This document discusses query languages and relational algebra operations. It introduces relational algebra as a procedural query language. The basic relational algebra operations are selection, projection, union, set difference, cartesian product, and rename. Examples are provided to illustrate each operation. Additional operations like join, outer join, division and aggregation are also discussed. The document concludes with a discussion of database modification operations like deletion, insertion and updating.
The document provides an overview of relational algebra and database concepts including:
- The basic structure of relations and relation schemas using an example of customer data.
- Key concepts like primary keys, foreign keys, and relationships between relations.
- The six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, set difference, cartesian product, and rename. Examples are given for each.
- Additional relational algebra operations like set intersection, natural join, division, and assignment are described along with banking examples.
- The document concludes with a mention of extended relational algebra operations like generalized projection, aggregate functions, and outer join.
The document discusses tuple relational calculus and domain relational calculus. Tuple relational calculus describes the desired information as a set of tuples that satisfy a predicate, in the form {t | P(t)}. Domain relational calculus uses domain variables that take on attribute values rather than entire tuples. Both languages use atoms, formulae, and quantification to write queries. Expressions must be safe by only generating tuples within the domain to avoid infinite relations. Sample queries are provided to illustrate the languages.
These slides cover basic introduction to Relational Algebra which is a part of Relational Database Management System(RDBMS). The content includes basic RA symbols, operations with visualization.
The document discusses various concepts in relational databases including:
- Relation schemas define the structure of relations with attributes.
- Relations are sets of tuples that conform to a relation schema.
- Keys such as candidate keys and primary keys uniquely identify tuples.
- Foreign keys in one relation refer to primary keys in another.
- Relational algebra operators manipulate relations, including select, project, join, union and more.
The document discusses relational algebra, which is a formal language used to query and manipulate relations in a relational database. It describes the basic operations in relational algebra like selection, projection, join, union, set difference, etc. and provides examples of how to write queries using each of these operations.
Lecture 06 relational algebra and calculusemailharmeet
The document discusses data manipulation languages (DML) for databases. There are two main types of DML: navigational/procedural and non-navigational/non-procedural. Relational algebra is a non-navigational DML defined by Codd that uses algebraic operations like selection, projection, join, etc. on tables. Relational calculus is also a non-navigational DML that defines new relations in terms of predicates on tuple variables ranging over named relations.
Dbms ii mca-ch5-ch6-relational algebra-2013Prosanta Ghosh
The document discusses relational algebra, which defines a set of operations for the relational model. The relational algebra operations can be divided into two groups: set operations from mathematical set theory including UNION, INTERSECTION, and SET DIFFERENCE; and operations developed specifically for relational databases including SELECT, PROJECT, and JOIN. The six basic relational algebra operators are SELECT, PROJECT, UNION, INTERSECTION, SET DIFFERENCE, and CARTESIAN PRODUCT. RELATIONAL expressions allow sequences of these operations to be combined to retrieve and manipulate data from relations.
The document provides an overview of relational algebra and database concepts including:
- The basic structure of relations and relation schemas using an example of customer data.
- Key concepts like primary keys, foreign keys, and relationships between relations.
- The six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, set difference, cartesian product, and rename. Examples are given for each.
- Additional relational algebra operations like set intersection, natural join, division, and assignment are described along with banking examples.
- The document concludes with a mention of extended relational algebra operations like generalized projection, aggregate functions, and outer join.
The document discusses tuple relational calculus and domain relational calculus. Tuple relational calculus describes the desired information as a set of tuples that satisfy a predicate, in the form {t | P(t)}. Domain relational calculus uses domain variables that take on attribute values rather than entire tuples. Both languages use atoms, formulae, and quantification to write queries. Expressions must be safe by only generating tuples within the domain to avoid infinite relations. Sample queries are provided to illustrate the languages.
These slides cover basic introduction to Relational Algebra which is a part of Relational Database Management System(RDBMS). The content includes basic RA symbols, operations with visualization.
The document discusses various concepts in relational databases including:
- Relation schemas define the structure of relations with attributes.
- Relations are sets of tuples that conform to a relation schema.
- Keys such as candidate keys and primary keys uniquely identify tuples.
- Foreign keys in one relation refer to primary keys in another.
- Relational algebra operators manipulate relations, including select, project, join, union and more.
The document discusses relational algebra, which is a formal language used to query and manipulate relations in a relational database. It describes the basic operations in relational algebra like selection, projection, join, union, set difference, etc. and provides examples of how to write queries using each of these operations.
Lecture 06 relational algebra and calculusemailharmeet
The document discusses data manipulation languages (DML) for databases. There are two main types of DML: navigational/procedural and non-navigational/non-procedural. Relational algebra is a non-navigational DML defined by Codd that uses algebraic operations like selection, projection, join, etc. on tables. Relational calculus is also a non-navigational DML that defines new relations in terms of predicates on tuple variables ranging over named relations.
Dbms ii mca-ch5-ch6-relational algebra-2013Prosanta Ghosh
The document discusses relational algebra, which defines a set of operations for the relational model. The relational algebra operations can be divided into two groups: set operations from mathematical set theory including UNION, INTERSECTION, and SET DIFFERENCE; and operations developed specifically for relational databases including SELECT, PROJECT, and JOIN. The six basic relational algebra operators are SELECT, PROJECT, UNION, INTERSECTION, SET DIFFERENCE, and CARTESIAN PRODUCT. RELATIONAL expressions allow sequences of these operations to be combined to retrieve and manipulate data from relations.
The document discusses the relational model for databases. The relational model represents data as mathematical n-ary relations and uses relational algebra or relational calculus to perform operations. Relational calculus comes in two flavors: tuple relational calculus (TRC) and domain relational calculus (DRC). TRC uses tuple variables while DRC uses domain element variables. Expressions in relational calculus are called formulas and queries return tuples that make the formula evaluate to true.
The document summarizes a lecture on relational algebra and calculus. It defines relational algebra as a theoretical language used to query databases using operations that work on relations. It describes the five fundamental relational algebra operations and additional join, division, and aggregate operations. It then defines relational calculus as specifying what to retrieve from a database rather than how, and describes tuple and domain relational calculus using predicates, quantifiers, and tuple variables.
The document describes relational algebra and calculus operations for querying relational databases. It outlines unary operations like select, project, and rename that operate on a single relation as well as binary operations derived from set theory like union, intersection, and difference that combine two relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how sequences of relational algebra operations can be used to formulate queries and retrieve data from the COMPANY example database.
The document provides an overview of the relational model and relational algebra used in relational databases. It defines key concepts like relations, tuples, attributes, domains, schemas, instances, keys, and normal forms. It also explains the six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, difference, cartesian product, and rename - and how they can be composed to form complex queries. Examples of relations and queries involving operations like selection, projection, joins are provided to illustrate relational algebra.
This document discusses tuple relational calculus (TRC) and domain relational calculus (DRC), which are nonprocedural query languages for relational databases. It provides examples of queries written in TRC and DRC on sample bank data. It also covers the syntax and semantics of predicates in TRC/DRC, including quantifiers, connectives, and safety conditions for queries to return finite result sets. Expressive power and equivalence between the basic relational algebra and the two calculi are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of digital electronics and Boolean algebra topics, including:
- Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logical operations. It originated from George Boole's 1854 book.
- Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital systems. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR gates.
- Boolean laws like commutative, associative, distributive, De Morgan's theorems are used to simplify logic expressions.
- Karnaugh maps are used to minimize logic expressions into sum of products or product of sums form. Don't care conditions allow for further simplification.
- Universal gates like NAND and NOR can be used to construct all other logic gates
INTRODUCTION
Relational Query Languages
Formal Query Languages
Introduction to relational algebra
Set Operators Join operator
Aggregate functions, Grouping
Relational Calculus concepts
Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)
Features of SQL, DDL Statements
FYBSC IT Digital Electronics Unit II Chapter I Boolean Algebra and Logic GatesArti Parab Academics
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates:
Introduction, Logic (AND OR NOT), Boolean theorems, Boolean
Laws, De Morgan’s Theorem, Perfect Induction, Reduction of Logic
expression using Boolean Algebra, Deriving Boolean expression from
given circuit, exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR gates, Universal Logic
gates, Implementation of other gates using universal gates, Input
bubbled logic, Assertion level.
The document discusses the basic language of functions. It defines a function as a procedure that assigns each input exactly one output. Functions can be represented by formulas using typical variables like f(x) = x^2 - 2x + 3, where x is the input and f(x) is the output. Functions have a domain, which is the set of all possible inputs, and a range, which is the set of all possible outputs. Functions can be depicted graphically or via tables listing inputs and outputs.
The document discusses different ways to define functions. It states that a function assigns each input exactly one output. It provides examples of defining functions verbally and using tables. For a procedure to be a function, it must produce a unique output for each input. The document also introduces the concepts of domain and range, explaining that the domain is the set of all valid inputs and the range is the set of all outputs. Functions can also be defined graphically by plotting the relationship between inputs and outputs.
The document discusses lexical analysis in compilers. It describes how a lexical analyzer groups characters into tokens by recognizing patterns in the input based on regular expressions. It provides examples of token classes and structures. It also explains how lexical analysis is implemented using a lexical analyzer generator called LEX, which translates a LEX source file into a C program that performs lexical analysis.
The document discusses relational algebra operations including selection, projection, join, union, intersection, difference, and cartesian product. It provides examples of how to write queries using these operations, such as selecting tuples that satisfy certain conditions, extracting certain attributes, combining relations, and performing joins between relations. Key operations like selection, projection, equijoin and natural join are explained in detail with examples.
INTRODUCTION
3NF and BCNF
Decomposition requirements
Lossless join decomposition
Dependency preserving decomposition
Disk pack features
Records and Files
Ordered and Unordered files
2NF,NF,3NF,BCNF
Semantic Web technologies are a set of languages standardized by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and designed to create a web of data that can be processed by machines. One of the core languages of the Semantic Web is Web Ontology Language (OWL), a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies or knowledge bases. The newest OWL is based on Description Logics (DL), a family of logics that are decidable fragments of first-order logic. leanCoR is a new description logic reasoner designed for experimenting with the new connection method algorithms and optimization techniques for DL. leanCoR is an extension of leanCoP, a compact automated theorem prover for classical first-order logic.
Regular languages can be described using regular grammars, regular expressions, or finite automata. A regular grammar contains productions of the form A->aB or A->a where A and B are nonterminals and a is a terminal. A language is regular if it can be generated by a regular grammar. Regular expressions describe languages using operators like concatenation, union, and Kleene star. Finite automata are machines that accept or reject strings using a finite number of states. The three models are equivalent in that they can generate the same regular languages.
The document discusses functions and their properties. It defines a function as a procedure that assigns each input exactly one output. It provides examples of different ways to define functions, such as with formulas, tables, or graphs. It also discusses the domain and range of functions, and how to evaluate specific functions by replacing the input variable.
The document discusses closure of attribute sets and computing canonical covers from a set of functional dependencies (FDs). It defines closure of an attribute set A under a set of FDs F as the largest set B such that A implies B. It provides an algorithm to compute closure by starting with B=A and adding attributes implied by FDs where the left side is in B. The document also defines a canonical cover as a minimal equivalent set of FDs with unique left sides and no extraneous attributes. It provides steps to test if an attribute is extraneous in a FD.
Learning to write programs using selection
Condition: Relational and Logical Expressions , Conditional Statements (if statement) , Choosing from Multiple Alternatives
Exercises in writing conditions using relational, logical operations, writing programs involving if statement, if-else, if- elseif and switch case statements in MATLAB
This document contains a data structures question paper from Anna University. It has two parts:
Part A contains 10 short answer questions covering topics like ADT, linked stacks, graph theory, algorithm analysis, binary search trees, and more.
Part B contains 5 long answer questions each worth 16 marks. Topics include algorithms for binary search, linear search, recursion, sorting, trees, graphs, files, and more. Students are required to write algorithms, analyze time complexity, and provide examples for each question.
This document describes a K-Map software tool that simplifies Boolean equations. The tool reads in a Boolean expression with up to 4 variables in sum-of-products or product-of-sums form, generates a Karnaugh map, and uses it to minimize the expression. Algorithms are provided for solving 2, 3, and 4 variable maps. The tool could aid in designing sequential circuits and simplifying expressions frequently in other applications. Its use of different input forms and deductive reasoning achieves simplified output.
The document provides an overview of the relational model and relational algebra used in relational databases. It defines key concepts like relations, tuples, attributes, domains, schemas, instances, keys, and normal forms. It also explains the six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, difference, cartesian product, and rename - and how they can be composed to form complex queries. Examples of relations and queries involving operations like selection, projection, joins are provided to illustrate relational algebra.
What is Relational model
Characteristics
Relational constraints
Representation of schemas
characteristics and Constraints of Relational model with proper examples.
Updates and dealing with constraint violations in Relational model
The document discusses the relational model for databases. The relational model represents data as mathematical n-ary relations and uses relational algebra or relational calculus to perform operations. Relational calculus comes in two flavors: tuple relational calculus (TRC) and domain relational calculus (DRC). TRC uses tuple variables while DRC uses domain element variables. Expressions in relational calculus are called formulas and queries return tuples that make the formula evaluate to true.
The document summarizes a lecture on relational algebra and calculus. It defines relational algebra as a theoretical language used to query databases using operations that work on relations. It describes the five fundamental relational algebra operations and additional join, division, and aggregate operations. It then defines relational calculus as specifying what to retrieve from a database rather than how, and describes tuple and domain relational calculus using predicates, quantifiers, and tuple variables.
The document describes relational algebra and calculus operations for querying relational databases. It outlines unary operations like select, project, and rename that operate on a single relation as well as binary operations derived from set theory like union, intersection, and difference that combine two relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how sequences of relational algebra operations can be used to formulate queries and retrieve data from the COMPANY example database.
The document provides an overview of the relational model and relational algebra used in relational databases. It defines key concepts like relations, tuples, attributes, domains, schemas, instances, keys, and normal forms. It also explains the six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, difference, cartesian product, and rename - and how they can be composed to form complex queries. Examples of relations and queries involving operations like selection, projection, joins are provided to illustrate relational algebra.
This document discusses tuple relational calculus (TRC) and domain relational calculus (DRC), which are nonprocedural query languages for relational databases. It provides examples of queries written in TRC and DRC on sample bank data. It also covers the syntax and semantics of predicates in TRC/DRC, including quantifiers, connectives, and safety conditions for queries to return finite result sets. Expressive power and equivalence between the basic relational algebra and the two calculi are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of digital electronics and Boolean algebra topics, including:
- Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logical operations. It originated from George Boole's 1854 book.
- Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital systems. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR gates.
- Boolean laws like commutative, associative, distributive, De Morgan's theorems are used to simplify logic expressions.
- Karnaugh maps are used to minimize logic expressions into sum of products or product of sums form. Don't care conditions allow for further simplification.
- Universal gates like NAND and NOR can be used to construct all other logic gates
INTRODUCTION
Relational Query Languages
Formal Query Languages
Introduction to relational algebra
Set Operators Join operator
Aggregate functions, Grouping
Relational Calculus concepts
Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)
Features of SQL, DDL Statements
FYBSC IT Digital Electronics Unit II Chapter I Boolean Algebra and Logic GatesArti Parab Academics
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates:
Introduction, Logic (AND OR NOT), Boolean theorems, Boolean
Laws, De Morgan’s Theorem, Perfect Induction, Reduction of Logic
expression using Boolean Algebra, Deriving Boolean expression from
given circuit, exclusive OR and Exclusive NOR gates, Universal Logic
gates, Implementation of other gates using universal gates, Input
bubbled logic, Assertion level.
The document discusses the basic language of functions. It defines a function as a procedure that assigns each input exactly one output. Functions can be represented by formulas using typical variables like f(x) = x^2 - 2x + 3, where x is the input and f(x) is the output. Functions have a domain, which is the set of all possible inputs, and a range, which is the set of all possible outputs. Functions can be depicted graphically or via tables listing inputs and outputs.
The document discusses different ways to define functions. It states that a function assigns each input exactly one output. It provides examples of defining functions verbally and using tables. For a procedure to be a function, it must produce a unique output for each input. The document also introduces the concepts of domain and range, explaining that the domain is the set of all valid inputs and the range is the set of all outputs. Functions can also be defined graphically by plotting the relationship between inputs and outputs.
The document discusses lexical analysis in compilers. It describes how a lexical analyzer groups characters into tokens by recognizing patterns in the input based on regular expressions. It provides examples of token classes and structures. It also explains how lexical analysis is implemented using a lexical analyzer generator called LEX, which translates a LEX source file into a C program that performs lexical analysis.
The document discusses relational algebra operations including selection, projection, join, union, intersection, difference, and cartesian product. It provides examples of how to write queries using these operations, such as selecting tuples that satisfy certain conditions, extracting certain attributes, combining relations, and performing joins between relations. Key operations like selection, projection, equijoin and natural join are explained in detail with examples.
INTRODUCTION
3NF and BCNF
Decomposition requirements
Lossless join decomposition
Dependency preserving decomposition
Disk pack features
Records and Files
Ordered and Unordered files
2NF,NF,3NF,BCNF
Semantic Web technologies are a set of languages standardized by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and designed to create a web of data that can be processed by machines. One of the core languages of the Semantic Web is Web Ontology Language (OWL), a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies or knowledge bases. The newest OWL is based on Description Logics (DL), a family of logics that are decidable fragments of first-order logic. leanCoR is a new description logic reasoner designed for experimenting with the new connection method algorithms and optimization techniques for DL. leanCoR is an extension of leanCoP, a compact automated theorem prover for classical first-order logic.
Regular languages can be described using regular grammars, regular expressions, or finite automata. A regular grammar contains productions of the form A->aB or A->a where A and B are nonterminals and a is a terminal. A language is regular if it can be generated by a regular grammar. Regular expressions describe languages using operators like concatenation, union, and Kleene star. Finite automata are machines that accept or reject strings using a finite number of states. The three models are equivalent in that they can generate the same regular languages.
The document discusses functions and their properties. It defines a function as a procedure that assigns each input exactly one output. It provides examples of different ways to define functions, such as with formulas, tables, or graphs. It also discusses the domain and range of functions, and how to evaluate specific functions by replacing the input variable.
The document discusses closure of attribute sets and computing canonical covers from a set of functional dependencies (FDs). It defines closure of an attribute set A under a set of FDs F as the largest set B such that A implies B. It provides an algorithm to compute closure by starting with B=A and adding attributes implied by FDs where the left side is in B. The document also defines a canonical cover as a minimal equivalent set of FDs with unique left sides and no extraneous attributes. It provides steps to test if an attribute is extraneous in a FD.
Learning to write programs using selection
Condition: Relational and Logical Expressions , Conditional Statements (if statement) , Choosing from Multiple Alternatives
Exercises in writing conditions using relational, logical operations, writing programs involving if statement, if-else, if- elseif and switch case statements in MATLAB
This document contains a data structures question paper from Anna University. It has two parts:
Part A contains 10 short answer questions covering topics like ADT, linked stacks, graph theory, algorithm analysis, binary search trees, and more.
Part B contains 5 long answer questions each worth 16 marks. Topics include algorithms for binary search, linear search, recursion, sorting, trees, graphs, files, and more. Students are required to write algorithms, analyze time complexity, and provide examples for each question.
This document describes a K-Map software tool that simplifies Boolean equations. The tool reads in a Boolean expression with up to 4 variables in sum-of-products or product-of-sums form, generates a Karnaugh map, and uses it to minimize the expression. Algorithms are provided for solving 2, 3, and 4 variable maps. The tool could aid in designing sequential circuits and simplifying expressions frequently in other applications. Its use of different input forms and deductive reasoning achieves simplified output.
The document provides an overview of the relational model and relational algebra used in relational databases. It defines key concepts like relations, tuples, attributes, domains, schemas, instances, keys, and normal forms. It also explains the six basic relational algebra operations - select, project, union, difference, cartesian product, and rename - and how they can be composed to form complex queries. Examples of relations and queries involving operations like selection, projection, joins are provided to illustrate relational algebra.
What is Relational model
Characteristics
Relational constraints
Representation of schemas
characteristics and Constraints of Relational model with proper examples.
Updates and dealing with constraint violations in Relational model
Relational algebra is the basic set of operations for the relational model, including unary operations like selection and projection, binary operations like various join types, and set operations like union and intersection. Relational algebra operations manipulate relations and produce new relations, allowing users to specify database queries. Common operations include selection to filter tuples, projection to select attributes, equijoins to match tuples on equality conditions, and outer joins to retain non-matching tuples.
This document provides an overview of data modeling and SQL. It introduces key concepts in relational databases including relations, schemas, tuples, domains, keys, and referential integrity. It also describes the relational data model including the structure of relations, attributes, and relation instances. Finally, it covers the relational algebra including operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and rename that form the basis for SQL queries. The document uses examples from a banking domain to illustrate these concepts.
The document describes the relational model for relational databases. It discusses the structure of relational databases including relations, tuples, attributes, domains, keys and relation schemas. It also describes the relational algebra query language including operators like select, project, join, union and set differences. Examples are provided to illustrate how to write queries using these operators to retrieve and manipulate data from relations that model real-world entities and relationships, like customers, accounts and loans in a banking example.
relational model in Database Management.ppt.pptRoshni814224
This document provides an overview of the relational model used in database management systems. It discusses key concepts such as:
- Relations, which are sets of tuples that represent entities and relationships between entities.
- Relation schemas that define the structure of relations, including the attributes and their domains.
- Keys such as candidate keys and foreign keys that uniquely identify tuples and define relationships between relations.
- Relational algebra, which consists of operators like select, project, join, and set operations to manipulate and query relations.
- An example banking schema is presented to demonstrate these concepts.
This document provides an overview of the relational model and relational database concepts. It defines key terms like relation schemas, attributes, domains, tuples, keys, and foreign keys. It also explains relational algebra operations like select, project, join, and aggregate functions. Examples of relational queries on banking database relations like accounts, customers, loans are provided to illustrate concepts. The document is intended to help students learn and practice relational database and query language concepts.
The document discusses the relational model of databases and relational algebra operations. It covers:
1. The basic structure of relations including attributes, tuples, domains, and relation schemas.
2. Key relational algebra operations like selection, projection, union, set difference, and cartesian product and provides examples of each.
3. Additional topics like keys, foreign keys, query languages, and examples of queries using relational algebra on banking database relations.
This document provides a summary of the basic structure and key concepts of SQL, including:
1) SQL queries typically involve a SELECT statement to retrieve attributes from one or more relations based on conditions in a WHERE clause.
2) Common SQL clauses include SELECT, FROM, WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING, and aggregate functions are used to perform calculations on groups of records.
3) Null values, three valued logic, and handling of duplicates are important concepts when working with SQL queries and relations.
Relational algebra and calculus are formal query languages used to manipulate and retrieve data from relational databases. Relational algebra uses algebraic operations like selection, projection, join, etc. to represent queries procedurally. Relational calculus allows users to describe what data is wanted declaratively using logic-based formulas with variables, quantifiers and predicates over relation instances. Both have free and bound variables, and queries return tuples that satisfy the formulas by assigning constants to free variables.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 2 on the relational database model. It introduces relations as tables with rows and columns, and discusses attribute types, relation schemas, and relation instances. It covers the concepts of keys and foreign keys. It also summarizes the core relational algebra operations of selection, projection, union, intersection, difference, Cartesian product, natural join, and renaming. Finally, it notes that relational algebra is not Turing complete and cannot perform aggregation operations like SUM and AVG.
This document provides an overview of SQL (Structured Query Language) including its history, data definition and manipulation capabilities. Key topics covered include SQL's data types, basic queries using SELECT, FROM and WHERE clauses, joins, aggregation, null values, triggers and indexes. The document also discusses SQL standards over time and commercial database implementations of SQL features.
The document describes the relational model for databases. It defines key concepts like relations, attributes, tuples, domains, schemas, keys, and foreign keys. It explains basic relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and cartesian product. It provides examples of how to express queries using these operations on sample relations from a banking database. Additional relational algebra operations like rename, intersection, and natural join are also introduced.
This document discusses query languages in database management systems. It covers the main categories of query languages: procedural languages like relational algebra, and non-procedural languages like tuple and domain relational calculus. Relational algebra operators like selection, projection, union, and join are defined. Example queries are provided in both relational algebra and relational calculus formats. Functional dependencies, candidate keys, and the closure of attribute sets under a set of functional dependencies are also explained.
Relational query languages allow manipulation and retrieval of data from a database. Relational algebra is the mathematical query language that forms the basis for SQL and implementation. It defines basic operations like selection, projection, join, and set operations that can be composed to express queries. Relational algebra represents queries procedurally and is useful for representing execution plans internally.
The document discusses relational algebra and relational calculus. It describes unary and binary relational operations in relational algebra such as select, project, union, intersection, difference. It also covers additional operations like join, division and aggregate functions. The document then discusses tuple relational calculus and domain relational calculus, explaining expressions, quantifiers, and how they are used to form relational queries.
The document provides an overview of the relational model used in database management systems. It defines key concepts like relations, attributes, tuples, domains, schemas, keys, and foreign keys. It also describes common relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, and set differences. Examples are provided to illustrate how these operations work on relations. Additional topics covered include query languages, normalization, and modeling a banking example database using these concepts.
Data structures organize data in computer memory. Arrays and lists are common data structures. Arrays use indexes to access fixed size elements, while lists allow insertions/deletions anywhere. Summing and multiplying arrays and matrices are important algorithms. Summing an array involves iterating through elements and adding to a running total. Multiplying matrices involves nested loops to calculate each element as the sum of products of corresponding row and column elements from the two matrices.
The document discusses stacks and their applications. Stacks follow LIFO (last-in, first-out) order and allow insertions and removals only from the top. Common applications include evaluating arithmetic expressions by converting them to postfix notation and solving problems like Tower of Hanoi. The algorithms for push, pop, infix to postfix conversion and postfix evaluation are presented.
The document provides an overview of several sorting algorithms, including insertion sort, bubble sort, selection sort, and radix sort. It describes the basic approach for each algorithm through examples and pseudocode. Analysis of the time complexity is also provided, with insertion sort, bubble sort, and selection sort having worst-case performance of O(n^2) and radix sort having performance of O(nk) where k is the number of passes.
This document discusses transaction management in databases. It defines a transaction as a unit of program execution that accesses and updates data items. Transactions must satisfy the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability to maintain data integrity. Atomicity ensures that transactions are fully completed or rolled back. Consistency means transactions preserve the consistency constraints of the database. Isolation ensures transactions execute independently without interfering with each other. Durability means transaction changes persist even after failures. The document discusses various concurrency control techniques like serializability to coordinate concurrent transaction execution while preserving isolation.
Frequent pattern mining aims to discover patterns that occur frequently in a dataset. It finds inherent regularities without any preconceptions. The frequent patterns can then be used for applications like association rule mining, classification, clustering, and more. Two major approaches for mining frequent patterns are the Apriori algorithm and FP-Growth. Apriori is a generate-and-test method while FP-Growth avoids candidate generation by building a compact data structure called an FP-tree to extract patterns directly.
This document provides information about the CS501 Database Systems and Data Mining course. It includes details about the course structure, timings, syllabus, evaluation policy, and introductory concepts about databases and database management systems. The syllabus covers topics such as data models, query languages, database design, data storage and indexing, query processing, and data mining concepts and techniques. Required textbooks and the evaluation criteria consisting of assignments, quizzes, mid-semester and end-semester exams are also specified.
This document discusses database normalization and functional dependencies. It provides examples of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd normal forms. It defines key concepts like functional dependencies, candidate keys, closure of attribute sets, minimal covers, and extraneous attributes. An example of a supplier-parts database is used to illustrate 2nd normal form. Functional dependencies indicate that city and status are not fully functionally dependent on the primary key, so the relation is not in 2nd normal form.
The document provides an introduction to data mining. It discusses the growth of data from terabytes to petabytes and how data mining can help extract knowledge from large datasets. The document outlines the evolution of sciences from empirical to theoretical to computational and now data-driven. It also describes the evolution of database technology and defines data mining as the process of discovering interesting patterns from large amounts of data. The key steps of the knowledge discovery process are discussed.
This document discusses data preprocessing and data warehouses. It explains that real-world data is often dirty, incomplete, noisy, and inconsistent. Data preprocessing aims to clean and transform raw data into a format suitable for data mining. The key tasks of data preprocessing include data cleaning, integration, transformation, reduction, and discretization. Data cleaning involves techniques like handling missing data, identifying outliers, and resolving inconsistencies. Data integration combines data from multiple sources. The document also defines characteristics of a data warehouse such as being subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and nonvolatile.
This document discusses concurrency control and recovery techniques for databases. It covers various notions of serializability and recoverability. It describes lock-based protocols like two-phase locking and graph-based protocols like tree protocols. It discusses issues like deadlocks, cascading rollbacks, and starvation. It also covers deadlock handling techniques like prevention, detection and recovery.
This document provides an overview of cluster analysis techniques. It begins by defining cluster analysis and its applications. It then categorizes major clustering methods into partitioning methods (like k-means and k-medoids), hierarchical methods, density-based methods, grid-based methods, and model-based methods. The document discusses different data types that can be clustered and measures for determining cluster quality. It also outlines requirements for effective clustering in data mining.
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2. QUERY LANGUAGES
Language in which user requests informationg g q
from the database.
Categories of languages
Procedural
Non-procedural, or declarative
“Pure” languages: Pure languages:
Relational algebra (Procedural)
Tuple relational calculus (Non-procedural)
Domain relational calculus (Non-procedural)
Pure languages form underlying basis of query
languages that people uselanguages that people use. 2
3. RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
Procedural languageg g
Six basic operators
Selection:
Projection:
Union:
Set difference: – Set difference: –
Cartesian product: x
Rename:
The operators take one or two relations as inputs
and produce a new relation as a result.
3
4. SELECTION OPERATION
Relation r A B C D
1
5
7
7
12
23
3
10 )()5()( rDBA
A B C D
1
23
7
10
4
8. CARTESIAN PRODUCT OPERATION
Relations r,s,
A B
1
A B C D E
1
2
r
1
1
1
1
10
10
20
10
a
a
b
b
sr
C D
10
E
a
1
2
2
2
10
10
10
20
b
a
a
b
10
20
10
a
b
b
2
10 b
8s
9. RENAME OPERATION
Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the
results of relational-algebra expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one
name.
Example:
x (E)
returns the expression E under the name x
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
returns the result of expression E under the name x,
)(),...,,( 21
EnAAAx
p ,
and with the attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , …., An . 9
12. EXAMPLE QUERIES
Find all loans of over Rs 2000
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount
h R 2000
)(2000 loanamount
greater than Rs 2000
Find the names of all customers who have a loan
))(( 2000_ loanamountnoloan
Find the names of all customers who have a loan,
an account, or both, from the bank
)()( borrowerdepositor namecustomernamecustomer )()( __ p namecustomernamecustomer
12
13. EXAMPLE QUERIES
Find the names of all customers who have a loan
at the Patliputra branch.
))(( )( loanborrowernoloanloannoloanborrowernamecustomer
Fi d th f ll t h h l
))((
).(
)_._.(_
Patliputrabranchloan
noloanloannoloanborrowernamecustomer
Find the names of all customers who have a loan
at the Patliputra branch but do not have an
account at any branch of the bank.
)(
))((
).(
)_._.(_
d i
loanborrower
Patliputrabranchloan
noloanloannoloanborrowernamecustomer
13)(_ depositornamecustomer
14. SOME OTHER OPERATIONS
Additional Operations Additional Operations
Set intersection
Natural join
Outer Join
Division
Th b ti b d i The above operations can be expressed using
basic operations we have seen earlier
14
16. SET INTERSECTION OPERATION (CONTD.)
Set intersection operation can be built usingp g
other basic operations
How?
r∩s=r-(r-s)
16
17. NATURAL JOIN OPERATION
Cartesian product often requires a selectionp q
operation
The selection operation most often requires that
ll tt ib t th t t th l tiall attributes that are common to the relations
are involved in the Cartesian product be equated
Steps for natural join Steps for natural join
1. Perform the Cartesian product of its two arguments
2. Perform a selection forcing equality on those
tt ib t th t i b th l ti l hattributes that appear in both relational schemas
3. Finally remove the duplicate attributes
17
18. NATURAL JOIN OPERATION
Relations r,s,
A B
1
C
B
1
D
a
E
1
4
4
1
1
3
1
2
a
a
a
b
r s
2 3 b
r s
A B C D EA B
1
1
1
C D
a
a
a
E
1
1
2
a
a
b
18
19. NATURAL JOIN OPERATION (CONTD.)
A natural join operation can be rewritten asj p
))(( ......... 2211
srnn AsArAsArAsArSR r s
Theta join is a variant of natural join
It i d fi d It is defined as
)( sr r θs
19
20. ASSIGNMENT OPERATION
It is convenient at times to write relational
algebra expression by assigning parts of it to
temporary relation variables
Th i t ti k lik i t The assignment operation works like assignment
in programming languages
We can rewrite asr s We can rewrite as
temp1← r х s
))1(......... 2211
tempnn AsArAsArAsAr temp2←
)2(tempsrresult←
20
21. OUTER JOIN OPERATION
An extension of the join operation that avoidsj p
loss of information
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one
l ti th t d t t h t l i th threlation that does not match tuples in the other
relation to the result of the join.
Uses null values: Uses null values:
null signifies that the value is unknown or does not
exist
All comparisons involving null are false by definition All comparisons involving null are false by definition.
21
22. DIFFERENT FORMS OF OUTER JOIN
Left outer joinj
Includes the tuples from the left relation that did not
match with any tuples in the right relation
Pads the tuples with null values for all other Pads the tuples with null values for all other
attributes from the right relation
Adds them to the result of the natural join
Similarly we can define-
Right outer join
F ll t j i Full outer join
We can rewrite asr s
r s U (r-πR(r s)) x {(null, …, null)}
22
( R( )) {( , , )}
Here the constant relation {(null,…,null)} is on schema S-R
23. NULL VALUE
It is possible for tuples to have a null value,p p ,
denoted by null, for some of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value
does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving
ll i llnull is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as
in SQL)in SQL)
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is
treated like any other value, and two nulls aret eated e a y ot e va ue, a d two u s a e
assumed to be the same (as in SQL)
23
24. DIVISION OPERATION
Notation: r÷s
Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”.
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively
wherewhere
R = (A1, …, Am , B1, …, Bn )
S = (B1, …, Bn)
The result of r s is a relation on schema
R – S = (A1, …, Am)
{ ( ) ( ) }r s = { t | t R-S (r) u s ( tu r ) }
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t and u to
produce a single tupleproduce a single tuple 24
25. DIVISION OPERATION (CONTD.)
Relations r,s,
B
A B
1
2
1
2
3
1
A
1
1
1
3
s
r÷s
4
6
1
2
r s
2
r
25
26. DIVISION OPERATION (CONTD.)
Definition in terms of the basic algebra operationg p
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S R
( ) ( ( ( ) ) ( ))r s = R-S (r ) – R-S ( ( R-S (r ) x s ) – R-S,S(r ))
26
28. EXAMPLE QUERIES
Find the names of all customers who have a loan
and an account at bank.
customer_name (borrower) customer_name (depositor)
Fi d h f ll h h l Find the name of all customers who have a loan
at the bank and the loan amount
customer name loan number amount (borrower loan)customer_name, loan_number, amount ( )
28
29. EXAMPLE QUERIES (CONTD.)
Find the largest account balance in the bankg
balance (account) – account.balance ( σaccount.balance <d.balance
(account x ρd account))
29
30. EXAMPLE QUERIES (CONTD.)
Find the name of customers who have an account at
all the branches located in “Patna” city.
customer_name,branch_name (depositor account)
branch_name (σbranch_city=“Patna” (branch))
30
31. FEW MORE JOIN OPERATIONS
Semi joinj
The left semi-join is similar to the natural join
The result of this semi-join is the set of all tuples
in r for which there is a tuple in s that is equal onin r for which there is a tuple in s that is equal on
their common attribute names
r semiJoin s = ΠA1,…, An(r naturalJoin s) where R =
{A1 A }{A1,…,An}
Anti join
It is similar to the natural join,s s a o e a a jo ,
but the result of an anti-join is only those tuples
in r for which there is no tuple in s that is equal on
their common attribute namestheir common attribute names
r antiJoin s = r – (r semiJoin s)
31
32. EXTENDED RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
OPERATIONS
Provide the ability to write queries that cannoty q
be expressed using basic relational algebra
operations
G li d P j ti Generalized Projections
Aggregation
32
33. GENERALIZED PROJECTION
An extension of projection which allowsp j
operations such as arithmetic and string
functions to be used in the projection list
Π (E) ΠF1,F2,…,Fn(E)
here F1,F2, …, Fn is an arithmetic expression
involving constants and attributes in the schema of E
Example: ΠID,name,dept_name,salary/12(emp)
Example: ΠID,(limit-balance) as credit_available(credit_info)
33
34. AGGREGATION
Aggregate functions take a collection of valuesgg g
and return a single value in result
E.g. sum, avg, count, max, min, etc.
M l i h ll i hi h Multisets: the collections on which aggregate
function operates can have multiple occurrences
of a value; the order in which the values appear; pp
is not relevant
g sum(salary)(instructor)
Caligraphic G
34
35. MODIFICATION OF THE DATABASE
The content of the database may be modifiedy
using the following operations:
Deletion
Insertion
Updating
All th ti d i th All these operations are expressed using the
assignment operator.
35
36. DELETION
A delete request is expressed similarly to aq p y
query, except instead of displaying tuples to the
user, the selected tuples are removed from the
databasedatabase.
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete
values on only particular attributes
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
r r – E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra
query.
36
38. DELETE EXAMPLE
Delete all account records in the “Patliputra” branch.p
r1 branch_name=“Patliputra” (account depositor)
account account – account_number, branch_name, balance (r1 )
d i d i ( 1 ) depositor depositor - customer_name,account_number (r1 )
Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50 Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
r2 amount>=0 and amount <= 50 (loan borrower)
loan loan – loan no branch name amount (r2)loan_no,branch_name,amount ( )
borrower borrower – customer_name,loan_no (r2)
38
40. INSERTION
To insert data into a relation, we either:,
specify a tuple to be inserted or
write a query whose result is a set of tuples to
be inserted
In relational algebra, an insertion is expressed
by:by:
r r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebrag
expression.
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by
l tti E b t t l ti t i iletting E be a constant relation containing one
tuple.
40
41. INSERT EXAMPLE
Insert information in the database specifying that
Sumit has Rs 1200 in account A-973 at the Patliputra
branch.
account account {(“A-973”, “Patliputra”, 1200)}{( , p , )}
depositor depositor {(“Sumit”, “A-973”)}
Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the
Patliputra branch a Rs 200 savings account Let thePatliputra branch, a Rs 200 savings account. Let the
loan number serve as the account number for the new
savings account.
( (b l ))r1 (branch_name = “Patliputra” (borrower loan))
r2 (loan_number, branch_name, (r1))
account account (r2 x {(200)})( 2 {( )})
depositor depositor customer_name, loan_number (r1)
41
42. UPDATING
A mechanism to change a value in a tupleg p
without changing all values in the tuple
Use the generalized projection operator to do this
t ktask
r←ΠF1,F2,…,Fi(r)
Each F is eitherEach Fi is either
the ith attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not
updated, or,
if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an
expression, involving only constants and the
attributes of r which gives the new value forattributes of r, which gives the new value for
the attribute
42
43. UPDATE EXAMPLE
Make interest payments by increasing allp y y g
balances by 5 percent.
account account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05
(account)(account)
Pay all accounts with balances over Rs1,00,000 a
six percent interest and pay all others five
percent
account account_number, branch_name, balance *
( (account ))1.06 ( balance 100000 (account ))
account_number, branch_name, balance *
1.05 ( balance 100000 (account))
43