What multiculturalism should not be. In

Oliker, M.A. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Midwest Philosophy of
Education Society, 1995-1996. Paper presented at the Annual
Conference of the Midwest Philosohy of Education Society,
Loyola University-Chicago, Chicago, IL, 8-96 November (pp.
172-186). Chicago, IL: MPES.
McKenzie , B. S. (2013). Neighborhood access to transit by
race, ethnicity, and poverty in Portland, OR. City &
Community, 12(2), 134-155.
Owens, A. (2012) Neighborhoods on the rise: A typology of
neighborhoods experiencing socioeconomic ascent. City &
Community, 11(4), 345-369.
Peterson, R. D., & Krivo, L. J. (2010). Divergent social worlds:
Neighborhood crime and the racial-spatial divide. New York,
NY: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN: 978-0-87154-697-5
Salcedo, R., & Rasse, A. (2012). The heterogeneous nature of
urban poor families. City & Community, 11(1), 94-118.
Stall, S., & Stoecker, R. (1997). Community organizing or
organizing community? Gender and the crafts of empowerment.
(Working Paper). Retrieved from http://www.comm-
org.wisc.edu/papers96/gender2.html

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