Cooking reduces antimicrobial residues in meat through degradation. The degree of reduction depends on factors like cooking method, temperature, and drug properties. Tetracyclines generally show high reduction (35-94%) through methods like boiling, roasting and microwaving. β-lactams are unstable at high heat but stable at 65°C. Macrolides and chloramphenicol also degrade with increased temperature and time. Regulations in India establish tolerance limits and withdrawal periods but national surveillance programs are still needed to monitor antimicrobial usage and resistance.

1. 6 July 2015
Effect of cooking on antimicrobial residues
in meat and meat products
Major Advisor
Dr.V.N.Vasudevan
Assistant Professor
Department of Livestock Products
Technology
Prajwal. S (14-MVM-49)
Excellence in Meat Science
College of veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy

2. Outline
oIntroduction
oUses of antimicrobials
oCauses for occurrence and Impact on human health
oHeat stability of antimicrobials
oStability of antimicrobials during cooking
oRegulations and laws on antimicrobial residues in India
oFuture perspectives and Conclusion
6 July 2015 1

3. Introduction
Antimicrobial drugs
oNaturally occurring, semi-synthetic or synthetic compounds with
antimicrobial activity
oAdministered orally, parenterally or topically
oUsed to treat prevent disease of human and veterinary medicine,
and growth promotion (Barton, 2000)
oPotential for antimicrobial resistant bacteria to spread from
treated animals via the food chain (Swann, 1969)
6 July 2015 2

4. Use of antimicrobials in food animals and
poultry
oTherapy/Treatment
oPrevention/Prophylaxis
oGrowth promotion
6 July 2015 3

5. Causes for occurrence of antimicrobial residues
oPoor treatment records
oFailure to identify treated animals
oLack of advice on withdrawal periods by veterinarians
oOff label use of antimicrobials
oAvailability of antimicrobials to lay men
oLack of enforcement of laws to use antimicrobials
oLack of consumer awareness
(CAC, 2001)
6 July 2015 4

6. Impact of antimicrobial residue on human
oIncreased microbial resistance (Butaye et al., 2001)
oResistant strains can cause failure of antimicrobial therapy in
clinical situations (Nisha, 2008)
6 July 2015 5

7. Impact of antimicrobial residue on human
cont’d…
Antimicrobial Pathological effects
Sulphamethazine, Oxytetracycline
and Furazolidone
Immuno-pathological effects,
Autoimmunity, Carcinogenicity
Gentamicin Mutagenicity, Nephropathy
Chloramphenicol Hepatotoxicity, Reproductive
disorders, Bone marrow toxicity
Penicillin Allergy
(Nisha, 2008; Demoly and Romano, 2005)
6 July 2015 6

8. Heat stability of antimicrobial drugs
o Different heat stabilities depending on different types of matrices
and heating treatments involved (Rose et al., 1996)
6 July 2015 7
Heat stable Heat liable Partially heat liable
Sulfamethazine, Oxacillin,
Chloramphenicol,
Aminoglycosides,
Quinolones, Clindamycin
and Trimethoprim
Oxytetracycline and
Erythromycin
Penicillin G, Ampicillin and
Amoxycillin

9. Stability of antimicrobial drugs during cooking
oResidues of veterinary antimicrobials show varying degrees of
stability during cooking
oCooking influences the level of risk exposed to consumers
(Rose et al., 1999)
Factors affecting degradation of antimicrobial drugs
oDrug formulation and Pharmacodynamics
oCooking temperature and time
oShape and thickness of cooked tissues (O'Brien et al., 1981)
6 July 2015 8

10. Stability of tetracyclines
oCooking processes such as mocrowaving, boiling, roasting,
grilling, braising and frying bring about 35-94% reduction in
tetracycline residues in beef, mutton and cow liver (Rose et al., 1996)
oCuring of meat with sodium nitrate which has synergic effect
with cooking is facilitating the reduction of oxytetracyclin residue
(Fedeniuk et al., 1997)
oWithin the tetracycline group, doxycycline is heat stable and
oxytetracycline is heat labile (Abou-Raya et al., 2013)
6 July 2015 9

11. Stability of tetracyclines cont’d…
o90% reduction of tetracyclines in leg piece and breast of chicken
by microwave cooking for 23.9 min, boiling for 53.2 min and
roasting for 101.6 minute (Abou-Raya et al., 2013)
oDuring cooking tetracyclines degrade to anhydrotetracycline and
4-epianhydrotetracycline. Toxic effects of such metabolites on the
consumers not studied (Kuhne et al., 2011)
6 July 2015 10

12. Tetracycline reduction in pork
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Boiling 100°C(9 m) Deepfrying140°C(9m) Microwaving (1m)
6 July 2015 11
45-67%
38-66%
38-48%
Tetracyclinereduction%
(VanHue Nguyen et al., 2013)

13. Stability of β- lactam group of antimicrobials
o Benzyl penicillin was not stable to cooking, losses being
proportional to the harshness of the cooking regime
oBenzyl penicillin was stable at 650C but not stable at higher
temperatures
(Rose et al., 1997)
6 July 2015 12

14. Stability of β- lactam group of antimicrobials
cont’d…
oDuring cooking residues leach out into fluids
oDiscarding the juice can reduce exposure to residues of benzyl
penicillin
oPotential threat in the Indian custom of cooking meat (meat with
gravy or stewing)
(Rose et al., 1997)
6 July 2015 13

15. Stability of macrolides
oHigher reduction in tylosin and tilmicosin residues with increased
time and temperature during boiling and microwave cooking of
chicken
oReduction in tylosin residues during deep frying increased with
temperature, time and size of the meat sample
(Heshmati et al., 2015)
6 July 2015 14

16. Stability of amphenicols
oEmulsifying and curing of meat partially degrade
chloramphenicol and total degradation by pre-heat treatment
during canning
(Epstein et al., 1988)
6 July 2015 15

17. Chloramphenicol in shrimp
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Cooking 100°C
(30 min)
Retorting
121°C (15 min)
Chloromphenicol reduction %
Chloramphenicolreduction%
6 July 2015 16
(Shakila et al., 2006)

18. Stability of nitrofurazone
oNitrofurans are metabolized rapidly by animals in vivo
(McCracken et al., 1995)
oMetabolites are bound to tissues which may be released by mild
acid hydrolysis and used as marker detection residues
oFurazolidone degrade to 3-amino-2-oxazolidinone
oFuraltadone degrade to 3-amino-5-morpholinomethyl-2-
oxazolidone
oNitrofurazone degrade to semicarbazide (Hoogenboom et al., 1991)
6 July 2015 17

19. Stability of nitrofurazone cont’d…
o67-100% nitrofurazone remains during frying, grilling, roasting
and microwaving of pork and liver of pig
(Cooper and Kennedy, 2007)
6 July 2015 18

20. Stability of quinolone
oCooking mixture of meat, liver and kidney at 134 °C for 20 min,
68% of enroflaxocin was reduced (Van Egmond et al., 2000)
Heat stable quinolones in fish
oOxolinic acid
oFlumequinein
oEnrofloxacin
oCiprofloxacin
oNot degraded by any cooking methods(Botsoglou and Fletouris, 2001)
6 July 2015 19

21. Stability of quinolone cont’d…
oCooking of chicken leg piece and breast results in reduction of
enrofloxacin residues and release of residues to cook out fluid
oResidues levels were almost unaltered in roasting, grilling and
microwaving (Lolo et al., 2006)
oCooking and roasting of chicken, gizzard, liver show reduction of
enrofloxacin residue (Javedi et al., 2009)
6 July 2015 20

22. Sulfonamide in chicken
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Boiling Roasting Microoven
sulfanamide
SulfonamideReduction(%)
6 July 2015 21

23. Stability of sulfanamides cont’d…
Reduction of sulfonamide residue in chicken meat during frying
was influenced by
Internal temperature of meat ball
Size of meat ball
oSulfamonomethoxine (SMX)
oSulfadiazine (SDZ)
oSulfaquinoxaline (SQ)
oSulfamethoxazole (SMZ)
6 July 2015 22

24. Sulfonamide in chicken meat ball
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
SMX SDZ SQ SMZ
reduce during fryingSulfonamidereduction(%)
6 July 2015 23

25. Regulations and laws for antimicrobial
residues in India
oTolerance limit for antimicrobials and other pharmacologically
active substances has been established only for sea foods
oContainer of medicines used in food animals and poultry should
be labeled with the withdrawal period for the species on which it
is intended to be used
oIf specific withdrawal period not mentioned, a period not less
than 28 days should be practiced
(FSSAI, 2011)
6 July 2015 24

26. 6 July 2015 25

27. Withdrawal period for commonly used
antimicrobials
Antimicrobials Pre-slaughter withdrawal time(days)
Ampicillin 06
Procaine penicillin G 05
Dihydro streptomycin sulfate 30
Erythromycin 14
Oxytetrcycline Hydrochloride 03
Sulfadimethoxime 07
Sulfamethoxy Pyridazine 16
Sulfamethazine 10
Tylosin 08
6 July 2015 26

28. Regulations and laws for antimicrobials
residues in India cont’d…
oExport Inspection Council of India (EIC) has Residue Monitoring
Plan (RMP) for export of poultry meat and meat products to
European Union (EU)
oEIC has adopted the EU council directive regulations and
Maximum residue limit (MRL) for different antibiotics
oEIC has not set any RMP for sale of poultry meat and meat
products in India
(EIC, 2012)
6 July 2015 27

29. Future perspectives
oNeed to study toxicologic effects of antimicrobial metabolites in
the human being
oEstablish national surveillance programme of antimicrobial usage
on the food animals and poultry
oEstablish surveillance programme on antimicrobial resistance in
bacteria
6 July 2015 28

30. Future perspectives cont’d…
oSensitivity and resistance by veterinary antimicrobials have to be
study
oEstablish universally accepted standards for the maximum
antimicrobial residues in animal tissues
oDevelopment of simple and economic field test to identify drug
residue in edible animal products
6 July 2015 29

31. Conclusion
oCombination of time and temperature of cooking influence loss
of antimicrobial residue
oTetracycline’s show notable decrease in their amount
oNitrofurzone is most heat stable compound
oDiscarding any juices it can reduce exposure to residues
6 July 2015 30

32. Conclusion cont’d…
oNeed to study toxicologic effects of antimicrobial metabolites in
the human being
oWithdrawal periods should be strictly followed
oStrictly enforce rules pertaining to antimicrobial residue
6 July 2015 31

33. References
oAbou-Raya, S., Shalaby, A.R., Salamal, N.A., Emam, W.H. and Mehaya, F.M. 2013. Effect
of ordinary cooking procedures on tetracycline residues in chicken meat. J. Food Drug
Analysis. 21: 80-86.
oAnon, 2002. USFDA improvises testing for chloramphenicol in seafood. Seafood Export
J. 10: 5.
oBarton, M.D. 2000. Antibacterial use in animal feed and its impact on human health.
Nutr. Res. Rev. 13: 279-299.
oButaye, P., Devriese, L. A. and Haesebrouck, F. 2001. Differences in antibacterial
resistance patterns of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium strains isolated
from farm and pet animals. Antimicrob. Agents Chemther. 45: 1374-1378.
6 July 2015 32

34. References cont’d…
oCAC. 2001. Codex Alimentarius Commission. Committee on residues of veterinary drugs
in foods, document control of veterinary drug residues in milk and milk products. Joint
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization
Food Standards Programme, Rome
oEIC. 2012. Export inspection council of India. 2012. Ministry of Commerce. Govt.
ofIndia.Avialable:http://www.eicindia.gov.in/services/PreCompliance/ResidueMonitori
ng Plans.aspx [6 June 2015].
oEpstein, R.L., Randecker, V., Corrao, P., Keeton, J.T., and Cross H.R. 1988. Influence of
heat and cure preservatives on residues of sulfamethazine, chloramphenicol, and
cyromazine in muscle tissue. J. Agri. Food Chem. 36: 1009-1012.
6 July 2015 33

35. References cont’d…
oFAO/WHO. 2002. Evaluation of certain veterinary drug residues in food: fifty eighth
report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO technical
report series, No. 911. FAO, Rome, pp. 33.
oFedeniuk R.W., Shand P.J. and Mccurdy A.R. 1997. Effect of thermal processing and
additives on the kinetics of oxytetracycline degradation in pork muscle. J. Agri. Food
Chem. 45: 2252-2257.
oFSSAI. 2011. Food Safety Standards (Contaminants, Toxins and Residues) Regulations.
2011. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Govt of India. Available:
http://www.fssai.gov.in/Food safety and standards contaminants, toxins and residues
regulation. 2011.[6 June 2015]
6 July 2015 34

36. References cont’d…
oSettepani, J.A. 1984. The hazard of using chloramphenicol in food animals. J. Am. Vet.
Med. Ass. 184: 30-39.
oShakila, R.J., Vyla, S.A.P., Saravana, K.R., Jeyasekaran, G and Indra, J.G. 2006. Stability of
chloramphenicol residues in shrimp subjected to heat processing treatments. Food Micro.
23: 47-51.
oSmit, L.A., Hoogenboom, L.A.P., Berghmans, M.C., Haagsma, N. 1994. Stability of
sulfadimidine during raw fermented sausage preparation. Zeitschrift fir Lebensmittel-
Untersuchung und- Forschung. [online] 198: 480-485.
Available:http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225601494. [6 June.2015]
6 July 2015 35

37. 6 July 2015 36
NO ACTION TODAY
NO CURE TOMMOROW