The document discusses the cultivation, collection, processing, and storage of medicinal plants. It outlines methods of plant propagation, including sexual and asexual methods, and covers the factors influencing cultivation such as altitude, temperature, soil fertility, and pest control. Additionally, it details the processes of harvesting, drying, garbling, packing, and storing crude drugs to maintain their quality and effectively manage pest issues.

1. Cultivation, Collection,
Processing and Storage of
Drugs of Natural Origin
DR. SIDDHI UPADHYAY
H.O.D. & ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Dept. of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
SIGMA INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY

2. CONTENT
• Cultivation of drugs of natural origin
• Collection of drugs of natural origin
• Factors influencing cultivation of
medicinal plants
• Plant hormones and their applications

3. CULTIVATION OF DRUGS OF
NATURAL ORIGIN

4. ADVANTAGES OF CULTIVATION
It ensures quality and purity of medicinal plants.
Collection of crude drugs from cultivated plants gives a
better yield and therapeutic quality.
Cultivation ensures regular supply of a crudedrug.
The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants also leads
to industriialisation toa greater extent.
Cultivation permits application of modern technological
aspects such as mutation, polyploidy andhybridisation.

5. DISADVANTAGES OF CULTIVATION
The high cost of cultivation drugs as
compared to wild source and losses
due to ecological imbalance such as
storms, earthquakes, floods, droughts
etc…… are major disadvantages of
cultivation.

6. METHODS OF PLANT
PROPAGATION
• Medicinal plants can be propagated by two usual
methods as applicable to nonmedicinal plants or
crops.
• Each of these methods has certain advantages, and
also, disadvantages.
• These methods are referred as
1. Sexual method
2. Asexual method

7. SEXUAL METHODS
• In case of sexual method, the plants are
raised from seeds.
• Methods of sowing the seeds includes:
1. Broad casting
2. Dibbling
3. Nursery beds

8. ASEXUAL METHODS
• In case of asexual method of vegetative propagation,
the vegetative part of a plant, such as stem or root, is
placed in such an environment that it develops into a
new plant.
• It is done by any of following methods:
1. Natural method of vegetative propagation
2. Artificial method of vegetative propagation
1. Cutting
2. Layering
3. Grafting
3. Aseptic method
1. Tissue culture

9. SEXUAL METHOD - BROAD CASTING
In this method the seeds are scattered freely in well
prepared soil for cultivation.
The seeds only need raking.
If they are deeping sown or covered by soil.
Necessary thinning of the seddling is done by keeping
a specific distance
Examples: isapgol linseed, sesame.

11. SEXUAL METHOD - DIBBLING
When the seeds of average size and weight are
available.
They are sown by placing inholes.
Number of seeds to be put in holes vary from 3 to 5
Depending upon thr vitlity.

13. SEXUAL METHOD - NURSERY BEDS
Many a times the seeds are sown in nursery beds.
The seedling thus produced are transplanted to
farms for futher growth.
Such as cinchona, cardamom, clove,etc.

15. ASEXUAL METHOD - CUTTING
STEM CUTTING
ROOT CUTTING
LEAF CUTTING
LEAF BUD CUTTING

16. Stem
cutting

17. Root cutting

18. Leaf cutting

19. Leaf bud cutting

20. ASEXUAL METHOD - LAYERING
SIMPLE LAYERING
SEPENTINE LAYERING
AIR LAYERING
MOUNT LAYERING
TIP LAYERING

22. ASEXUAL METHOD - GRAFTING
WHIP GRAFTING
TONGUE GRAFTING
SIDE GRAFTING

24. Tongue grafting

25. Side grafting

26. ASEXUAL METHOD - PLANT
TISSUE CULTURE
This method consists of growing cell, tissue and organ in culture.
Small pieces of plant organs or tissues are grown in a container with suitable nutrient medium, under
sterilized conditions.
The tissue grows into a mass of undifferentiated cells called callus which later differentiates into
plantlets.
These are then transferred into pots or nursery beds and allowed to grow into full plants. Plant tissue
culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation to
conserve rare or endangered plant species.
Micro propagation is useful in raising disease free plants, homozygous diploids, and those without
viable seeds.

27. ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL
PROPAGATION
This is very simple and easy method of propagation.
Some species of trees, ornamental annuals and
vegetables which cannotbe propagated by asexual means
Papaya,should be propagated by this method. E.g.
Marigold, Tomato etc.
Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.

28. Transmission of viruses can be preventedby sexual
method.
Seed can be transported and stored for longer time for
propagation.
New variety of crops are developed only by sexual
method of propagation.
Root stocks for budding and grafting can be raised by
this method.
The plants propagated by this method are long lived and
are resistant to waterstress.

29. DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL
PROPAGATION
• Characteristics of seedling propagated by this method
are not genetically true to type to that of their mother
plant.
• Plants propagated by sexualmethod requires
long period for fruiting.
• Plants grow very high, so they are difficult for
intercultural practices like spraying, harvesting etc.
• The plants which have no seeds cannot be propagated by
this method. E.g. Banana, fig, Jasmine, Rose etc.

30. ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
PROPAGATION
The horticultural crops which donot produce viable seeds
are propagated by vegetative method.
Most of the important fruit crops are cross pollinated and
are highly heterozygous. When propagated through seeds,
the progenies shows large variation, so vegetative
propagation is remedy for these crops.
The asexual propagation method gives true to type plants.
The vegetative way propagated plants bear fruits early.
In case of fruit crops where root stocks are used, the root
stocks impart insect or disease resistance to the plant.

31. Vegetative propagation helps to alter the size of the
plant. i.e. dwarfing effect. This helps for spraying,
intercropping & harvesting of crops easy and
economical.
By grafting method different variety of fruit crop can
be grown &harvested.
Inferior quality fruit plants can be converted into
good quality plants.
By means of bridge grafting a repairing of injured
plants can be done.

32. DISADVANTAGES OF
ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
By vegetative propagation new variety can not be
developed.
It is an expensive method of propagation and required
specialized skill.
The life span of vegetatively propagated plants is shortas
compared to sexually propagated plants.
As all the plants are homozygous the whole plantation
may get attacked by a particular pest or disease.
Viral diseases could be transferred through vegetative
parts.

33. COLLECTION OF DRUGS OF
NATURAL ORIGIN

34. COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Harvesting
Drying
Garbling
Packing
Storage & Preservation of crude drugs.

35. HARVESTING
• Harvesting can be done efficiently in every
respect by the skilled workers..

40. Wood harvesting

42. DRYING
Drying consists of
Of sufficient
Removal
moisture
Content of crude drug.
So, as to improve its quality and make it
resistant to the growth of
microorganisms.

43. • Drying can be done by methods:
• Natural drying method
• Sun drying
• Artificial drying method, by using different
dryers, as follows:
• Tray dryers
• Vacuum dryers
• Spray dryers

44. DRYING - NATURAL DRYING
In case of natural drying it may be either
direct sun- drying or in the shed .
if the natural colour of the drug(digitalis,
clove, senna) and the volatile principle of
the drug (peppermint)…

45. ProcessIn this
the Desired Temperature
, Hot air of
Is
Circulated Through The
FacilitatesDryers and this the
removal of Water
Content of the drug.
DRYING - TRAY DRYERS

46. The drug which
are sensitive to
higher temperature
are dried by this
process
Ex: tannic acid,
digitalis leaves.
DRYING - VACUUM DRYERS

47. The technique is followed for
quick Drying Of
Economically important
plant or animal constituents, rather than
the crude drugs.
DRYING - SPRAY DRYERS

48. GARBLING(DRESSING)
• The next step in preparation of crude drug
for market after drying is garbling.
• This process is desired when sand, dirt &
foreign organic parts of the same plant, not
constituting drug are required to be
removed.

49. PACKING
The morphological & chemical nature of drug, its ultimate
use & effects of climatic conditions during transportation &
storage should be taken into consideration while packing
the drugs.
Aloe is packed in goat skin.
Colophony &balsam of tolu are packed in kerosenetins.
While asafoetida is stored in well closed containers to
prevent loss of volatile oil.
The leaf drugs are stored in plastic bags.
The crude drugs like roots, barks, seed are packed in gunny
bags.

55. STORAGE& PRESERVATIONOF CRUDE DRUGS
Preservation of crude drugs needs should knowledge of
their physical &chemical properties.
All the drugs should be preserved in well closed and
possibly in the filledcontainers.
They should be stored in the premises which are water-
proof, fire proof and rodent proof.
A number of drugs absorb moisture during their storage
and become susceptible to the microbial growth.
chemical changes, the preservation against insect
Apart from protection against adverse physical and
or
mould attacks is also important.

56. FACTORS INFLUENCING
CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL
PLANTS

57. FACTORS AFFECTING
CULTIVATION
• ALTITUDE TEMPERATUREAND HUMIDITY
• RAINFALL OR IRRIGATION
• SOILAND SOIL FERTILITY
• FERTILIZERS
• PEST& PESTCONTROL
• PLANT HORMONES

58. ALTITUDE, TEMPERATURE AND
HUMIDITY
THEALTITUDE IS THE MOSTIMPORTANT FACTORINFLUENCING OF CULTIVATIONOF
MEDICINALPLANTS.
THE INCREASETHEALTITUDE,THE TEMPERATUREANDATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
DECREASESWHILE THE WIND VELOCITY,RELATIVE HUMIDITYANDLIGHT INTENSITY
INCREASES.
THUSASTHE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS CHANGEWITH HEIGHT,THEYALSOPRODUCE
CHANGEIN THE VEGETATION PATTERN.
TEA, CINCHONAANDEUCALYPTSARECULTIVATEDFAVOURERATONALTITUDE OF
1000-2000 METERS.
CINNAMONANDCARDAMOMAREGROWNATAHEIGHT 1000 METERS WHILE SENNA
CANBE CULTIVATEDATSEA LEVEL.
• EXAMPLES
• 1.CLOVEUPTO 900
• 2. CAMPHOR 1500-2000
• 3. CINCHONA1000-2000 ALTITUDE

59. TEMPERATUREAND HUMIDITYARETHEANOTHER MAJOR FACTORS FOR THE
CULTIVATIONOF THE MEDICINAL PLANT.
SUDDEN DECREASES IN TEMPERATURE CAUSED THE FORMATION OF THE ICE
CRYSTALS IN INTERCELLULAR SPACES OF THE PLANTS AS A RESULT WATER
COMES OUT OF THE CELLS AND ULTIMATELYPLANTS DIE DUE TO DROUGHTAND
DESICCATION.
THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS ISAFFECTED BYCHANGE IN TEMPERATURE.
THE RATE OF RESPIRATION INCREASESWITH INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE.
HUMIDITY IS PRESENT IN THE FORM OF WATERVAPOURS.THIS IS CALLED
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY. CLOUDSAND FOG
ARETHE VISIBLE FORMS OF HUMIDITY.
HUMIDITYAFFECTS STRUCTURE, FORMANDTRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS.
EXAMPLES:1. CINCHONA60-75 F2. COFFEE55-70 F3. TEA70-90 F
CAMPHORAND COFFEECANNOTWITHSTANDFROST;SAFFRONREQUIRECOLD
CLIMATE
WHILEPYRETHRUMNEED DRYWEATHER.

60. RAINFALL OR IRRIGATION
EXCEPT THE XEROPHYTES MOST OF OTHER PLANTS NEED
WATERAND PROPER IRRIGATIONAND SUFFICIENT RAIN FALL
FOR THERE DEVELOPMENT.
THE MAIN SOURCE OF WATER FOR THE SOIL IS RAIN WATER.
RAINFALLAND SNOWFALL HAVEALARGE EFFECT THE
CLIMATE CONDITION.
THE MINERALS IN THE SOIL GET DISSOLVED IN WATERAND
ARE THEN ABSORBED BYPLANTS. WATER INFLUENCES
MORPHOLOGICALAND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT.
EXAMPLES:CONTINUOUSRAINCANLEADTOALOSSOFWATER-
SOLUBLESUBSTANCEFROMLEAVESAND ROOT
• BYLEACHING.
THIS IS KNOWN TO APPLY TO SOME PLANTS PRODUCING GLYCOSIDE AND
ALKALOIDS.

61. SOIL AND SOIL FERTILITY
SOILIS THE MOST IMPORTANT NATURALRESOURCEASIT SUPPORTS GROWTH OF
ALLPLANTS.
SOILPROVIDE MECHANICALSTRENGTH ,ANCHORAGEASWELLASTHE ESSENTIAL
PLANT FOOD ELEMENTS FOR PLANT.
THECAPACITYOFSOILTOSUPPLYPLANT NUTRIENTQUANTITIES ANDPROPORTION
REQUIREDANDTOPROVIDESUITABLE
MEDIUMFORPLANT GROWTHISKNOWN “SOIL FERTILITY”.
PROVIDE CHEMICALMAKEUPANDNUTRIENTS FOR GROWTH.
COMMONLYKNOW SOILIS SHALLOW UPPERLAYER;IS THE FRIABLE MATERIALIN
WHICH PLANTS FIND FOOT HOLDAND NOURISHMENT.
CLAYISONEOFTHEHIGHLYWEATHEREDPORTIONOFTHESOIL;CONSISTSOFFINEST
PARTICLES,WHICHPROVIDECOHESIVE ANDADHESIVEPROPERTIESAND HOLDTHE
NUTRIENTSFORTHEIRGROWTHWHICHHASBEENLOST DUETO LEACHING.

62. SOILCONSISTSOFMINERALMATTER,AIR,WATERAND ORGANIC MATTER
WHEREMINERALMATTERRESPONSIBLEFORTHEMAKINGDIFFERENCE
IN THEVARIETYOFSOILFORMS.
AIRANDWATERGIVERISETOPORESINWHICHIFHALFOFTHEPORESARE
FILLEDWITHWATERANDRESTOF WITHAIR THENIT PROVIDESGOOD
AERATIONFORTHEROOTNOURISHMENT.
PURIFIEDAND DECAYEDPLANTANDANIMALSPARTSCONSTITUTE
ORGANIC MATTER;
ANYTYPE OF SOILCONTAINING LESSTHAN0.5 % ORGANICMATTERIS
DESCRIBEDASPOOR SOIL.
ANYTYPE OF SOILCONTAINING 1.5-5 % ORGANICMATTERISDESCRIBED
ASRICH SOIL.
ANYTYPE OF SOILCONTAINING 0.5-1.5% ORGANICMATTERDESCRIBED
ASINTERMEDIATE SOIL .
PH RANGE OF 6.5-7.5. TO GET NEUTALSOIL,ACIDIC SOILS CANBE LIMED
ORALKALINE SOILS CANRECLAIMED BYGYPSUM.
ACIDIC SOILSARE NOT SUITABLE FOR LEGUMINOUS PLANTS DUE TO
POOR DEVELOPMENTOF NODULE BACTERIA.

63. TYPESOFSOIL
a) CLAY– MORETHAN50% OFCLAY
b) LOAMY– 30-50% WITHCLAY
c) SILTLOAMY-20-30 %CLAY
d) SANDYLOAMY– 10-20 %CLAY
e) SANDYSOIL-MORETHAN70% SAND
f) CALCAREOUSSOIL–MORETHAN20 %LIME.
DEPENDINGUPONTHESIZEOFMINERALMATTER:
PARTICESIZE(DIAMETER)
LESSTHAN0.002 MM
0.002 TO0.02 MM
0.02 TO0.2MM
0.2 TO2.00MM
TYPESOFSOIL
FINECLAY
COARSECLAYORSILT
FINESAND
COARSESAND

64. SOILFERTILITY: IT IS THE CAPACITYOF SOILTO PROVIDE NUTRIENTS IN ADEQUATE
AMOUNTSAND IN BALANCED PROPORTION TO PLANTS.
IF CROPPING IS DONE WITHOUT FORTIFICATION OF SOILWITH PLANT NUTRIENTS,
SOILFERTILITYGETS LOSTS.
SOILFERTILITY CANBE MAINTAINED BYADDITION OFANIMALMANURES,
NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIAOR BYAPPLICATION OF CHEMICALSOF CHEMICAL
FERTILIZERS.

65. FERTILIZERS
A FERTILIZER OR FERTILISER IS ANY MATERIAL OF NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC
ORIGIN(OTHER THAN LIVING MATERIALS THAT IS APPLIED TO SOILS OR TO
PLANT TISSUES (USUALLY LEAVES) TO SUPPLY ONE OR MORE PLANT NUTRIENTS
ESSENTIALTO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.
FERTILIZER IS NUTRIENTS WHICHARE NECESSARYFOR DEVELOPMENT&
GROWTH OF THE PLANT.
THE SECOND MODE BY SOME FERTILIZERS ACT IS TO ENHANCE THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SOIL BY MODIFYING ITS WATER RETENTION AND
AERATION.

66. BIOLOGICALORIGIN FERTILIZER MANURES: MANURE IS MATERIALSWHICH
ARE MIXEDWITH SOIL
SUPPLYALMOSTALLTHE NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BYTHE CROPPLANTS. THIS
RESULTS IN THE INCREASES IN CROP PRODUCTIVITY.
MANURESARETHREE TYPES:
1.FARMYARDMANURE –FYM (COW DUNG MANURE , POULTRY MANURE.)
2.COMPOSITED MANURE-(ORGANIC NITROGEN SUPPLEMENTS, BONE MEAL,
FISH MEAL.)
3.GREEN MANURE- NEEM SEED CAKE, VERMI COMPOST, OILCAKE.
BIO FERTILIZER: CANBE DEFINED ASBIOLOGICALLYACTIVE PRODUCTS OR
BACTERIA,ALGAEAND FUNGI, WHICH
USEFULIN BRINGINGABOUTSOILNUTRIENT ENRICHMENT.
E.G :RHIZOBIUM,AZOTOBACTOR ,AZOLLA

67. • MAJOR NUTRIENTS: NITROGEN (N), PHOSPHORUS (P), AND POTASSIUM
(K) SECONDARY NUTRIENTS: CALCIUM (CA), MAGNESIUM (MG), AND
SULFUR (S) MICRONUTRIENTS OR TRACE ELEMENTS: BORON (B),
CHLORINE (CI), COPPER (CU), IRON (FE), MANGANESE (MN),
MOLYBDENUM(MO), ANDZINC (ZN)
• 1.CARBON (C) 2. HYDROGEN (H) 3. OXYGEN (O) 4. NITROGEN (N) 5.
PHOSPHORUS (P) 6. POTASSIUM (K) 7. CALCIUM (CA) 8. MAGNESIUM
(MG) 9. SULFUR (S) 10. BORON (B) 11. CHLORINE (CI) 12. COPPER (CU)
13. IRON (FE) 14. MANGANESE (MN) 15. MOLYBDENUM (MO) 16. ZINC
(ZN) FROM AIR AND WATER FROM AIR AND SOIL FROM SOIL AND
FERTILIZERS

68. MAJORNUTRIENTS NITROGEN (N) IS THE MAIN NUTRIENT FOR STRONG,VIGOROUS
GROWTH, GOODLEAF COLOR,AND
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.PLANTS THATAREALMOSTALLLEAF (SUCHASLAWNGRASSES)
NEED PLENTY OF NITROGEN, SO THE FIRST NUMBER IN FERTILIZERS FOR LAWNS IS
ESPECIALLYHIGH BECAUSE GRASS MUSTCONTINUOUSLYRENEW ITSELF AFTER MOWING.
THE HIGHER THE NUMBER, THE MORE NITROGEN THE FERTILIZER PROVIDES.
PHOSPHOROUS (P) PROMOTES ROOT DEVELOPMENT WHICH HELPS STRENGTHEN
PLANTS. IT ALSO INCREASES BLOOMS ON FLOWERS AND THE RIPENING OF SEEDS AND
FRUIT. LOTS OF PHOSPHOROUS IS GREAT FOR BULBS, PERENNIALS, AND NEWLYPLANTED
TREES AND SHRUBS. THEY DEPEND ON STRONG ROOTS, SO FERTILIZERS MEANT FOR
THESE PLANTS OFTEN HAVEHIGH MIDDLE NUMBERS.
POTASSIUM (K) IMPROVES THE OVERALL HEALTH OF PLANTS. IT HELPS THEM
WITHSTAND VERY HOT OR COLD WEATHER, DEFEND AGAINST DISEASES, HELPS FRUIT
FORMATION, PHOTOSYNTHESIS, AND THE UPTAKE OF OTHER NUTRIENTS. POTASSIUM
WORKS ALONG WITH NITROGEN SO IF YOUADD NITROGEN TO THE SOIL, IT IS IMPORTANT
TO ADDPOTASSIUMATTHE SAME TIME.

69. SECONDARYNUTRIENTS CALCIUM(CA) IS IMPORTANT FOR GENERAL
PLANT VIGOR AND PROMOTES GOOD
GROWTH OF YOUNG ROOTS AND SHOOTS. CALCIUM ALSO HELPS TO BUILD
CELL WALLS.
MAGNESIUM (MG) HELPS REGULATE UPTAKE OF OTHER PLANT FOODS
AND AIDS IN SEED FORMATION. AS IT IS CONTAINED IN CHLOROPHYLL, IT
IS ALSO IMPORTANT IN THE DARK GREEN COLOR OF PLANTS AND FOR THE
ABILITYOFAPLANTTO MANUFACTURE FOOD FROM SUNLIGHT.
SULFUR (S) HELPS MAINTAINADARKGREEN COLORWHILE
ENCOURAGING MORE VIGOROUS PLANT GROWTH.
SULFUR IS NEEDED TO MANUFACTURE CHLOROPHYLL.TRACE ELEMENTS
BORON (B) HELPS IN CELLDEVELOPMENTAND HELPS TO REGULATE
PLANT METABOLISM.

70. PEST& PEST CONTROL
PEST & PEST CONTROL A PEST IS ON ORGANISM THAT CAUSES ON
EPIDEMIC DISEASEASSOCIATEDWITH HIGH MORTALITY.
TYPES OF PEST- FUNGI AND VIRUSES INSECTS FLYING (ADULT MOTHS /
FLIES &LARVAE) CRAWLING (BEETLES
/ WEEVILS / COCKROACHES) RODENTS MICE (FIELD / HOUSE) RATS
(ROOF / NORWAY) BIRDS PIGEONS / CROWS / STARLING OTHER
MAMMALSSNAKES / CATS&DOGS.
METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
MECHANICAL METHODS: IT EMPLOYS MANUAL LABOUR ALONG WITH
DIFFERENT DEVICES FOR COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION OF PEST.
EXAMPLES INCLUDE: 1. HAND PICKING TO REMOVE INSECTS 2. PRUNING
3. BURNING 4. TRAPPING OF PESTS

71. AGRICULTURAL METHODS IT COVERS ADVANCE PLANT BREEDING
TECHNIQUES CAPABLE OF INDUCING GENETIC MANIPULATION RESULTING
IN PRODUCTION HYBRID VARIETIES, WHICH ARE RESISTANT TO FUNGAL
AND BACTERIALATTACK.
ANOTHER ASPECT IN AGRICULTURAL CONTROL IS PLOUGHING WHICH
SHOULD BE SUFFICIENTLY DEEP SO AS TO ERADICATE WEEDS, AS WELL AS
EARLYSTAGESOF INSECTS.
CHEMICAL METHODS: PESTS ARE CONTROLLED BY USING CHEMICAL
PESTICIDES.
1. INSECTICIDES: DDT, GAMMAXINE, PARATHIONE, MALATHIONE 2.
FUNGICIDES: BORDEAUX MIXTURE, CHLOROPHENOLS, ANTIBIOTICS 3.
HERBICIDES: TO CONTROL WEEDS (2, 4-DI CHLOROPHENOXY ACETIC ACID,
SULPHURICACID) 4.RODENTICIDES: WARFARIN, STRYCHNINE, RED SQUILL

72. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHODS: THIS METHOD IS PRACTICED
BY COMBATING THE PESTS, MOSTLY THE INSECTS, WHICH
OTHER LIVING ORGANISMS.
THE CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES PRODUCED AND RELEASED BY
SOME FEMALE INSECTS ARE CAPABLE TO ELICTING (REACTION)
A SEXUAL RESPONSE FROM THE OPPOSITE SEX, WHICH COULD
BE EXPLOITED FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS CALLED
SEX PHEROMONES. EXAMPLE: 7, 8-EPOXY 2-
METHYLOCTADECANE FROM GYPSM MOTH.
NATURALPEST CONTROLAGENTS: TOBACCO,NUX-VOMICA,
NEEM

73. PLANT HORMONES AND
GROWTH REGULATORS
• Plant hormones (phytohormones) are
physiological intercellular messengers that
control the complete plant lifecycle, including
germination, rooting, growth, flowering, fruit
ripening, foliage and death.
• In addition, plant hormones are secreted in
response to environmental factors such as excess
of nutrients, drought conditions, light,
temperature and chemical orphysical stress.

74. FUNCTIONS OFAUXIN
STIMULATES CELLELONGATION.
The auxin supply from the apical bud suppresses
growth of lateral buds.
Differentiation of vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem) is stimulatedby IAA.
FUNCTIONS OF CYTOKININ
Stimulate cell division(cytokinesis).
Stimulate morphogenesis (shoot initiation/bud
formation) in tissueculture.
Stimulate the growth of lateral (or adventitious) buds
release of apical dominance.

75. FUNCTIONS OF GIBBERELLINS
Stimulates stem elongation by stimulating cell division and
elongation.
GAcontrols internodeelongation .
Enough active formsof GA.
FUNCTIONS OF ABSCISICACID
The abscisic acid stimulates the closure of stomata
Involved in abscission of buds, leaves, petals, flowers, and fruits
in many, if not all, instances, as well as in dehiscence of fruits.
Production is accentuated by stresses such as water loss and
freezing temperatures.

76. PLANT HORMONES :IT IS A HORMONE LIKE SYNTHETIC
ORGANIC COMPOUND. IN SMALL AMOUNTS, IT MODIFIES THE
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT EITHER BY PROMOTING OR
INHIBITING THE GROWTH.
GENERAL PLANT HORMONES: THE PHYTO-HORMONES ARE
BROADLYGROUPED UNDER FIVE MAJOR CLASSES NAMELY
(1) AUXINS(CELLELONGATION)
(2) GIBBERELLINS (CELL ELONGATION + CELL DIVISION -
TRANSLATED INTO GROWTH)
(3) CYTOKININS (CELLDIVISION + INHIBITS SENESCENCE)
(4 ) ABSCISICACID (ABSCISSION OF LEAVESAND FRUITS )
(5) ETHYLENE (PROMOTES SENESCENCE ,AND FRUIT RIPENING)

77. PLANT HORMONES AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS

78. INTRODUCTION
• Plant Growth regulators (PGR) refers
to natural or synthetic substances
influence the growth and
development.
• IAA (Auxin)- Both natural and
synthetic.
• IBA (Auxin) - Always synthetic.
• All plant hormone are plant
growth regulators but,

79. CLASSIFICATION OF PGR
On the Basis of Origin
• Natural hormone: Produced by some
tissues in the plant. Also called
Endogenous hormones. e.g. IAA.
• Synthetic hormone: Produced artificially
and similar to natural hormone in
physiological activity. Also called Exogenous
hormones. e.g. 2,4- D, NAA etc.
• Postulated hormone: Also produced
spontaneously in the plant body, but their
structure and function is not discovered
clearly.
e.g. Florigen, Vernalin.

80. On the Basis of Nature of Function
• Growth promoting
hormones/Growth promoter:
Increase the growth of plant.
• e.g. Auxins. Gibberellins, Cytokinins
etc.
• Growth inhibiting
hormones/Growth retardant:

81. PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR - AUXINS
• Derived from the Greek word
"auxein" means- "to
grow/increase".
• Auxins may be defined as
growth promoting substances
which promote growth along
the vertical axis when applied
in low concentration to the
shoot of the plant.

82. OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF AUXINS
Occurs universally in all plants.
Where there is active growth there is
auxin production.
Growing meristem and enlarging organs
produces auxin.
Shoot apex produces much auxin than root
apex.
Apical bud synthesizes more auxin than
lateral buds.
Developing seeds contain more auxin than
matured seeds.
Apical bud synthesizes six times more auxin

83. AUXIN TRANSLOCATION
Auxin transported
basipetally.
It moves from apical to basal
end.
Velocity of transport is-
1 to 1.5 cm/hr in stem
& coleoptiles

84. STRUCTURE OF AUXINS

85. Synthetic Auxins—produced artificially and
similar to natural in their physiological
activity.
IPA (Indole Propionic Acid)
IBA (Indole Butyric Acid)
NAA (Napthalene Acetic Acid)
2,4-D (2,4 – Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
2,4,5-T (2,4,5 – Trichlorophenoxy acetic

88. STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS OF AUXIN
Exception – Only Thiocarbamate is exception in
nature. It is an aliphatic compound but act as
auxin and has no ring structure.
5.5Å
δ +
δ-

89. An unsaturated ring (at least one double
bond in the ring).
An acidic Side Chain containing carboxyl
group (COOH ).
At least one carbon atom between the ring
and carboxyl group.
Spatial difference between the ring and
carboxyl group, i.e. molecule should be 5.5
Å.
Others –
Easy transportability to plant cell,
preventive to enzyme degradation,

90. STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS AND AUXIN ACTIVITY
A. Nature of ring system
• A six carbon ring together with five carbons (i.e.
indole ring) shows greater activity.
• The ring bigger than Indole ring possesses high
activity, eg. NAA
• Saturated ring does not show auxin activity.
• At least one double bond in the ring is necessary
and it should be adjacent to the side chain.
• Increasing the number of double bonds in the
ring increases the activity of molecules.
• Substitution of N of pyrrole ring with either
carbon or oxygen reduces the auxin activity.

91. B. Nature of Side Chain:
• When carboxylic group (-COOH) in the
side chain is separated by a carbon or
a carbon & oxygen it produces optimal
activity (i.e. IAA)
• If the intervening number of carbon
atoms
(carbon atom between ring and carboxylic group)
–is of even number, the activity

93. C. Others:
1) Substitution in the ring:
– Substitution by Cl and CH3 increases the auxin
activity.
– Substitution by other halogen (Br, I, Fl) or OH
decreases the auxin activity.
– Ortho position of the ring is more active than
Meta/Para position.
2) Cis-Trans Structure:
Cis-structure is more active and trans-structure is
inactive.
3) Optical configuration:

94. MODE OF ACTION OF AUXIN (IN CELL
ELONGATION)
1) Enlargement
mechanism

95. 2) Wall Rigidity Mechanism
• Fixing on binding sites auxin sends a messenger
to nucleus.
• Nature of this messenger is unknown to
the physiologist.
• So that a structural changeof DNA happens;
mRNA forms from DNA.
• ThesemRNAcarries some new information –
comes outside the nucleus and generate
new enzyme.
• This enzyme produces new cell wall materials
which gives wall plasticity and rigidity. So
enlargement get permanency.
• In other cases, new DNA , mRNA formation is the
basic principle of mode of action.

96. EFFECTS OF AUXIN ON PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Cell Elongation and Cell Division
• Causesgrowth in coleoptiles and stem due to
elongation of already existing cells.
• The main causes of cell elongation-
– By increasing the osmotic content, permeability of
cell to water, wall synthesis.
– By reducing wall pressure.
– By inducing the synthesis of RNA & protein which in
turn lead to an increase in cell wall plasticity &
extension.
• Auxin also induces/ promotes cell division within

97. Apical Dominance
• Apical or terminal buds of many vascular
plants are very active while the lateral buds
remain inactive.
• Removal of apical buds promotes lateral buds to
grow.
• Apical dominance is due to much higher auxin
content in the apical buds than lateral buds.
Phototropism
• Plant bend towards unilateral light.

98. Geotropism
• Movement of aplant’s organ in response to gravity
is known as geotropism/ gravitropism.
• Stem and roots accumulate IAA on the lower
side in response to gravity.
• Increased auxin concentration on the lower side in
stems causes those cells to grow more than cells
on the upper side.
– stem bends up against the force of gravity
• negative gravitropism
• Upper side of roots grow more rapidly than the
lower side.
– roots ultimately grow downward
• positive gravitropism

99. Root initiation
• Applicationof IAA to cut end of a stem
promotes root formation.
Control or Prevention of Abscission
• Abscission does not occur when auxin content
is high on distal end and low in the proximal
end of abscission zone.
Parthenocarpy (fruit development without
prior fertilization)
• Auxin induces Parthenocarpy.

100. Callus Formation
• Undifferentiated mass of parenchymatous
tissue is known as callus.
• Application of IAA causes cells to elongate
& adventitious root.
Sex Expression
• Auxin induced the changing of sex ratio of
flowers towards femaleness, i.e. increase
the number of female flowers.

102. USE OF AUXIN IN AGRICULTURE
Rooting of Cuttings
• Application of NAA (in Mango) and IBA (in
Guava) in stem cutting causes 100% success
in vegetative propagation.
Prevention of Sprouting
• In case of Potato – Methyl ester of NAA (MENA)
• In case of Onion – Maleic Hydrazide (MH)
Seedless Fruit Production (Parthenocarpy)
• In case of Banana, Grapes,
Strawberry, Grapes – Application of
IAA, IBA, and NAA 100%
Brinjal
,
sho

103. Promotion of Flowering
• Application NAA causes uniform flowering in
Pineapple leading to development of uniform
sized fruits.
• 2, 4 -D is also used to increasethe femaleness
in monoecious Cucurbits.
Prevention of Premature Dropping of Fruits
• In case of Apple and Cotton - NAA
• In case of Citrus fruits – 2,4–D/ 2,4,5-T
Germination
• IAA,IBA,is most widely usedin soakingseedsfor
germination.

104. Fruit Setting
• 2, 4, 5-T is used for improved fruit setting in
berries.
Thinning of Flower, Fruit and Leaves
• 2, 4-D is used for defoliation of Cotton plant
before boll harvesting.
• NAA is used for fruit thinning in Apple.
Prevention of Lodging in Cereals
• 30-40% Yield loss in traditional tall varieties.
Alpha naphthalene acetamide is used to
prevent lodging in cereals.

105. Weedicide
• 2, 4-D,MCPA(Methyl Chloro-Phenoxy
Acetic Acid) are weed killer.
• 2,4-D is highly toxic to broad leaved
plants or dicotyledons.
Tissue Culture
• Auxin along with cytokinin shows
successful callus formation, root-shoot
differentiation etc.

106. • Named after the fungus Gibberella
fujikuroi
which causes rice plants to grow very tall
• Gibberellins belong to a large class of over
100 naturally occurring plant hormones
– All are acidic and abbreviated GA
– Have important effects on stem elongation
• Enhanced if auxin present
PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR -
GIBBERELLINS

107. • Adding gibberellins to certain dwarf
mutants restores normal growth and
development

108. • GA is used as a signal from the embryo
that turns on transcription of genes
encoding hydrolytic enzymes in the
aleurone layer
• When GA binds to its receptor, it frees
GA- dependent transcription factors
from a repressor
• These transcription factors can now
directly affect gene expression

109. • Hasten seed germination
• Used commercially to extend internode
length in grapes
– Result is larger grapes

110. • Plant hormone that, in combination
with auxin, stimulates cell division
and differentiation
Synthetic
cytokinins
PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR -
CYTOKININS

111. • Produced in the root apical meristems
and developing fruits
• In all plants, cytokinins, working with
other hormones, seem to regulate
growth patterns
• Promote the growth of lateral buds
into branches
• Inhibit the formation of lateral roots
– Auxin promotes their formation

112. • Promote the synthesis or
activation of cytokinesis
proteins
• Also function as
antiaging hormones
• Agrobacterium inserts genes
that increase rate of cytokinin
and auxin production
– Causes massive cell division
– Formation of crown gall tumor

113. • Plant tissue can
form shoots,
roots, or an
undifferentiated
mass
depending on
the relative
amounts of
auxin and
cytokinin

114. PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR -
ETHYLENE
• Gaseous hydrocarbon (H2C―CH2)
• Auxin stimulates ethylene production in the
tissues around the lateral bud and thus retards
their growth
• Ethylene also suppresses stem and root
elongation
• Major role in fruit development – hastens
ripening
– Transgenic tomato plant can’t make ethylene
– Shipped without ripening and rotting

115. PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR -
ABSCISIC ACID
• Synthesized mainly in mature green
leaves, fruits, and root caps
• Little evidence that this hormone plays a
role in abscission
• Induces formation of dormant winter buds
• Counteracts gibberellins by suppressing
bud growth and elongation
• Counteracts auxin by promoting
senescence

116. • Necessary for dormancy in seeds
– Prevents precocious germination called
vivipary
• Important in the opening and closing
of stomata

118. MISCELLANEOUS PLANT GROWTH HORMONES
• Other identified plant growth
regulators include-
a)BRASSINOSTEROID:-
• First discovered in the pollen of brassica
spp.
• Are structurally simillar to steroid
hormones.

120. • Functional overlap with other plant
hormones, especially auxins and
gibberellins
• Broad spectrum of physiological effects
– Elongation, cell division, stem bending,
vascular tissue development, delayed
senescence, membrane polarization and
reproductive development
31

121. SALICYLIC ACID:-
• Activate genes in some plants that produce
chemicals that aid in the defense against
pathogenic invader.
Jasmonates :-
• Are produced from fatty acids & seems to
promote the production of defense proteins
that are used to fend off invading organisms.
• Also have a role in seed germination.

122. PLANT PEPTIDE
HORMONES:-
 Involved in cell to cell signaling.
 Roles in plant growth &development , including
defense
mechanism.
Polyamines:-
 Are strongly basic molecule with low molecular weight
that have been found in all organism studied thus far.
Nitric oxide:-
 Serves as signals in hormonal &defense response.
 E.G-nitrogen fixation , stomata closure , germination
, cell death.

123. KARRIKINS :-
• Not plant hormones because they are not made by
plants, but are a group of plant growth regulator found in
the smoke of burning plant materials that have the ability
to stimulates the germination of seeds.
Strigolactones :-
 Implicated in the inhibition of shoot branching.
Triacontanol :-
 A fatty alcohol that acts as a growth stimulant,
especially initiating new basal breaks in the rose
family.
 It is found in ALFALFA (Lucerne),BEE’S WAX.

124. POTENTIAL MEDICAL APPLICATION
 Plant stress hormones activate cellular response,
including cell death to diverse stress situation in
plants.
 Researchers have found that some plant stress
hormone share the ability to adversely affect
human cancer cells.
 E.G:-sodium salicylate has been found to
suppress proliferation of LYMPHOBLASTIC
LEUKEMIA,PROSTATE &MELANOMA human
cancer cells.
 Methyl jasmonate has been found to induce cell
death in a number of cancer cell lines.

125. THANK YOU !!!
siupa.pharma@gmail.com