course_planning_ (Content-based syllabus...

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7 COURSE PLANNING (1):
CONTENT-BASED, COMPETENCY-
BASED, TASK-BASED, AND TEXT-
BASED APPROACHES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter survey the following aspects of course planning:
• Determining the level of the course
• Choosing a syllabus framework
• Content-based syllabus and CLIL
• Competency-based syllabus
• Task-based syllabus
• Text-based syllabus
Case study 11 Developing a content-based course Linsday Miller
Case study 12 A CLIL course: The Thinking Lab Science Rosa Bergadà
Case study 13 A pre-university course for international students in Australia Phil Chappell
Introduction
We suggested in Chapter 3 that the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the
English for Special Purposes (ESP) movement marked a paradigm shift in how teaching, learning,
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second language acquisition from the 1970s, from which cognitive, interactional, and sociocultural
theories of learning were proposed as alternatives to the behaviorist learning theory on which earlier
teaching methods such as audiolingualism were based. One of the outcomes of this shift was the
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Farrell 2001, 2003; Richards and Rodgers 2014). Among these were the following:
• A view of language as a communicative resource that learners needed for social, occupational,
and educational purposes.
• An emphasis on learning as a social process that depends on interaction with others.
• A focus on authentic and meaningful communication as a basis for learning.
• A view of language as a resource for processing content and information.
• ([LUKLUJ`[VPU[LNYH[LKPќLYLU[ZRPSSZYH[OLY[OHU[LHJOPUN[OLZRPSSZZLWHYH[LS`
• A view of errors as a normal aspect of the language learning process.
• A move to teaching that seeks to activate and facilitate the use of learning processes and
strategies.
• .YHTTHYUKLYZ[VVKHZHJVTWVULU[VMLќLJ[P]LJVTTUPJH[PVUYH[OLY[OHUHZHUHIZ[YHJ[
system.
• A move from teacher-centered to learner-centered instruction.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009024556.008 Published online by Cambridge University Press

7 Course planning (1) • 161
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• An idea of the role of classroom learning tasks and exercises as providing opportunities for
students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used,
and take part in meaningful intrapersonal exchange.
• A view of meaningful communication as the result of students processing content that is
relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging.
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approaches to the design of language courses, syllabuses, instructional methods, and resources. In
this chapter we will review two kinds of decisions that are required in planning a course: determining
the level of the course, and choosing a syllabus framework.
7.1 Determining the level of the course
In order to plan a language course, it is necessary to know the level at which the program will start
and the level that learners may be expected to reach at the end of the course. This can be referred
to as the learners’ developmental continuum (Tognolini and Stanley 2011). In the past, language
programs and commercial materials typically distinguished between elementary, intermediate, and
advanced levels, but these categories are too broad for the kind of detailed planning that program
and materials development involve.
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Stanley (2011, 28–29) comment:
Many countries have now defined continua for the various subjects in terms of learning out-
comes. These outcomes typically describe what students can know and do at different stages
along the continuum. These outcomes are usually contained in syllabus documents or frame-
works and provide the basis for the development of the teaching and learning sequence and
activity (including assessment) within the subject … Generally the developmental continua
are partitioned into levels, stages, bands or grade. The grades have descriptors … that try to
capture the skills, understanding and knowledge that students have at different stages along
the developmental continuum for the subject.
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used in the Australian Migrant Education On-Arrival Program.
Choose one or two statements from the list above. What are the implications for classroom
practice?
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162 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
In order to ensure that a language program is coherent and systematically moves learners
along the path towards that level of proficiency they require, some overall perspective of
the development path is required. This resulted … in the development of the Australian
Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR). The ASLPR defines levels of second language
proficiency as nine (potentially 12) points along the path from zero to native-like proficiency.
The definitions provide detailed descriptions of language behavior in all four macro-skills and
allow the syllabus developer to perceive how a course at any level fits into the total pattern of
proficiency development.
(Ingram 1982, 66)
Similarly, in the United States the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) has
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listening, reading, writing, and culture in a foreign language. These guidelines represent a graduated
sequence of steps that can be used to structure a foreign language program” (Liskin-Gasparro 1984,
11). The (*;-3 7YVÄJPLUJ` .PKLSPULZ have been widely promoted as a framework for organizing
curricula and as a basis for the assessment of foreign language ability. (See the information from the
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Communicative Skills in English (Weir 1990, 149–179) can also be used as a basis for planning learner
entry and exit levels in a program. (See Appendix 2 for an example of performance levels in Writing.)
General preface to the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines 2012
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terms of speaking, writing, listening, and reading in real-world situations in a spontaneous and
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Intermediate, and Novice are subdivided into High, Mid, and Low sublevels. The levels of the
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educated language user to a level of little or no functional ability.
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and cannot do with language at each level, regardless of where, when, or how the language was
acquired. Together these levels form a hierarchy in which each level subsumes all lower levels.
The Guidelines are not based on any particular theory, pedagogical method, or educational
curriculum. They neither describe how an individual learns a language nor prescribe how an
individual should learn a language, and they should not be used for such purposes. They are an
instrument for the evaluation of functional language ability.
(ACTFL 2012)
Since the widespread adoption of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR), courses and tests are often referenced to the CEFR band levels in many countries. These
describe six levels of achievement divided into three broad divisions from lowest (A1) to highest (C2)
and, as we have explained elsewhere, outline what a learner should be able to do in reading, listening,
speaking, and writing at each level.
Basic user – A1, A2
Independent user – B1, B2
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Planning a course at an appropriate level may involve the use of students’ results on international
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Language Testing System (IELTS). Self-assessment by the learners themselves can also play a role
(see below), as can specially designed tests, which can be used to determine the level of students’
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that the program is aimed at too high or too low a level.
The role of learner self-assessment
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The NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements are self-assessment checklists used by language
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following categories:
• Interpersonal (Person-to-Person) Communication
• Presentational Speaking (Spoken Production)
• Presentational Writing (Written Production)
• Interpretive Listening
• Interpretive Reading
Ultimately, the goal for all language learners is to develop a functional use of another language for
one’s personal contexts and purposes. The Can-Do Statements serve two purposes to advance
this goal: for programs, the statements provide learning targets for curriculum and unit design,
serving as performance indicators; for language learners, the statements provide a way to chart
their progress through incremental steps. The checklists are best used by learners and learning
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• setting goals
• selecting strategies
• self-assessing
• providing evidence
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The more learners are engaged in their own learning process, the more intrinsically motivated
they become. Research shows that the ability of language learners to set goals is linked to
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(NCSSFL-ACTFL 2012)
Do you think learners can give a reliable description of their own second language abilities?

7.2 Choosing a syllabus framework
The question of a syllabus framework for a course is probably the most basic issue in course design.
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language, language use, and language learning, about what the most essential elements or units of
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Macro- and micro-level strands in a syllabus
There will always be several layers or strands of organization in a course, and some will be more central
than others, depending on the nature of the course. For example, a writing course could potentially
be planned around any of the following units of organization: grammar (e.g., using the present tense
in descriptions), functions (e.g., describing likes and dislikes), topics (e.g., writing about world issues),
skills (e.g., developing topic sentences), processes (e.g., using prewriting strategies), tasks (e.g.,
summarizing a spoken lecture), or texts (e.g., writing a business letter). Similarly, a speaking course
could be organized around text types (small talk, conversation, interviews, discussions), functions
(expressing opinions), interaction skills (opening and closing conversations, turn taking), topics
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planning the syllabus and which will be secondary? In most courses there will generally be a number
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functions, or skills linked to topics and texts.
In making decisions about syllabus strands, it is therefore useful to distinguish between main or
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necessary at some stage in the construction process. A course which is built around multiple syllabus
strands is said to be based on an integrated syllabus, which is the approach used in most general
English adult and young-adult courses today. However, sometimes one syllabus strand will be used
as the overall planning framework for the course, that is, at the macro level of organization, and others
will be used as a minor or supportive strand of the course, that is, at the micro level.
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planning category) and then further planned in terms of text types, vocabulary, and grammar (the
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words, listening for details, listening for topics at the macro level; once this level of planning has been
completed, decisions may be made about text types, topics, and vocabulary. In practical terms,
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micro-level syllabus strands.
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Table 7.1 Macro and micro levels of course organization
MACRO LEVEL MICRO LEVEL
Option 1 Skills Text types
Grammar
Composing processes
Option 2 Text types Skills
Topics
Grammar
Option 3 Composing processes Text types
Grammar
Vocabulary
As language teaching has moved from grammar-based approaches to teaching to communicative
and performance-based approaches, the commonest macro-level units of organization are content,
texts, tasks, and competencies, while other organizational units such as strategies, micro-skills,
grammar, functions, and vocabulary are more typically regarded as micro-level units in a course or
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course design – content-based, competency-based, task-based, and text-based approaches. Other
syllabus types are discussed in Chapter 8.
7.3 Content-based syllabus and CLIL
A prominent current approach to course and syllabus design worldwide is known as Content-
Based Instruction or CBI and Content and Language Integrated Learning or CLIL. Content refers to
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language used to convey it. Of course, any language lesson involves content, whether it is a grammar
lesson, a reading lesson, or any other kind of lesson. Content of some sort has to be the vehicle that
holds the lesson or the exercise together, but in traditional approaches to language teaching, content
is selected after other decisions have been made. In other words grammar, texts, skills, functions,
etc. are the starting point in planning the lesson or the coursebook at the macro level, and after
these decisions have been made, content is selected. So, for example, a grammatical item such as
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teacher makes decisions about the kinds of topics or content to use to practice the present perfect.
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concerning grammar, skills, functions, etc. are made later. CBI and CLIL both use content as the
starting point in syllabus planning. As Stryker and Leaver comment (2004, 6):
The fundamental organization of the curriculum is derived from the subject matter, rather
than from forms, functions, situations, or skills. Communicative competence is acquired
during the process of learning about specific topics such as math, science, art, social studies,
culture, business, history, political systems, international affairs, or economics.
However, CBI and CLIL do not assume a particular teaching methodology, since a content-based
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the following kinds of materials, a description that also applies to the role of materials in CLIL:

Materials for developing the curriculum and planning CBI lessons include the use of both
authentic and adapted oral and written subject matter materials (textbooks, audio and visual
materials, and other learning materials) that are motivating and appropriate to the cognitive
and language proficiency level of the learners or that can be made accessible through bridging
activities … These activities include the use of demonstrations, visuals, charts, graphic
organizers and outlines, breaking down information into smaller chunks, pre-teaching
vocabulary, and establishing background information.
Content-based approaches are based on the following assumptions about language learning:
• People learn a language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring
information, rather than as an end in itself.
• ;LHJOPUNSHUNHNL[OYVNOJVU[LU[IL[[LYYLÅLJ[ZSLHYULYZ»ULLKZMVYSLHYUPUNHZLJVUK
language because it provides a link to the real world.
• Content provides a coherent framework that can be used to link and develop all of the language
skills.
• Content can be used as the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle for an entire
course, as a course that prepares students for mainstreaming, as the rationale for the use of
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for commercial EFL/ESL materials.
While the term Content-Based Instruction has been commonly used to describe programs based on
the assumptions about language learning described above, particularly in North America, in Europe
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part of a growing trend in many parts of the world to use English as a medium of instruction (Graddol
2006). They have features in common, but they are not identical. CBI often involves a language
teacher teaching content through English, a language teacher working with a content teacher to
co-teach a course, or a content teacher designing and teaching a course for ESL learners. CLIL
often involves a content teacher teaching content through a second or foreign language, as does
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curriculum may originate in the content class, whereas CBI tends to have as its starting point the
language requirements of a content lesson. So a CLIL lesson may start with the science teacher
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in a science lesson?”
CBI emerged somewhat organically, advocated by a number of academics and educators supported
by an extensive literature produced over a considerable period of time in the United States and other
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proposed in a European Commission policy paper in which member states were encouraged to
develop teaching in schools through the medium of more than one language (Richards and Rodgers
2014). CLIL has been widely circulated within member states of the European community since 1994
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help promote English language skills for those who will use English as a lingua franca.
What kinds of content are your learners most interested in?

Examples of content-based courses
CBI can be used as the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle for an entire course,
as a course that prepares students for mainstreaming, as the rationale for the use of English as a
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,-3,:3TH[LYPHSZ;OLZLHYLKPZJZZLKIYPLÅ`PU[YUILSV^
As the framework for a unit of work. CBI need not be the framework for an entire curriculum but
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course a teacher may prepare a unit of work on the theme of sales and marketing. The teacher, in
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sales and marketing to provide the framework for the course. A variety of lessons are then developed
focusing on reading, oral presentation skills, group discussion, grammar, and report writing, all of
which are developed out of the themes and topics which form the basis of the course.
As the guiding principle for an entire course. Evans (2006) developed a content-based Animal
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awareness of serious animal issues, deepen their knowledge about such issues, and promote the
development of critical thinking skills transferable to other courses and their nonacademic lives.” The
topics and activities used are presented in Table 7.2.
7.2 Topics and activities for a course on Animal Issues
CONTENT ACTIVITIES
1. Endangered animals • Identify causes of endangered and extinct animals
• Exchange information about two endangered species through jigsaw
listening and note-taking
2. Wildlife tracking • Rank and justify opinions with concrete reasoning
• Reach group consensus
3. Pets in society • Identify pro and con arguments
• Solve a problem as a group
4. Zoos • Compare past and current attitudes towards zoos
• Critically evaluate a zoo’s space and purpose
5. Whaling • Review the historical background and cultural underpinnings of
whaling in Japan
• Exchange information about whales and whaling through a jigsaw
reading
6. Animal research • Raise consumer awareness
• Analyze animal rights groups’ literature
The topics are chosen so that they provide a framework around which language skills, vocabulary,
and grammar can be developed in parallel.
As a course that prepares students for mainstreaming. Many courses for immigrant children in English-
speaking countries are organized around a CBI framework. For example, non-English-background
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to prepare them to follow the regular school curriculum with other children. Such a course might

be organized around a CBI approach. An example of this approach is described by Wu (1996) in a
program prepared for ESL students in an Australian high school. Topics from a range of mainstream
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Topics were chosen primarily to cater to the widest variety of students’ needs and interests. Linguistic
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multiculturalism, the nuclear age, sports, the Green movement, street kids, and teenage smoking.
As the rationale for the use of English as a medium for teaching some school subjects. A logical
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some countries English is used as the medium of instruction for math and science in primary school
and also for some courses at university level. When the entire school curriculum is taught through a
foreign language, this is sometimes known as immersion education, an approach that has been used
for many years in part of English-speaking Canada.
As the framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials. The series Cambridge English for Schools
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provided the framework for the course.
Examples of CLIL-based courses
Coyle, Hood, and Marsh (2010, 18–22) give the following examples of how a CLIL approach can be
used at primary school (ages 5–12):
*VUÄKLUJLIPSKPUN! HU PU[YVKJ[PVU [V RL` JVUJLW[Z An example is a theme-based module on
climate change, which requires 15 hours of learning time involving class-based communication with
learners in another country. The class teacher approaches the module using CLIL-designed materials
and a networking system.
Development of key concepts and learner autonomy;OLL_HTWSLNP]LUPZZIQLJ[IHZLKSLHYUPUNVU
home economics and requires 40 hours of learning time involving trans-languaging, where activities
HYL KL]LSVWLK [OYVNO [OL *303 TVKLSZ ZPUN IPSPUNHS TH[LYPHSZ :IQLJ[ HUK SHUNHNL [LHJOLYZ
work together.
Preparation for a long-term CLIL program. An example is an interdisciplinary approach involving a set
VMZIQLJ[ZMYVT[OLUH[YHSZJPLUJLZ^OLYL[OLSLHYULYZHYLWYLWHYLKMVYPUKLW[OLKJH[PVU[OYVNO
[OL*303TVKLS:IQLJ[HUKSHUNHNL[LHJOLYZ^VYR[VNL[OLYMVSSV^PUNHUPU[LNYH[LKJYYPJST
Examples of CLIL courses at secondary level include (Coyle et al. 2010, 18–22):
Dual-school education. :JOVVSZ PU KPќLYLU[ JVU[YPLZ ZOHYL [OL [LHJOPUN VM H ZWLJPÄJ JVYZL VY
module using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol, e.g., Skype) technologies where the CLIL language
is an additional language in both countries.
Bilingual education. 3LHYULYZZ[K`HZPNUPÄJHU[WHY[VM[OLJYYPJST[OYVNO[OL*303SHUNHNL
for a number of years with the intention of developing required content-learning goals and advanced
language skills.
Interdisciplinary module approach. ( ZWLJPÄJ TVKSL MVY L_HTWSL LU]PYVUTLU[HS ZJPLUJL VY
JP[PaLUZOPW PZ [HNO[ [OYVNO *303 PU]VS]PUN [LHJOLYZ VM KPќLYLU[ KPZJPWSPULZ LN TH[OLTH[PJZ
biology, physics, chemistry, and language).
Issues with CBI and CLIL
While both CBI and CLIL have been widely adopted in many parts of the world, implementation of
these approaches raises a number of issues.

Integration of language learning and content learning. A central issue with CBI and CLIL is the extent
[VÔPJOMVJZPUNVUJVU[LU[WYV]PKLZHZѝJPLU[IHZPZMVY[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OLSHUNHNLZRPSSZHUK
whether teaching content through a second language in the case of CLIL involves a dumbing down
of the content. In relation to language development, research on the use of a second language as a
medium of instruction has often revealed that when content is the primary focus, learners may bypass
grammatical accuracy and rely heavily on vocabulary and communication strategies. In planning a
course around content, decisions must still be made concerning the selection of other strands in the
Z`SSHIZZJOHZNYHTTHYMUJ[PVUZVYZRPSSZ+PќLYLU[[VWPJZTH`YLXPYLSHUNHNLVMKPќLYPUNSL]LSZ
of complexity, and as a consequence, gradation (see Chapter 2) can become a problem.
Demands on teachers. Another issue concerns whether language teachers have the necessary
ZIQLJ[TH[[LYL_WLY[PZL[V[LHJOZWLJPHSPaLKJVU[LU[HYLHZZJOHZTHYRL[PUNTLKPJPULLJVSVN`
as most language teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill rather than to teach a
JVU[LU[ZIQLJ[;LHT[LHJOPUNWYVWVZHSZPU]VS]PUNSHUNHNL[LHJOLYZHUKZIQLJ[TH[[LY[LHJOLYZ
HYLVM[LUJVUZPKLYLKU^PLSK`HUKSPRLS`[VYLKJL[OLLѝJPLUJ`VMIV[O:PTPSHYS`*303[LHJOLYZÔV
HYLUMHTPSPHY^P[O[LHJOPUN[OLPYZIQLJ[PUH*303SHUNHNLTHÙLLKJVUZPKLYHISLWYLWHYH[PVUHUK
ongoing support. Both approaches involve assembling appropriate teaching materials and resources.
Although a recommended approach in many parts of Europe, some teachers see it as a top-down
NV]LYUTLU[PTWVZP[PVUÔPJOPZKPѝJS[[VPTWSLTLU[*VU[LU[[LHJOLYZMLLS[OL`KVUV[OH]L[OLSL]LS
VM,UNSPZOYLXPYLK[V[LHJO[OLPYZIQLJ[HUKTHU`,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZHYLJVUJLYULK[OH[[OL`KVUV[
have the knowledge base to teach content drawn from the sciences.
Evaluation learning outcomes. Lastly, a key issue is that of assessment. Will learners be assessed
according to content knowledge, language use, or both?
7.4 Competency-based syllabuses
CBI is an approach to the planning and delivery of courses that has been in widespread use since the
1970s. The application of its principles to language teaching is called Competency-Based Language
Teaching (CBLT) – an approach that has been used as the basis for the design of many work-related
and survival-oriented language-teaching programs for adults – programs that seek to teach learners the
basic skills they need in order to prepare them for situations they commonly encounter in everyday life.
Competencies refer to observable behaviors that are necessary for the successful completion of real-
world activities. These activities may be related to any domain of life, though they have typically been
SPURLK[V[OLÄLSKVM^VYRHUK[VZVJPHSZY]P]HSPUHUL^LU]PYVUTLU[+VJRPUN L_WSHPUZ
[OLYLSH[PVUZOPWIL[^LLUJVTWL[LUJPLZHUKQVIWLYMVYTHUJL!
A qualification or a job can be described as a collection of units of competency, each of which
is composed of a number of elements of competency. A unit of competency might be a task, a
role, a function, or a learning module. These will change over time, and will vary from context
to context. An element of competency can be defined as any attribute of an individual that
contributes to the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activity in an academic
setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes,
and perceptual and physical skills. Nothing is excluded that can be shown to contribute to
performance. An element of competency has meaning independent of context and time.
It is the building block for competency specifications for education, training, assessment,
qualifications, tasks, and jobs.
/V^^VSK`VKLZJYPILZVTLVM[OLJVYLJVTWL[LUJPLZULLKLK[VILHULќLJ[P]L,UNSPZO
teacher?

P[O*)3;YH[OLY[OHUZLLRPUN[V[LHJONLULYHS,UNSPZO[OLMVJZPZVU[OLZWLJPÄJSHUNHNLZRPSSZ
ULLKLK [V MUJ[PVU PU H ZWLJPÄJ JVU[L_[ 0U KL]LSVWPUN JVTWL[LUJ` KLZJYPW[PVUZ [OL JVTWL[LUJ`
domain is broken down into smaller components and often the essential linguistic features involved are
HSZVPKLU[PÄLK;OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[PUJVYZLWSHUUPUNPZ[OLYLMVYLHUPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVM[OL[HZRZ[OLSLHYULY
^PSS[`WPJHSSÒH]L[VJHYY`V[^P[OPUHZWLJPÄJZL[[PUNLNPU[OLYVSLVMMHJ[VY`^VYRLYZ[KLU[
tourist, tour guide, restaurant employee, or nurse) and the language demands of those tasks – a similar
approach to that used in some versions of Task-Based Instruction (see below). The competencies
ULLKLKMVYZJJLZZMS[HZRWLYMVYTHUJLHYL[OLUPKLU[PÄLKHUKZLKHZ[OLIHZPZMVYJVYZLWSHUUPUN
;VSSLMZVU WVPU[LKV[[OH[[OLHUHS`ZPZVMQVIZPU[V[OLPYJVUZ[P[LU[MUJ[PVUHSJVTWL[LUJPLZPU
VYKLY[VKL]LSVW[LHJOPUNVIQLJ[P]LZNVLZIHJR[V[OLTPKUPUL[LLU[OJLU[Y`0U[OLZ:WLUJLY
described the main areas of human activity and behavior that he recommended should form the
IHZPZMVYKL]LSVWPUNJYYPJSHYVIQLJ[P]LZ:PTPSHYS`PU )VIIP[[KL]LSVWLKJYYPJSHYVIQLJ[P]LZ
according to his analysis of the functional competencies required for adults living in the United States.
;OPZHWWYVHJO^HZWPJRLKWHUKYLÄULKHZ[OLIHZPZMVY[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMJVTWL[LUJÌHZLK
programs since the 1960s. For example, the following competencies were included in a popular
JVYZL MVY HKS[ Z[KLU[Z PU [OL Z KLZPNULK ¸MVY HKS[ Z[KLU[Z ÔV ULLK [V SLHYU [OL VYHS
language patterns and vocabulary needed in real-life situations” (Keltner, Howard, and Lee 1981):
Topic: Food and money
*VTWL[LUJ`VIQLJ[P]LZ! On completion of this unit the students will show orally, in writing or through
demonstration, that they are able to use the language needed to function in the following situations:
A. SHOPPING FOR FOOD
1. Identify the most common foods.
2. Ask for and locate foods.
3. Use common tables of weight and measures.
+PќLYLU[PH[LIL[^LLU[`WLZVMMVVKZ[VYLZ!KPZJVU[ZWLYTHYRL[HUKOVYZ[VYLZ
B. USING MONEY AND CHANGE
1. Use American money.
2. Ask for and receive change.
C. EATING OUT
1. Order from a menu.
2. Know how to tip.
As we noted above, competency-based frameworks have been adopted in many countries,
particularly for vocational and technical education. They are also increasingly being adopted in
national language curricula as a framework for the whole school curriculum (e.g., the Common Core
Standards in the United States, www.corestandards.org). The descriptions of the components of the
skills of speaking, reading, writing, and listening found in the CEFR are also described in terms of
competencies. For example, for the skill of listening, the performance of a learner at the basic level
(A1 and A2 of the framework) is described as follows (Council of Europe 2001, 66):

• Can understand phrases and expressions related to areas of immediate priority (e.g. very
basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment), provided
speech is clearly and slowly articulated. (A1)
• Can understand enough to be able to meet needs of a concrete type, provided speech is
clearly and slowly articulated. (A2)
• Can follow speech which is very slow and carefully articulated. (A2)
We can compare this with the ability of an advanced-level listener (C1 and C2 on the CEFR):
• Has no difficulty in understanding any kind of spoken language, whether live or broadcast,
delivered at fast native speed. (C2)
• Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond
his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially if the
accent is unfamiliar. (C1)
• Can recognize a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating reg-
ister shifts. (C1)
• Can follow extended speech even when it is not clearly structured and when relationships
are only implied and not signalled explicitly. (C1)
(Council of Europe 2001, 66)
What characterizes a competency-based approach is the focus on the outcomes of learning as
the driving force of teaching and the curriculum. Hence, this is an example of a backward-design
HWWYVHJO (Z ^P[O V[OLY IHJR^HYKKLZPNU HWWYVHJOLZ UV ZWLJPÄJH[PVU PZ NP]LU HZ [V how the
competencies should be taught, and therefore the choice of methodology as well as the language
needed to achieve the competency are left to the course designer or teacher.
(LYIHJO PKLU[PÄLK LPNO[ MLH[YLZ PU]VS]LK PU [OL PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM *)3; WYVNYHTZ PU
language teaching, particularly those with a vocational or social-survival focus.
• (MVJZVUZJJLZZMSMUJ[PVUPUNPUZVJPL[`! The goal is to enable students to become
autonomous individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.
• (MVJZVUSPMLZRPSSZ! Rather than teaching language in isolation, CBLT teaches language as a function
VMJVTTUPJH[PVUHIV[JVUJYL[L[HZRZ:[KLU[ZHYL[HNO[QZ[[OVZLSHUNHNLMVYTZZRPSSZYLXPYLK
by the situations in which they will function. These forms are normally determined by needs analysis.
• ;HZRVYWLYMVYTHUJLVYPLU[LKPUZ[YJ[PVU! What counts is what students can do as a result of
instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather than on knowledge or the ability to talk
about language and skills.
• 4VKSHYPaLKPUZ[YJ[PVU!3HUNHNLSLHYUPUNPZIYVRLUKV^UPU[VTLHUPUNMSJOURZ6IQLJ[P]LZ
HYLIYVRLUKV^UPU[VUHYYV^S`MVJZLKZIVIQLJ[P]LZZV[OH[IV[O[LHJOLYZHUKZ[KLU[ZJHU
get a clear sense of progress.
• 6[JVTLZHYLTHKLL_WSPJP[! Outcomes are public knowledge, known and agreed upon by both
SLHYULYHUK[LHJOLY;OL`HYLZWLJPÄLKPU[LYTZVMILOH]PVYHSVIQLJ[P]LZZV[OH[Z[KLU[ZRUV^
what behaviors are expected of them.
• *VU[PUVZHUKVUNVPUNHZZLZZTLU[! Students are pre-tested to determine what skills they lack
and post-tested after instruction on that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of mastery,
[OL`JVU[PUL[V^VYRVU[OLVIQLJ[P]LHUKHYLYL[LZ[LK
• +LTVUZ[YH[LKTHZ[LY`VMWLYMVYTHUJLVIQLJ[P]LZ! Rather than the traditional paper-and-pencil
[LZ[ZHZZLZZTLU[PZIHZLKVU[OLHIPSP[`[VKLTVUZ[YH[LWYLZWLJPÄLKILOH]PVYZ

• 0UKP]PKHSPaLKZ[KLU[JLU[LYLKPUZ[YJ[PVU!0UJVU[LU[SL]LSHUKWHJLVIQLJ[P]LZHYLKLÄULKPU
terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into account in developing
curricula. Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and concentrate on
QZ[[OVZLHYLHZPUÔPJO[OL`SHJRJVTWL[LUJL
Examples of CBI courses
*)0OHZILLU^PKLS`ZLKPU[OLKLZPNUVMTHU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJVYZLZZVTLVMÔPJOHYLV[SPULK
below.
Occupational and vocational courses. As noted above, the commonest use of CBI in course design
is in preparing work-related courses that are often built around the tasks learners need to perform in
their work situations and the competencies needed to perform the tasks.
Social-survival courses. Courses designed for immigrants and other new arrivals have often been
developed around a competency framework, grouped around situations, activities, and tasks that new
arrivals encounter and competencies related to task performance. Mrowicki (1986) described the process
of developing a competency-based curriculum for a refugee program designed to develop language skills
for employment. The process included reviewing existing curricula, resource materials, and textbooks;
needs analysis (interviews, observations, survey of employers); identifying topics for a survival curriculum;
identifying competencies for each of the topics; grouping competencies into instructional units.
Issues with Competency-Based Instruction
Although there has been a resurgence in competency-based approaches in recent years, as seen
with CEFR, for example, such approaches are not without their critics. The following issues are
commonly mentioned.
Identifying competencies. Critics such as Tollefson (1986, 1995) have argued that no valid procedures
HYLH]HPSHISL[VKL]LSVWJVTWL[LUJ`ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ(S[OVNOSPZ[ZVMJVTWL[LUJPLZJHUILNLULYH[LK
intuitively for many areas and activities, there is no way of knowing which ones are essential. Typically,
competencies are described based on intuition and experience. In addition, focusing on observable
behaviors can lead to a trivialization of the nature of an activity.
Components of competencies. *VTWL[LUJ`Z[H[LTLU[ZHYLHSZVKPѝJS[[VVWLYH[PVUHSPaLPU[LYTZ
of their precise linguistic components, since there is no direct form-to-competence correspondence.
The realization of a competency is often to some extent unpredictable, depending on factors in
the situation: who the participants are, what their roles are, their emotional state, and so on. It is
ZPTPSHYS`KPѝJS[[VKPќLYLU[PH[LWYLJPZLSÌL[^LLUKPќLYLU[SL]LSZVMWLYMVYTHUJLVMHJVTWL[LUJ`
For example, the following are characteristics of competence in conversation at level B1 in the CEFR
(Council of Europe 2001, 76):
Can enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversations, though
will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.
Can maintain a conversation or discussion, but may sometimes be difficult to follow when try-
ing to say exactly what he/she would like to.
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness, interest and indif-
ference.
However, to operationalize these statements in terms of linguistic features and processes – an
essential step in developing teaching materials or tests to teach and assess mastery of these
JVTWL[LUJPLZ¶PZSHYNLS`HZIQLJ[P]LHUKPTWYLZZPVUPZ[PJWYVJLZZ(Z3LUNJVTTLU[Z!

Quite clearly teachers will need to judge the appropriateness of the B1 descriptors (or any
others within the CEFR scales) in relation to the students they are teaching. If one is work-
ing with, say, a group of Italian-speaking bank employees learning English for professional
reasons, then some of the descriptors might make sense at some stage of their teaching.
However, if one is teaching linguistic-minority students in England who are learning to use
English to do academic studies, then these descriptors would only be, at best, appropriate in a
very vague and abstract sense; they would need to be adapted and expanded locally because
an independent user of English as a second language in school would have to do a good deal
more than what is covered in these CEFR descriptors.
;OLSHJRVMHZ`SSHIZVYZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMJVU[LU[[OH[^VSKLUHISL[OLV[JVTLZPU[OL*,-9[VIL
HJOPL]LKOHZILLUPKLU[PÄLKHZWYVISLTH[PJPUZPUN[OLMYHTL^VYRHUKOHZSLK[V[OLKL]LSVWTLU[
VM[OL,UNSPZO7YVÄSLŽWYVQLJ[HJVSSHIVYH[P]LYLZLHYJOWYVNYHTYLNPZ[LYLK^P[O[OL*VUJPSVM,YVWL
and mainly funded by Cambridge University Press and Cambridge English Language Assessment.
;OLHPTVM[OL,UNSPZO7YVÄSLWYVQLJ[PZ[VKL]LSVWH¸WYVÄSL¹VYZL[VMYLMLYLUJLSL]LSKLZJYPW[PVUZ
of the grammar, vocabulary, and functions of English linked to the CEFR. These reference-level
descriptions are intended to provide detailed information about the language that learners can be
L_WLJ[LK[VKLTVUZ[YH[LH[LHJOSL]LSVќLYPUN^OH[PZPU[LUKLKHZHJSLHYILUJOTHYRMVYWYVNYLZZ
that will inform curriculum development as well as the development of courses and test materials to
support learners, teachers, and other professionals involved in the learning and teaching of English
HZHMVYLPNUSHUNHNL-VYMY[OLYPUMVYTH[PVUZLLO[[W!^^^LUNSPZOWYVÄSLVYN
7.5 Task-based syllabus
Task-Based Instruction or TBI (also known as Task-Based Teaching) is an approach that draws
heavily on second language acquisition (SLA) theory (or at least, selections from SLA theory) and is
based on the view that successful language learning results from engagement with tasks (Van den
Branden 2006, 2012; Van den Branden, Bygate, and Norris 2009; Long 2015) rather than through
a focus on grammar or other aspects of the linguistic system. A task-based syllabus makes use of
both tasks that have been specially designed to facilitate second language learning and tasks that
resemble the kinds of tasks learners will have to accomplish or carry out in the real world. Through
JVTWSL[PUNKPќLYLU[RPUKZVM[HZRZSLHYULYZHYLZHPK[VLUNHNLPUWYVJLZZLZ[OH[MHJPSP[H[LZLJVUK
SHUNHNLKL]LSVWTLU[-VYL_HTWSL3VUNHUK*YVVRLZ JSHPTLK[OH[[HZRZ¸WYV]PKLH
vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to learners – input which they
will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive processing capacities – and for the delivery
VM JVTWYLOLUZPVU HUK WYVKJ[PVU VWWVY[UP[PLZ VM ULNV[PHISL KPѝJS[`¹ :RLW[PJZ VM ;)0 ZLL P[ HZ
simplistic (e.g., Swan 2005), while advocates see it as solving the language-teaching problem once
and for all (Long 2015) (a refrain that has been heard many times in the past). Proponents of TBI
contrast it with earlier grammar-focused approaches to teaching such as audiolingualism, which they
JOHYHJ[LYPaLHZ¸[LHJOLYKVTPUH[LKMVYTVYPLU[LKJSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJL¹=HUKLU)YHUKLU
;OL[OLVY`VM;)0OHZKL]LSVWLKPUKPќLYLU[KPYLJ[PVUZZPUJLP[^HZÄYZ[WYVWVZLK,HYS`JVUJLW[PVUZ
of TBI such as those above proposed tasks as a unit that could be used to activate second
language learning processes and focused primarily on acquisition of grammar through tasks. A
more appropriate name for this view of tasks would be task-based grammar instruction. Tasks were
How would you distinguish between a task and an exercise?

regarded as procedures that learners engage with which promote learning as a by-product of task
LUNHNLTLU[HUKJVTWSL[PVU(UTILYVMJYP[LYPH^LYLWYVWVZLKPUKLÄUPUNH[HZR!
• It is something that learners do or carry out, initially using their existing language resources.
• It has an outcome that is not simply linked to learning language, though language acquisition
may occur as the learner carries out the task.
• It involves a focus on meaning.
• It calls upon the learners’ use of communication strategies and interactional skills (shared tasks).
Examples of tasks from this perspective are ÄUKPUNHZVS[PVU[VHWaaSL, reading a map and giving
directions, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy. Tasks of this kind can be described
as pedagogic tasks ( [HZR PU ÔPJO [^V SLHYULYZ OH]L [V [Y` [V ÄUK [OL UTILY VM KPќLYLUJLZ
between two similar pictures is an example of a pedagogic task. The task itself is not something one
would normally encounter in the real world. However, the interactional processes it requires provide
useful input to language development. Other examples of tasks of this kind include the following:
• 1PNZH^[HZRZ!;OLZL[HZRZPU]VS]LSLHYULYZPUJVTIPUPUNKPќLYLU[WPLJLZVMPUMVYTH[PVU[VMVYT
HÔVSLLN[OYLLPUKP]PKHSZVYNYVWZTHÒH]L[OYLLKPќLYLU[WHY[ZVMHZ[VY`HUKOH]L[V
piece the story together).
• 0UMVYTH[PVUNHW[HZRZ!Tasks in which one student or group of students has one set of
information and another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must
ULNV[PH[LHUKÄUKV[ÔH[[OLV[OLYWHY[`»ZPUMVYTH[PVUPZPUVYKLY[VJVTWSL[LHUHJ[P]P[`
• 7YVISLTZVS]PUN[HZRZ!Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive
at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the problem.
• +LJPZPVUTHRPUN[HZRZ!Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible
outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
• 6WPUPVUL_JOHUNL[HZRZ!Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not
need to reach agreement.
7LKHNVNPJ[HZRZLUNHNL[OLZLVMZWLJPÄJPU[LYHJ[PVUHSZ[YH[LNPLZ;OL`TH`HSZVYLXPYL[OLZLVM
ZWLJPÄJ[`WLZVMSHUNHNLZRPSSZNYHTTHY]VJHISHY`/V^L]LYÔLU[OL`PUJSKLHMVJZVUSHUNHNL
development, such a focus might occur after the task has been attempted, since the linguistic demands
of the task are often to some extent unpredictable. A sequence of classroom activities is suggested that
consists of (1) pre-task activities (to prepare students for a task), (2) the task, and (3) follow-up activities
based on the language that emerged during the task (Willis 1996; Willis and Willis 2007).
(KPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LVU[HZRZTHRLZZLVMÔH[JHUILKLZJYPILKHZreal-world tasks. These are
HJ[P]P[PLZ[OH[YLÅLJ[YLHS^VYSKZLZVMSHUNHNLHUKÔPJOTPNO[ILJVUZPKLYLKHYLOLHYZHSMVYYLHS
^VYSK[HZRZ(YVSLWSH`PUÔPJOZ[KLU[ZWYHJ[PJLHQVIPU[LY]PL^^VSKILH[HZRVM[OPZRPUK;OPZ]PL^
of tasks is seen in the following description taken from the CEFR of the Council of Europe (2001, 157):
Tasks are a feature of everyday life in the personal, public, educational domains.Task accomplish-
ment by an individual involves the strategic activation of specific competencies in order to carry out
a set of purposeful actions in a particular domain with a clearly defined goal and specific outcome.
Examples of tasks of this nature include:
• PU[LYHJ[PUN^P[OHWISPJZLY]PJLVѝJPHS
• [HRPUNWHY[PUHQVIPU[LY]PL^

• purchasing something in a store;
• describing a medical problem to a doctor;
• completing a form to apply for a driver’s license;
• following written instructions to assemble something;
• reading a report and discussing its recommendations;
• replying to an email message.
Thus, while early versions of TBI proposed tasks as a unit that could be used to teach language,
i.e., they are a means to an end, later versions propose mastery of tasks as an end in itself, i.e., they
focus mainly on real-world tasks:
The design of a task-based syllabus preferably starts with an analysis of the students’ needs.
What do these students need to be able to do with the target language? What are the tasks
they are supposed to perform outside of the classroom? Using different sources and different
methods (such as interviews, observations, and surveys) a concrete description of the kinds
of tasks students will face in the real word is drawn up. This description, then, serves as the
basis for the design and sequencing of tasks in the syllabus.
(Van den Branden 2012, 134)
No matter which view of tasks one adopts, many classroom activities do not share the characteristics
of tasks as illustrated above and are best described as exercises. These include drills, cloze activities,
controlled writing activities, etc., and many of the traditional techniques that are familiar to many
teachers. With TBI the focus shifts to using tasks to create interaction, and then building language
awareness and language development around task performance. Grammar and other components of
accurate language use are addressed as and when the need for them arises during the completion
of tasks.
Examples of Task-Based Instruction
;HZRZHZHWSHUUPUNUP[PUJYYPJSTKLZPNUOH]LILLUZLKPUHUTILYVMKPќLYLU[^H`Z
As the sole framework for course planning and delivery. Such an approach was used in a program
described by Prabhu (1987) in which a grammar-based curriculum was replaced by a task-based one
in a state school system, albeit only for a short period.
As one component of a course. A task strand can also serve as one component of a course, where
it would seek to develop general communication skills. This is the approach described by Beglar and
/U[PU[OLPYZ[K`VMH^LLRJVYZLMVYZLJVUK`LHY1HWHULZLUP]LYZP[`Z[KLU[Z;OL
task strand was based on a survey. Students designed a survey form, then collected data, analyzed it,
and presented the results. In this case task is being used in ways others would use the term project.
At the same time, students were also involved in classroom work related to a direct approach to
[LHJOPUNZWLHRPUNZRPSSZYLJLP]PUNL_WSPJP[PUZ[YJ[PVUPUZVTLVM[OLZWLJPÄJZ[YH[LNPLZHUKTPJYV
skills required for conversation.
As a technique. Tasks can be used as one technique in the teacher’s repertoire and can also be used
PUJVUQUJ[PVU^P[OV[OLYHWWYVHJOLZZJOHZZRPSSIHZLKVY[L_[IHZLKVULZ
What are some of the real-world tasks your learners use English for?

Issues with task-based syllabuses
As with any innovation in curriculum design, new proposals such as TBI raise a number of issues for
JYYPJSTWSHUULYZHUKTH[LYPHSZKLZPNU:VTLVM[OLZLHYLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅÌLSV^
+LÄUP[PVUVM[HZR+LÄUP[PVUZVM[HZRZHYLZVTL[PTLZZVIYVHKHZ[VPUJSKLHSTVZ[HU`[OPUN[OH[
involves learners doing something.
Choice and sequencing of tasks. Tomlinson (2015, 336–337) suggests that if tasks are chosen
primarily for the pedagogic potential, there is a danger that students will not acquire the language
ZRPSSZ[OLÙLLKIL`VUK[OLJSHZZYVVT/LWYVWVZLZ[OH[[HZRZ¸ZOVSKILWYLKL[LYTPULKZV[OH[
[OL`JV]LY[OLZP[H[PVUZVIQLJ[P]LZ[OLV[JVTLZ[OLZRPSSZHUK[OLZ[YH[LNPLZÔPJOHYLYLSL]HU[[V
the learners’ post-course performance in the target language.”
Development of accuracy. ,_JLZZP]L ZL VM JVTTUPJH[P]L [HZRZ TH` LUJVYHNL ÅLUJ` H[ [OL
expense of accuracy.
Lack of relevance in an assessment-driven curriculum. Many students study English in order to pass
local or national tests, and these are typically not based on task performance.
Demands on teachers. A task-based approach is heavily dependent on the teacher’s initiative. Since
the kind of language skills a learner needs to develop cannot be predicted in advance and will depend
on his or her needs and learning context, task-based approaches are typically one-of-a-kind. Hence,
there are no general task-based syllabuses for teachers or course designers to use as a reference,
and likewise, since the approach precludes the use of a pre-designed syllabus, there are no published
courses or course materials based on this approach.
7.6 Text-based syllabus
Another way to think about the goals of language learning is to view them as a means of learning
OV^[VUKLYZ[HUKHUKZLKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU[L_[ZHUK[VWHY[PJPWH[LPUSHUNHNL
based social practices. As Mickan (2013, 1) argues:
Texts are integral to everyday life. We organize our lives and those of others with numerous
spoken and written texts – greetings, instructions, news, emails, telephone calls, calendars,
timetables and diaries. Invitations, weather forecasts, sporting programmes and televisions
shows influence our decisions, actions and events …
;L_[ZTHÌL]PL^LK[OLUHZZ[YJ[YLKUP[ZVMKPZJVYZL[OH[HYLZLKPUZWLJPÄJJVU[L_[ZPUZWLJPÄJ
ways, that is as conversations, directives, exchanges, explanations, expositions, factual recounts,
information texts, instructions, interviews, narratives, opinion texts, personal recounts, persuasive texts,
presentations, procedures. (See Appendix 3 for a list of common text types.) A text-based syllabus is
VYNHUPaLKHYVUK[OL[L_[[`WLZVJJYYPUNTVZ[MYLXLU[S`PUZWLJPÄJJVU[L_[Z;OLZLJVU[L_[ZTPNO[
include such situations as studying in an English-medium university, studying in an English-medium
WYPTHY`VYZLJVUKHY`ZJOVVS^VYRPUNPUHYLZ[HYHU[VѝJLVYZ[VYLZVJPHSPaPUN^P[OULPNOIVYZPUH
OVZPUNJVTWSL_;OLZLHYLPKLU[PÄLK[OYVNOULLKZHUHS`ZPZ[OH[PZ[OYVNO[OLHUHS`ZPZVMSHUNHNL
HUK JVTTUPJH[PVU HZ P[ VJJYZ PU KPќLYLU[ ZL[[PUNZ ;OL HZZTW[PVU ILOPUK ;)0 PZ [OH[ ZLJVUK
SHUNHNLSLHYUPUNPU]VS]LZTHZ[LYPUN[OLJVU]LU[PVUZUKLYS`PUN[OLZWLJPÄJ[`WLZVM[L_[Z[OLSLHYULYZ
encounters in his or her domains of language use – e.g., at school, work, in social situations, and so on.
Identifying these texts and their features and then building a course around them form the basis of text-
based syllabus design. Mickan (2013, 13) describes the rationale for a text-based approach as follows:
[A text approach] constructs the curriculum around social practices and their texts rather than
presenting language as grammatical and lexical objects … The ready availability of texts as
resources for teaching simplifies curriculum planning and implementation.

A curriculum constructed around social practices and their texts is a curriculum designed for
learners’ engagement with meaning – not as an afterthought, but as the central activity. The
focus on texts creates potential to make meanings with other people.
A text-based approach has been used as a component of a national curriculum in some contexts.
The following are examples of the text types that were used in the national curriculum in Singapore:
7YVJLKYLZ!e.g., procedures used in carrying out a task.
,_WSHUH[PVUZ!e.g., explaining how and why things happen.
,_WVZP[PVUZ!e.g., reviews, arguments, debates.
-HJ[HSYLJVU[Z!e.g., magazine articles.
7LYZVUHSYLJVU[Z!LNHULJKV[LZKPHY`QVYUHSLU[YPLZIPVNYHWOPLZH[VIPVNYHWOPLZ
0UMVYTH[PVUYLWVY[Z!e.g., fact sheets.
5HYYH[P]LZ! e.g., stories, fables.
*VU]LYZH[PVUZHUKZOVY[MUJ[PVUHS[L_[Z!e.g., dialogs, formal/informal letters, postcards,
e-mail, notices.
The CEFR includes a far broader set of text types and lists the following as examples of texts learners
may need to understand, produce, or participate in (Council of Europe 2001, 95):
Spoken texts Written texts
• Public announcements and instructions
• Public speeches, lectures,
• Presentations, sermons
• Rituals (ceremonies, formal religious
services)
• Entertainment (drama, shows,
readings, songs)
• Sports commentaries (football,
cricket, … etc.)
• News broadcasts
• Public debates and discussion
• Interpersonal dialogues and conversations
• Telephone conversations
• Job interviews
• Books: fiction and non-fiction …
• Magazines
• Newspapers
• Instructions (e.g. DIY, cookbooks, … etc.)
• Textbooks
• Comic strips
• Brochures, prospectuses
• Leaflets
• Advertising material
• Public signs and notices
• Supermarket, shop and market-stall signs
• Packaging and labelling on goods
• Tickets, … etc.
• Forms and questionnaires
• Dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual),
thesauri
• Business and professional letters, faxes
• Personal letters
• Essays and exercises
• Memoranda, reports and papers
• Notes and messages, … etc.
• Databases (news, literature, general information)
What are some of the kinds of spoken and written texts your learners need to become
WYVÄJPLU[PU

Syllabus and course design from a text-based perspective involves identifying the spoken and written
text types most relevant to the learners’ needs, analyzing the discourse and linguistic features of the
texts, and developing strategies to help learners develop the knowledge and skills involved in using
[L_[ZHZ[OLIHZPZMVYH[OLU[PJHUKTLHUPUNMSJVTTUPJH[PVU(JJVYKPUN[V-LLaHUK1V`JL
teaching from a text-based approach involves:
• teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and written texts;
• linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use;
• designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts;
• providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful
communication through whole texts.
This approach is seen in Mickan (2013, 48–57), who describes a syllabus developed to prepare
1HWHULZLUKLYNYHKH[LZMVYHUV]LYZLHZZ[K`WYVNYHT[OH[PU[LNYH[LKSHUNHNLL_WLYPLUJLZ^P[O
local sightseeing in an Australian city. Core texts used in the program included the following:
• Copies of transcripts of classroom practices – discourse with a focus on teacher instructions;
NYVW^VYR[HSRYLXLZ[PUNJSHYPÄJH[PVUHUKHZZPZ[HUJLPUP[PH[PUNLUXPYPLZHZ^LSSHZYLZWVUKPUN
to enquiries.
• Examples of oral reports, with transcripts, on visits to wildlife park.
• Procedural texts illustrating the processes of grape production and wine production.
• Descriptions of tourist destinations around Adelaide.
Mickan does not describe where and how the transcripts referred to were obtained, who transcribed
them, or how they were used: obviously the logistics and time involved would be considerable.
As we saw above, the notion of text types is central to the planning of a text-based syllabus, and the
organization of skill-based courses (e.g., courses in reading, writing, listening, or speaking) is often
based on text types (also referred to as genres) at the macro level. Other syllabus strands, such
as grammar and vocabulary, will be chosen depending on the nature of each skill. For example, in
WSHUUPUNHJVYZLHYVUKZWLHRPUNZRPSSZ[OLÄYZ[WSHUUPUNKLJPZPVUPUH[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJOOHZ[V
do with determining the types of spoken texts the course will address based on the learners’ needs,
such as small talk, casual conversation, telephone conversations, formal conversation, transactions,
discussions, interviews, presentations, etc. Each text type has distinct characteristics. Other syllabus
Z[YHUKZ^PSSYLÅLJ[[OLUH[YLVMLHJONLUYL;OLZ`SSHIZHSZVZHSS`ZWLJPÄLZV[OLYJVTWVULU[ZVM
texts, such as grammar, vocabulary, topics, and functions; hence, it is a type of mixed syllabus, one
which integrates reading, writing, and oral communication, and which teaches grammar and other
features of texts through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation.
For example, in the case of the text type of conversation this would include at the micro level, opening
and closing conversations, topic choice, topic development, discourse management, turn taking,
back channeling, questioning, clarifying meaning. Other syllabus components for a speaking course
at the micro level could include functions, conversational routines, and vocabulary.
See Appendix 4 for procedures involved in teaching from a text-based syllabus.
Examples of a text-based approach
;L_[ZHZWSHUUPUNUP[ZPUJYYPJSTKLZPNUOH]LILLUZLKPUHUTILYVMKPќLYLU[^H`ZHZV[SPULK
below.

ESP and EAP courses. English for Special Purposes and English for Academic Purposes are obvious
cases where a text-based approach would be relevant. Such a course would be built around the
ZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU[L_[[`WLZLUJVU[LYLKPUZWLJPÄJJVU[L_[Z(Z4PJRHUJVTTLU[Z
^P[O YLMLYLUJL [V ;)0 PU HJHKLTPJ JVU[L_[Z! ¸(JHKLTPJ Z[K` YLXPYLZ UKLYZ[HUKPUN HUK ZPUN
specialized discourses for participation in disciplinary practices … Academic language comprises
multiple texts and tasks embedded in disciplinary practices.”
Textbooks for a state curriculum. TBI has also been used as the framework for textbooks used in state
schools at both primary and secondary level (e.g., in Singapore).
A component of CBI and CLIL. A text-based approach is compatible with other approaches and can
be used as the basis for integrating content with language learning. Texts become the vehicle through
which learners engage with content.
Issues with a text-based approach
Critics have raised a number of questions about both the theory and the practice of TBI, principal
HTVUNÔPJOHYL[OVZLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅÌLSV^
Focus on products rather than processes. As can be seen from the above summary, a text-based
approach focuses on the products of learning rather than the processes involved. Critics have pointed
out that an emphasis on individual creativity and personal expression is often missing from the TBI
model, which is heavily wedded to a methodology based on the study of model texts and the creation
of texts based on models.
Practicality. The practical demands of assembling and analyzing spoken and written texts might also
be unrealistic in many situations. Accounts given in Mickan (2013) make extensive use of transcripts
VMH[OLU[PJZWVRLU,UNSPZOÔPJO^VSKILKPѝJS[MVYTHU`[LHJOLYZ[VVI[HPU6U[OLV[OLYOHUK
a text-based approach lends itself readily to the design of textbooks and other materials, so some of
the planning required may not necessarily involve the teacher.
Conclusions
;OL Z`SSHIZ HWWYVHJOLZ PU [OPZ JOHW[LY VќLY KPќLYLU[ ZVS[PVUZ [V [OL WYVISLT VM KL]LSVWPUN H
rational approach to the design of a language course and syllabus. In the case of content-based,
[HZRIHZLKHUK[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJOLZ[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[ZPULHJOJHZLKPќLY-VY*)0HUK*303
a focus on the communication and understanding of meaning and information initiates the process
of syllabus development. Other planning decisions, such as those related to lexis, grammar, and
texts, are dependent upon how meaning and content is presented. Methodology is not prescribed.
In the case of task-based approaches, the process of syllabus development starts with identifying
tasks. These are used to activate learning processes and also to prepare leaners for out-of-class
task performance. A cycle of classroom activities is prescribed. A text-based approach begins with
identifying text types, and classroom activities center on text analysis and text creation following a
WYLZJYPILKZL[VMWYVJLKYLZ*VTWL[LUJÌHZLKHWWYVHJOLZKPќLYMYVTLHJOVM[OLHIV]LZ`SSHIZ
TVKLSZZPUJLPU[OPZJHZLZ`SSHIZKL]LSVWTLU[Z[HY[Z^P[OPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVMSLHYUPUNV[JVTLZHUK
YLSH[LK JVTWL[LUJPLZ :IZLXLU[ ZWLJPÄJH[PVU VM Z`SSHIZ JVU[LU[ KLWLUKZ VU [OL JVU[L_[ HUK
could include linguistic items and content, texts, and skills. Methodology is not prescribed.
In the next chapter we will consider other approaches to syllabus design and review the use of skills,
functions, grammar, vocabulary, and situation in syllabus design.

Discussion questions
1. Go online and look at the (*;-3 7YVÄJPLUJ` .PKLSPULZ MVY ,UNSPZO ^^^HJ[ÅVYN
WISPJH[PVUZNPKLSPULZHUKTHUHSZHJ[ÅWYVÄJPLUJ`NPKLSPULZLUNSPZOZWLHRPUN HUK
read the descriptions for any level of one of the four macro-skills. Where would you place yourself
on the scale for any foreign language you speak?
2. How would you explain the notion of macro- and micro-level units of course organization to a
UV]PJL[LHJOLY.P]LL_HTWSLZMYVTZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJVYZLZ
3. You have been asked to plan a unit on climate change for an intermediate-level speaking class.
What skills and grammar could you link to this topic?
4. (YL*)0HUK*303PKLU[PJHS/V^KV`VUKLYZ[HUK[OLPYZPTPSHYP[PLZHUKKPќLYLUJLZ
5. @VHYLKL]LSVWPUNHJVTWL[LUJ`IHZLKJVYZLMVYYLZ[HYHU[Z[Hќ^HP[WLYZVUZ/V^^VSK
you identify the competencies they need to master in English? Give examples of what the
competencies would look like.
6. Give an example of a pedagogic task and a real-world task that could be used in designing (a)
a reading course and (b) a listening course.
7. 0U^OH[JPYJTZ[HUJLZKV`V[OPURH[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO^VSKILHTVZ[LќLJ[P]LISLHZ[
LќLJ[P]L
8. Choose a group of learners that you are familiar with. What kinds of spoken and written texts
KV`V[OPUR[OL`TVZ[MYLXLU[S`LUJVU[LYOH[RPUKZVMKPѝJS[PLZHYL[OLZL[L_[ZSPRLS`[V
pose for them?
9. Prepare a sample lesson plan based on each of the four syllabus models discussed in this
chapter, and compare them. What features do they have in common?
10. Read Case study 10 by Lindsay Miller at the end of this chapter.
• How were language and content integrated throughout the course?
• What language skills do you think the learners were likely to develop?
• What other areas of content do you think could be used in a similar way with this group
of learners?
11. Read Case study 11 by Rosa Bergadà.
• /V^KV[OLNVHSZVMOLYJVYZLHUK3PUKZH`»ZJVYZLKPќLY
• How does the course link content to language development?
• /V^KVLZ[OLJVYZLYLÅLJ[HSLHYULYJLU[LYLKHWWYVHJO
12. Read Case study 12 by Phil Chappell.
• /V^KVLZ[OLJVYZLYLÅLJ[H[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJO[VJYYPJSTKLZPNU
• /V^KVLZ[OLJVYZLYLÅLJ[SLHYULYZ»ULLKZ

APPENDIX 1 ;OL(*;-37YVÄJPLUJ`.PKLSPULZ – For Speaking
DISTINGUISHED
:WLHRLYZH[[OL+PZ[PUNPZOLKSL]LSHYLHISL[VZLSHUNHNLZRPSSMSS`HUK^P[OHJJYHJ`LѝJPLUJ`
HUK LќLJ[P]LULZZ ;OL` HYL LKJH[LK HUK HY[PJSH[L ZLYZ VM [OL SHUNHNL ;OL` JHU YLÅLJ[ VU
a wide range of global issues and highly abstract concepts in a culturally appropriate manner.
Distinguished-level speakers can use persuasive and hypothetical discourse for representational
purposes, allowing them to advocate a point of view that is not necessarily their own. They can
tailor language to a variety of audiences by adapting their speech and register in ways that are
culturally authentic.
Speakers at the Distinguished level produce highly sophisticated and tightly organized
extended discourse. At the same time, they can speak succinctly, often using cultural and historical
references to allow them to say less and mean more. At this level, oral discourse typically resembles
written discourse.
A non-native accent, a lack of a native-like economy of expression, a limited control of deeply
embedded cultural references, and/or an occasional isolated language error may still be present at
this level.
SUPERIOR
:WLHRLYZ H[ [OL :WLYPVY SL]LS HYL HISL [V JVTTUPJH[L ^P[O HJJYHJ` HUK ÅLUJ` PU VYKLY [V
WHY[PJPWH[LMSS`HUKLќLJ[P]LS`PUJVU]LYZH[PVUZVUH]HYPL[`VM[VWPJZPUMVYTHSHUKPUMVYTHSZL[[PUNZ
MYVT IV[O JVUJYL[L HUK HIZ[YHJ[ WLYZWLJ[P]LZ ;OL` KPZJZZ [OLPY PU[LYLZ[Z HUK ZWLJPHS ÄLSKZ VM
competence, explain complex matters in detail, and provide lengthy and coherent narrations, all with
LHZLÅLUJ`HUKHJJYHJ`;OL`WYLZLU[[OLPYVWPUPVUZVUHUTILYVMPZZLZVMPU[LYLZ[[V[OLT
such as social and political issues, and provide structured arguments to support these opinions. They
are able to construct and develop hypotheses to explore alternative possibilities.
When appropriate, these speakers use extended discourse without unnaturally lengthy hesitation
to make their point, even when engaged in abstract elaborations. Such discourse, while coherent,
TH` Z[PSS IL PUÅLUJLK I` SHUNHNL WH[[LYUZ V[OLY [OHU [OVZL VM [OL [HYNL[ SHUNHNL :WLYPVY
level speakers employ a variety of interactive and discourse strategies, such as turn-taking and
separating main ideas from supporting information through the use of syntactic, lexical, and
phonetic devices.
Speakers at the Superior level demonstrate no pattern of error in the use of basic structures, although
they may make sporadic errors, particularly in low-frequency structures and in complex high-
frequency structures. Such errors, if they do occur, do not distract the native interlocutor or interfere
with communication.
ADVANCED
Speakers at the Advanced level engage in conversation in a clearly participatory manner in order to
communicate information on autobiographical topics, as well as topics of community, national, or
international interest. The topics are handled concretely by means of narration and description in the
THQVY[PTLMYHTLZVMWHZ[WYLZLU[HUKM[YL;OLZLZWLHRLYZJHUHSZVKLHS^P[OHZVJPHSZP[H[PVU
with an unexpected complication. The language of Advanced-level speakers is abundant, the oral
paragraph being the measure of Advanced-level length and discourse. Advanced-level speakers have
ZѝJPLU[JVU[YVSVMIHZPJZ[YJ[YLZHUKNLULYPJ]VJHISHY`[VILUKLYZ[VVKI`UH[P]LZWLHRLYZVM
the language, including those unaccustomed to non-native speech.

ADVANCED HIGH
Speakers at the Advanced High sublevel perform all Advanced-level tasks with linguistic ease,
JVUÄKLUJLHUKJVTWL[LUJL;OL`HYLJVUZPZ[LU[S`HISL[VL_WSHPUPUKL[HPSHUKUHYYH[LMSS`HUK
accurately in all time frames. In addition, Advanced High speakers handle the tasks pertaining to
the Superior level but cannot sustain performance at that level across a variety of topics. They
may provide a structured argument to support their opinions, and they may construct hypotheses,
but patterns of error appear. They can discuss some topics abstractly, especially those relating to
[OLPYWHY[PJSHYPU[LYLZ[ZHUKZWLJPHSÄLSKZVML_WLY[PZLI[PUNLULYHS[OL`HYLTVYLJVTMVY[HISL
discussing a variety of topics concretely.
Advanced High speakers may demonstrate a well-developed ability to compensate for an imperfect
NYHZW VM ZVTL MVYTZ VY MVY SPTP[H[PVUZ PU ]VJHISHY` I` [OL JVUÄKLU[ ZL VM JVTTUPJH[P]L
strategies, such as paraphrasing, circumlocution, and illustration. They use precise vocabulary
HUKPU[VUH[PVU[VL_WYLZZTLHUPUNHUKVM[LUZOV^NYLH[ÅLUJ`HUKLHZLVMZWLLJO/V^L]LY
when called on to perform the complex tasks associated with the Superior level over a variety of
topics, their language will at times break down or prove inadequate, or they may avoid the task
HS[VNL[OLYMVYL_HTWSLI`YLZVY[PUN[VZPTWSPÄJH[PVU[OYVNO[OLZLVMKLZJYPW[PVUVYUHYYH[PVUPU
place of argument or hypothesis.
ADVANCED MID
:WLHRLYZH[[OL(K]HUJLK4PKZISL]LSHYLHISL[VOHUKSL^P[OLHZLHUKJVUÄKLUJLHSHYNLUTILY
of communicative tasks. They participate actively in most informal and some formal exchanges on
a variety of concrete topics relating to work, school, home, and leisure activities, as well as topics
relating to events of current, public, and personal interest or individual relevance.
(K]HUJLK4PKZWLHRLYZKLTVUZ[YH[L[OLHIPSP[`[VUHYYH[LHUKKLZJYPILPU[OLTHQVY[PTLMYHTLZ
of past, present, and future by providing a full account, with good control of aspect. Narration
and description tend to be combined and interwoven to relate relevant and supporting facts in
connected, paragraph-length discourse.
Advanced Mid speakers can handle successfully and with relative ease the linguistic challenges
presented by a complication or unexpected turn of events that occurs within the context of a routine
situation or communicative task with which they are otherwise familiar. Communicative strategies such
as circumlocution or rephrasing are often employed for this purpose. The speech of Advanced Mid
ZWLHRLYZWLYMVYTPUN(K]HUJLKSL]LS[HZRZPZTHYRLKI`ZIZ[HU[PHSÅV^;OLPY]VJHISHY`PZMHPYS`L_[LUZP]L
although primarily generic in nature, except in the case of a particular area of specialization or interest.
;OLPYKPZJVYZLTH`Z[PSSYLÅLJ[[OLVYHSWHYHNYHWOZ[YJ[YLVM[OLPYV^USHUNHNLYH[OLY[OHU[OH[VM[OL
target language.
Advanced Mid speakers contribute to conversations on a variety of familiar topics, dealt with concretely, with
much accuracy, clarity and precision, and they convey their intended message without misrepresentation
or confusion. They are readily understood by native speakers unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives.
When called on to perform functions or handle topics associated with the Superior level, the quality and/or
quantity of their speech will generally decline.
ADVANCED LOW
Speakers at the Advanced Low sublevel are able to handle a variety of communicative tasks. They
are able to participate in most informal and some formal conversations on topics related to school,
home, and leisure activities. They can also speak about some topics related to employment, current
events, and matters of public and community interest.

(K]HUJLK3V^ZWLHRLYZKLTVUZ[YH[L[OLHIPSP[`[VUHYYH[LHUKKLZJYPILPU[OLTHQVY[PTLMYHTLZ
of past, present, and future in paragraph-length discourse with some control of aspect. In these
narrations and descriptions, Advanced Low speakers combine and link sentences into connected
discourse of paragraph length, although these narrations and descriptions tend to be handled
separately rather than interwoven. They can handle appropriately the essential linguistic challenges
presented by a complication or an unexpected turn of events.
Responses produced by Advanced Low speakers are typically not longer than a single paragraph.
The speaker’s dominant language may be evident in the use of false cognates, literal translations,
or the oral paragraph structure of that language. At times their discourse may be minimal for the
SL]LS THYRLK I` HU PYYLNSHY ÅV^ HUK JVU[HPUPUN UV[PJLHISL ZLSMJVYYLJ[PVU 4VYL NLULYHSS` [OL
performance of Advanced Low speakers tends to be uneven.
Advanced Low speech is typically marked by a certain grammatical roughness (e.g., inconsistent
control of verb endings), but the overall performance of the Advanced-level tasks is sustained, albeit
TPUPTHSS`;OL]VJHISHY`VM(K]HUJLK3V^ZWLHRLYZVM[LUSHJRZZWLJPÄJP[`5L]LY[OLSLZZ(K]HUJLK
Low speakers are able to use communicative strategies such as rephrasing and circumlocution.
(K]HUJLK 3V^ ZWLHRLYZ JVU[YPI[L [V [OL JVU]LYZH[PVU ^P[O ZѝJPLU[ HJJYHJ` JSHYP[` HUK
precision to convey their intended message without misrepresentation or confusion. Their speech
can be understood by native speakers unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives, even though
this may require some repetition or restatement. When attempting to perform functions or handle
topics associated with the Superior level, the linguistic quality and quantity of their speech will
KL[LYPVYH[LZPNUPÄJHU[S`
INTERMEDIATE
Speakers at the Intermediate level are distinguished primarily by their ability to create with the language
when talking about familiar topics related to their daily life. They are able to recombine learned material
in order to express personal meaning. Intermediate-level speakers can ask simple questions and can
handle a straightforward survival situation. They produce sentence-level language, ranging from discrete
sentences to strings of sentences, typically in present time. Intermediate-level speakers are understood
by interlocutors who are accustomed to dealing with non-native learners of the language.
INTERMEDIATE HIGH
0U[LYTLKPH[L/PNOZWLHRLYZHYLHISL[VJVU]LYZL^P[OLHZLHUKJVUÄKLUJL^OLUKLHSPUN^P[O[OL
routine tasks and social situations of the Intermediate level. They are able to handle successfully
uncomplicated tasks and social situations requiring an exchange of basic information related to their
work, school, recreation, particular interests, and areas of competence.
Intermediate High speakers can handle a substantial number of tasks associated with the Advanced
level, but they are unable to sustain performance of all of these tasks all of the time. Intermediate
/PNO ZWLHRLYZ JHU UHYYH[L HUK KLZJYPIL PU HSS THQVY [PTL MYHTLZ ZPUN JVUULJ[LK KPZJVYZL VM
paragraph length, but not all the time. Typically, when Intermediate High speakers attempt to perform
Advanced-level tasks, their speech exhibits one or more features of breakdown, such as the failure to
JHYY`V[MSS`[OLUHYYH[PVUVYKLZJYPW[PVUPU[OLHWWYVWYPH[LTHQVY[PTLMYHTLHUPUHIPSP[`[VTHPU[HPU
paragraph-length discourse, or a reduction in breadth and appropriateness of vocabulary.
Intermediate High speakers can generally be understood by native speakers unaccustomed to
dealing with non-natives, although interference from another language may be evident (e.g., use
of code-switching, false cognates, literal translations), and a pattern of gaps in communication
may occur.

INTERMEDIATE MID
Speakers at the Intermediate Mid sublevel are able to handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated
communicative tasks in straightforward social situations. Conversation is generally limited to those
predictable and concrete exchanges necessary for survival in the target culture. These include
personal information related to self, family, home, daily activities, interests and personal preferences,
as well as physical and social needs, such as food, shopping, travel, and lodging.
Intermediate Mid speakers tend to function reactively, for example, by responding to direct questions
or requests for information. However, they are capable of asking a variety of questions when necessary
to obtain simple information to satisfy basic needs, such as directions, prices, and services. When
called on to perform functions or handle topics at the Advanced level, they provide some information
I[OH]LKPѝJS[`SPURPUNPKLHZTHUPWSH[PUN[PTLHUKHZWLJ[HUKZPUNJVTTUPJH[P]LZ[YH[LNPLZ
such as circumlocution.
Intermediate Mid speakers are able to express personal meaning by creating with the language, in part
by combining and recombining known elements and conversational input to produce responses typically
consisting of sentences and strings of sentences. Their speech may contain pauses, reformulations,
and self-corrections as they search for adequate vocabulary and appropriate language forms to express
themselves. In spite of the limitations in their vocabulary and/or pronunciation and/or grammar and/or
syntax, Intermediate Mid speakers are generally understood by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed
to dealing with non-natives.
Overall, Intermediate Mid speakers are at ease when performing Intermediate-level tasks and do so
^P[OZPNUPÄJHU[XHU[P[`HUKXHSP[`VM0U[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSSHUNHNL
INTERMEDIATE LOW
Speakers at the Intermediate Low sublevel are able to handle successfully a limited number of
uncomplicated communicative tasks by creating with the language in straightforward social situations.
Conversation is restricted to some of the concrete exchanges and predictable topics necessary for
survival in the target-language culture. These topics relate to basic personal information; for example,
self and family, some daily activities and personal preferences, and some immediate needs, such as
ordering food and making simple purchases. At the Intermediate Low sublevel, speakers are primarily
reactive and struggle to answer direct questions or requests for information. They are also able to
ask a few appropriate questions. Intermediate Low speakers manage to sustain the functions of the
0U[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSHS[OVNOQZ[IHYLS`
Intermediate Low speakers express personal meaning by combining and recombining what they
know and what they hear from their interlocutors into short statements and discrete sentences. Their
YLZWVUZLZHYLVM[LUÄSSLK^P[OOLZP[HUJ`HUKPUHJJYHJPLZHZ[OL`ZLHYJOMVYHWWYVWYPH[LSPUNPZ[PJ
forms and vocabulary while attempting to give form to the message. Their speech is characterized
I`MYLXLU[WHZLZPULќLJ[P]LYLMVYTSH[PVUZHUKZLSMJVYYLJ[PVUZ;OLPYWYVUUJPH[PVU]VJHISHY`
HUKZ`U[H_HYLZ[YVUNS`PUÅLUJLKI`[OLPYÄYZ[SHUNHNL0UZWP[LVMMYLXLU[TPZUKLYZ[HUKPUNZ[OH[
may require repetition or rephrasing, Intermediate Low speakers can generally be understood by
sympathetic interlocutors, particularly by those accustomed to dealing with non-natives.
NOVICE
Novice-level speakers can communicate short messages on highly predictable, everyday topics that
HќLJ[[OLTKPYLJ[S`;OL`KVZVWYPTHYPS`[OYVNO[OLZLVMPZVSH[LK^VYKZHUKWOYHZLZ[OH[OH]L
ILLULUJVU[LYLKTLTVYPaLKHUKYLJHSSLK5V]PJLSL]LSZWLHRLYZTH`ILKPѝJS[[VUKLYZ[HUK
even by the most sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to non-native speech.

NOVICE HIGH
Speakers at the Novice High sublevel are able to handle a variety of tasks pertaining to the Intermediate
level, but are unable to sustain performance at that level. They are able to manage successfully a
number of uncomplicated communicative tasks in straightforward social situations. Conversation
is restricted to a few of the predictable topics necessary for survival in the target language culture,
ZJOHZIHZPJWLYZVUHSPUMVYTH[PVUIHZPJVIQLJ[ZHUKHSPTP[LKUTILYVMHJ[P]P[PLZWYLMLYLUJLZ
and immediate needs. Novice High speakers respond to simple, direct questions or requests for
information. They are also able to ask a few formulaic questions.
Novice High speakers are able to express personal meaning by relying heavily on learned phrases or
recombinations of these and what they hear from their interlocutor. Their language consists primarily
of short and sometimes incomplete sentences in the present, and may be hesitant or inaccurate.
On the other hand, since their language often consists of expansions of learned material and stock
WOYHZLZ[OL`TH`ZVTL[PTLZZVUKZYWYPZPUNS`ÅLU[HUKHJJYH[L7YVUUJPH[PVU]VJHISHY`HUK
ZÙ[H_THÌLZ[YVUNS`PUÅLUJLKI`[OLÄYZ[SHUNHNL-YLXLU[TPZUKLYZ[HUKPUNZTH`HYPZLI[
with repetition or rephrasing, Novice High speakers can generally be understood by sympathetic
interlocutors used to non-natives. When called on to handle a variety of topics and perform functions
pertaining to the Intermediate level, a Novice High speaker can sometimes respond in intelligible
sentences, but will not be able to sustain sentence-level discourse.
NOVICE MID
Speakers at the Novice Mid sublevel communicate minimally by using a number of isolated words and
memorized phrases limited by the particular context in which the language has been learned. When
responding to direct questions, they may say only two or three words at a time or give an occasional
stock answer. They pause frequently as they search for simple vocabulary or attempt to recycle their
VÛHUK[OLPYPU[LYSVJ[VY»Z^VYKZ5V]PJL4PKZWLHRLYZTHÌLUKLYZ[VVK^P[OKPѝJS[`L]LUI`
sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to dealing with non-natives. When called on to handle topics
and perform functions associated with the Intermediate level, they frequently resort to repetition,
words from their native language, or silence.
NOVICE LOW
Speakers at the Novice Low sublevel have no real functional ability and, because of their pronunciation,
may be unintelligible. Given adequate time and familiar cues, they may be able to exchange greetings,
NP]L[OLPYPKLU[P[`HUKUHTLHUTILYVMMHTPSPHYVIQLJ[ZMYVT[OLPYPTTLKPH[LLU]PYVUTLU[;OL`HYL
unable to perform functions or handle topics pertaining to the Intermediate level, and cannot therefore
participate in a true conversational exchange.
(For more information, see ACTFL 2012.)

APPENDIX 2 Description of performance levels; writing (adapted by Paltridge
from the IELTS test [Paltridge 1992])
LEVELS
OVERALL
IDEAS

ARGUMENT
ACCURACY
FLUENCY
APPROPRIATENESS
INTELLIGIBILITY
Beginner
Nonwriter.
Cannot
write
in
English
at
all.
Elementary
Intermittent
writer.
Very
difficult
to
follow.
Evidence
of
few
ideas
with
no
apparent
development.
Little
apparent
coherence
to
the
text.
Very
limited
grasp
of
lexical,
grammatical,
and
relational
patterns.
Little
grasp
of
conventions
of
punctuation
and
spelling
and
use
of
cohesive
devices.
Isolated
words
or
short
stock
phrases
only.
Very
short
text.
Use
of
language
(including
layout)
minimally
appropriateto
text
type,
function,
and
communicative
goal.
Can
convey
only
very
simple
meanings.
Concentration
and
constant
verification
necessary
on
the
part
of
the
reader.
Intermediate
Limited
writer.
Rather
difficult
to
follow.
Limited
range
of
ideas
expressed.
Development
may
be
restricted
and
often
incomplete
or
unclear.
Information
is
not
arranged
coherently.
Limited
grasp
of
lexical,
grammatical,
and
relational
patterns
and
use
of
cohesive
devices.
Weaknesses
in
punctuation
and/or
spelling.
Texts
may
be
simple,
showing
little
development.
Limited
structures
and
vocabulary.
Little
subtlety
and
flexibility.
Use
of
language
generally
appropriate
to
function,
text
type,
and
communicative
goal
within
a
limited
range
of
text
types.
Layout
generally
appropriate
to
text
type.
Can
convey
basic
meanings,
although
with
some
diffi-
culty.
Upper-
Intermediate
Moderate
writer.
Fairly
easy
to
read
and
understand.
Texts
generally
well
organised.
Moderate
range
of
ideas
expressed.
Topic
development
is
present,
but
may
still
lack
Moderate
grasp
of
lexical,
grammatical,
and
relational
patterns
and
use
of
cohesive
devices
Texts
show
increased
development.
Writes
with
a
fair
range
and
variety
of
language.
Use
of
language
generally
appropriate
to
function,
text
type,
and
communicative
Broadly
able
to
convey
meanings,
although
errors
can
interfere
with
communication.

some
detail
and
supporting
statements.
Information
is
generally
arranged
coherently.
enabling
the
expres-
sion
of
a
broader
range
of
meanings
and
relationships
between
those
meanings.
Occasional
faults
in
punctuation
and
spelling.
Moderate
level
of
subtlety
and
flexibility.
goal
within
a
moderate
range
of
text
types.
Textual
organisation
and
layout
generally
appropriate
to
text
type.
Advanced
Competent
writer.
Easy
to
read
from
start
to
finish.
Texts
generally
well
organised.
Good
range
and
progression
of
ideas
expressed
and
coherently
arranged,
although
there
may
still
be
isolated
problems.
Ideas
and
evidence
are
relevant,
but
more
detail
may
still
be
desirable.
Competent
grasp
of
lexical
and
grammatical
patterns,
although
problems
may
still
occur
with
punctuation
and
spelling.
Relationships
within
and
between
pro-
positions
generally
well
managed.
Can
generally
write
spontaneously
on
general
topics.
Competent
use
of
a
range
of
grammatical
structures
and
vocabulary.
Competent
level
of
subtlety
and
flexibility.
Use
of
language
generally
appropriate
to
function,
text
type,
and
communicative
goal
within
a
range
of
text
types.
Textual
organisation
and
layout
appropriate
to
text
type.
Communicates
meanings
effectively.
Only
occasional
interference
due
to
errors.
Special
Purpose
Good
writer.
Can
write
well
within
general
and
own
special
purpose
areas.
Able
to
produce
organised,
coherent,
and
cohesive
discourse.
Good
range
of
relevant
ideas
are
coherently
expressed.
Evidence
is
presented
and
discussed.
Where
appropriate,
a
point
of
view
is
presented
and
developed.
Confident
and
generally
accurate
use
of
lexical
and
grammatical
patterns,
cohesive
devices,
punctuation,
and
spelling.
Relationships
within
and
between
propositions
well
managed.
Writes
well
on
general
topics
and
on
matters
relevant
to
own
special
purpose
interests.
Good
range
of
grammatical
structures
and
vocabulary,
subtlety,
and
flexibility.
Use
of
language
mainly
appropriate
to
function,
text
type,
and
communicative
goal
within
a
good
range
of
text
types.
Textual
organisation
and
layout
appropriate
to
text
type.
Communicates
meanings
competently
and
effectively;
qualified
intelligibility
in
certain
special
purpose
areas.
Can
generally
be
under
stood
without
any
difficulty.

APPENDIX 3 Some common text types
Advertisements
Announcements
Autobiographies
Biographies
Book reviews/reports
Brochures
Business letters
Catalogs
Conversations
Diaries
Dictionaries
Directions
Discussions
Editorials
Emails
Essays
Encylopedias
Explanations of how and why
Expositions/expository texts
Fables and fairy tales
Feature articles
Film reviews
Forms
Formal letters
Informational reports
Instructions
Interviews
1VRLZHUKYPKKSLZ
1VYUHSZ
3LHÅL[Z
Lists
Manuals
Maps and legends
Memoranda
Menus
Myths
Newspaper articles
News reports
Notes and messages
Notices
Pamphlets
Personal descriptions
Personal letters
Personal recounts
Poems
Postcards
Posters
Product information
Questionnaires
Recipes
Rules
Short stories
Signs
Songs
Stories
Telephone conversations
Timetables
Weather reports

APPENDIX 4 Designing a course from texts (from Burns and Joyce 1997)*
STEP DISCUSSION AND EXAMPLES
1 Identify the overall context University: course focus is preparing students for
study at university
2 Develop an aim To develop the spoken and written language skills
required to undertake university study
3 Note the language event sequence
within the context
These could include:
• enrolling at university
• discussing course selection
• attending lectures
• attending tutorials
• using the library
• reading reference books
• writing essays
• writing reports
• undertaking examinations
• participating in casual conversations
4 List the texts arising from the sequence These could include:
• enrollment forms
• service encounter – selecting courses
• lectures
• tutorial discussions
• service encounter – library enquiry
• Range of possible written texts, for example:
– discipline-specific essays
– discipline-specific reports
• Range of possible reading texts, for example:
– discipline-specific journal articles
– discipline-specific books
– library catalogues
– lecture notes
• examination papers
• genres within casual conversation
(e.g., anecdote)
5 Outline the sociocultural knowledge
students need
Students need knowledge about:
• academic institutions
• academic procedures and expectations
• the role of the student
(continued)

STEP DISCUSSION AND EXAMPLES
6 Record or gather samples of texts • Written texts:
Gather examples of essays, catalogues, journals etc.
• Spoken texts:
You may need to:
– find available recordings
– prepare some semi-scripted dialogues yourself
– record authentic interactions
7 Develop units of work related to the
texts and develop learning objectives
to be achieved
Classroom tasks should be sequenced within units of
work to provide students with:
• explicit input
• guided practice
• an opportunity to perform independently
* Extract adapted from Focus on Speaking by A. Burns and H. Joyce (1997) with permission from the
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR), Australia. ©Macquarie
University.

CASE STUDY 11 Developing a content-based course
Lindsay Miller
What is the context of the course?
Sports Culture and Society is a 3-credit General Education (GE) course that any undergraduate
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Altogether, students must take 9 credits of GE courses during their four-year degree programme.
They need to take one course from each of three areas: Area 1: Arts and Humanities; Area 2: Study
of Societies, Social and Business Organization; and Area 3: Science and Technology. Sports Culture
HUK :VJPL[` PZ ^P[OPU (YLH ., JVYZLZ ¸PU LZZLUJL HNTLU[Z HUK YVUKZ V[ [OL ZWLJPHSPZLK
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through exposure to multiple disciplines. GE is the glue that holds disciplines together. GE is the core
of an undergraduate education. It is ‘general’ in that GE provides students with a comprehensive
educational experience and prepares them for lifelong learning; it promotes intellectual curiosity and
a love of learning” (EDGE 2015).
What are the goals of the course?
The main goals of the course are to:
a) Apply the basic theoretical approaches in the field of sports theory.
b) Examine critically issues related to sports and develop higher-order thinking skills by
doing so.
c) Identify elements of sports in daily experiences and practices using a communicative
and collaborative format for information exchange.
d) Compare and contrast different approaches from multiple disciplines to understand
sports as a social phenomenon.
e) Interpret both local and global perspectives on sports.
(Course Documents 2015)
What planning was involved in developing the course?
Sports, Culture and Society was co-developed and is team-taught by an applied linguist from the
English Department and a sports psychologist from the Applied Social Sciences Department. Content
was paramount when developing the course. Both tutors researched what they considered to be
interesting content, and the course was then developed around this content. Although the course
was content driven, the applied linguist ensured that the material was accessible to second language
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European exchange students in each class also), and where appropriate supplementary handouts
were prepared, for instance vocabulary lists of technical terms. The course did not have an English
language focus (i.e. we did not explicitly teach language), although all the material was presented
in English, students were encouraged to have their in-class discussions in English, and a small
percentage of the course grade was given for each student’s oral presentation. This type of course
often has a zero grammar approach (Ellis 1999) whereby students rely on their existing knowledge of
the language in order to make sense of the content.
Sports Communication is a vast area, and so a lot of selection was needed in respect of topics and
materials. This selection was based on themes which had universal interest, e.g. the use of drugs

in sports; media coverage, e.g. the social lives of sports people; and topics which could be directly
related to the students’ lives, e.g. fashion in sport.
How is the course organized?
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taken up with a Reading Week, which allows students time to catch up with their readings and
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WYLZLU[H[PVUZLZ[PSSTHUHNL[VJV]LYHYVUK[VWPJZLHJO[PTL[OLJVYZLPZVќLYLK
As can be seen from the following table, the course is theme based, and each week one or two main
topics are covered. The lessons are team taught, although one of the tutors will take the lead in giving
the mini-lectures. In weeks 3 and 4 the students are divided into two large groups of 30. One group
attends a class on the culture of the gym, while the other class has a practical class on dancing. The
following week the groups swap over.
WEEK THEME TUTOR
1 Introduction: theory of sports communication Lindsay Ben
2 The History of Sport
Fashion in Sport
Lindsay
3 The Culture of the Gym/Dance Ben/Lindsay
4 The Culture of the Gym/Dance Ben/Lindsay
5 Gender in Sport Ben
6 The Media Lindsay
7 READING WEEK
8 Issue of Race and Equality in Sport (hand in Assignment 1 – Film Review) Ben
9 Benefits, Commercialisation Advertising Lindsay
10 Disability Sports Ben
11 Review Ben/Lindsay
12 PROJECT PRESENTATIONS Lindsay Ben
13 PROJECT PRESENTATIONS
(hand in Assignment 2 – Reflection)
Lindsay Ben
What teaching and learning methods do you use?
The learning goals are achieved by using a progressive teaching pedagogy (Peters 2012; Miller 2015).
The course is organized around a series of mini-lectures, online readings, and in-class discussion with
feedback. In such a way, the students’ vertical learning is complemented with their horizontal input
(Bernstein 1999). That is, the lectures give students the essential information they need in order to
discuss and debate relevant questions raised in each lesson (vertical learning), while the students’
own experiences and opinions add the horizontal element to the course.
This type of pedagogy aims to enhance students’ communication skills and allows them to take
on more responsibility for their learning. With a team-teaching approach, students’ group work is
constantly monitored as both tutors circulate in the class during the group discussion sessions to
assist with ideas and vocabulary, and to encourage critical discussions.

What is the role of materials and other resources?
In order to engage our students with the course, we use a mixture of multi-modal texts in each lesson.
These texts often come from the Internet, and we make references to online blogs, YouTube, and online
texts, e.g. newspapers and magazines. Some core texts, like Sports in Society (Coakley 2009); The
Business of Sports (Rosner and Shropshire 2011); and Strategic Sports Communication (Pedersen,
Miloch, and Laucella, 2007) are used by the tutors to inform their lectures, but these expensive texts
are not required readings for the students. On the basis of the input mini-lectures, students are then
given discussion questions, presented on PowerPoint, in each class such as in the following examples:
LLR!0U[YVKJ[PVU
1. What were your PE lessons at secondary school like?
2. Were you a good sports person?
3. What positive or negative experiences have you had from playing sports?
4. Do you like maintaining the status quo in sports, or would you like to see changes?
5. Do some people get more advantages from sports than others? Is this fair?
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2. What is the value of sports?
3. /V^LHZ`VYKPѝJS[PZP[[VKLÄULWSH`NHTLZHUKZWVY[Z
4. Why is the social context important to consider when talking about sports?
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the end of their presentations, students have to show a list of their references.
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In developing a content-based course, the content will always pose some problems. There are many
topics and themes in Sports Communication and the course cannot cover them all. At the end of
each course, the students’ feedback usually suggests some other areas they would have liked to
be included in the course (e.g. extreme sports). The course content can be changed each semester
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Z[KLU[Z»MLLKIHJRVM[LUYLÅLJ[ZWLYZVUHSWYLMLYLUJLZ
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beginning of the semester. This can cause some problems when using a content-based approach
to teach L2 students, as a lot of the coursework is based on group discussions, and therefore they
have to deal with the social aspects of forming groups and the potential language barriers that may
HYPZLILJHZLVMZ[KLU[Z»KPќLYPUNSHUNHNLSL]LSZPULHJONYVW0UVYKLY[VIYLHRKVÛZVTLVM
these barriers and help students get to know each other better, a dance class was introduced into
the course. One of the tutors is also a Scottish country dance teacher, and so the students are given
HSLZZVUVUOV^[VKHUJL;OPZ[`WLVMZVJPHSKHUJPUNÔPJOZ[KLU[ZHYLH[[LTW[PUNMVY[OLÄYZ[
time, means that they have to work together to help each other complete the dances. It is also a

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[OLPYUL^NHTLZLLILSVÔH]L[VILJSLHYHUKHJJYH[L;OL[VWPJVMKHUJLHSZVÄ[ZUPJLS`PU[V[OL
course content. We have found that after week 4, students work well together and with their tutors.
What role does assessment play in the course?
There are four aspects to the course assessment. This is in line with the overall university guidelines
that students should have a variety of assessment which can be both individual and group oriented.
1. 0UKP]PKHS^YP[[LUHZZPNUTLU[!:[KLU[Z^YP[LH¶^VYKÄSTYL]PLÎHZLKVUHTV]PL
with a sporting theme (30%).
2. .YVWWYLZLU[H[PVUHUKWYVQLJ[Z!:[KLU[Z^VYRPUNYVWZVMMVY[VKLZPNUHUKKL]LSVWHUL^
NHTLVYTVKPM`HUL_PZ[PUNVUL;OLUL^VYTVKPÄLKNHTLZOVSKHKKYLZZZVTLZVJPHSHUK
or cultural issues related to the participants it has been designed for, for instance, a new activity
for the elderly who use wheelchairs. Each group has 25 minutes to present their ideas and/or
KLTVUZ[YH[L[OLPYNHTLVY]PKLV[V[OLJSHZZH[[OLLUKVM[OLJVYZL;OLWYVQLJ[PZNYHKLKVU
content (30%) and individual oral performance (10%).
3. Critical reflections: Students keep a weekly diary based on answers to questions posted on
the course management website (Canvas). At the end of the semester, they write a short
(1,000-word) critically reflective essay on what they have learnt from the course (20%).
4. Participation: Students are encouraged to attend all classes and to contribute to the in-class
tutorial discussion sessions (10%).
References
Bernstein, B. 1999. Vertical and horizontal discourse: An essay. British Journal of Sociology of
Education 20(2): 157–173.
*VHRSL`1 Sports in society (tenth edition). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Course Documents. 2015. Sports, Culture and Society (Form 2B). Available at: www.english.cityu.
edu.hk/en/programmes/courses/
,+., 6ѝJL VM ,KJH[PVU +L]LSVWTLU[ HUK .H[L^H` ,KJH[PVU *P[` UP]LYZP[` VM /VUN
Kong. Available at: www.cityu.edu.hk/edge/.
Ellis, R. 1999. Making the classroom acquisition-rich. In R. Ellis (ed.), Learning a second language
through interaction(TZ[LYKHT!1VOU)LUQHTPUZ¶
Miller, L. 2015. Sports communication as a way to develop critical competencies in the L2 classroom.
RELC Journal 46(1): 89–104.
Pedersen, P. M., K. S. Miloch, and P. C. Laucella. 2007. Strategic sports communication. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.
7L[LYZ . +PќLYLUJL IL[^LLU [YHKP[PVUHS HUK WYVNYLZZP]L LKJH[PVU (]HPSHISL H[! ^^^
wingraschool.org/who/progressive.htm
Rosner, S. R., and K. L. Shropshire. 2011. The business of sports ZLJVUKLKP[PVU:KIY`!1VULZ
Bartlett Learning.
3PUKZH`4PSSLYPZ(ZZVJPH[L7YVMLZZVYPU[OL+LWHY[TLU[VM,UNSPZOH[*P[ÙP]LYZP[`VM/VUN2VUN/L
has been responsible for designing, developing and teaching a wide variety of ESP courses. Lindsay’s
main areas of research have focused on self-access language learning and academic listening, and he
has co-authored two books in these areas for Cambridge University Press, Establishing Self-Access:
From Theory To Practice HUK Second Language Listening: Theory and Practice
and another for City University Press, Managing Self-Access Language Learning

CASE STUDY 12 A CLIL course: The Thinking Lab Science
Rosa Bergadà
The Thinking Lab Science teaches science content through English in the context of a small rural
school in the village of Torà in Catalonia, Spain. In this course students discover the world of science
through a series of modules for CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) or bilingual
education programmes in primary and lower secondary schools. Each module focuses on a unique
science topic, such as ‘Ecosystems’, ‘Too much waste’, ‘Flowering plants’.
The course integrates language and science curricular content, on the one hand, and on the other,
an approach which combines the most innovative teaching practices of science and the teaching of
English from a communicative perspective.
The CLIL theoretical frame includes four contextualized sections, known as the 4 Cs: content
(curricular content), communication (the use and knowledge of language), cognition (the cognitive
processes involved in the learning process) and culture (intercultural knowledge and citizenship).
The motto of the course is ‘Think, Do, Communicate and Feel Science’, which summarizes the
philosophy of the course. ‘Think’ promotes thinking skills. Students, working cooperatively, not only
understand concepts but also apply them, and create and evaluate new situations. ‘Do’ refers to
SLHYUPUNI`KVPUNVIZLY]PUNL_WLYPTLU[PUNHUKPU]LZ[PNH[PUNPU[OLÄLSKVMZJPLUJLº*VTTUPJH[L»
LTWOHZPaLZZ[KLU[Z»JHWHJP[`[VL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZPUHZJPLU[PÄJTHUULYI`KLZJYPIPUNJVU[YHZ[PUN
O`WV[OLZPaPUNQZ[PM`PUNL[JP[OYLNHYK[Vº-LLS»[OLPKLHPZ[VZL[[OLZJPLU[PÄJRUV^SLKNLJSVZLY[V
the students’ context, and thus to promote motivation and to increase students’ interest in learning
and discovering the world around them.
;OL JVYZL HPTZ [V HJOPL]L H TVYL LќLJ[P]L KÙHTPJ HUK LUYPJOPUN HWWYVHJO ÔLU [LHJOPUN
curricular content, science, through English as a foreign language. Each module brings students’
WYL]PVZRUV^SLKNLHUKYLHSL_WLYPLUJLZPU[V[OLJSHZZYVVTZPUNKPќLYLU[WLKHNVNPJHSZ[YH[LNPLZ
the course aims to help pupils to develop thinking skills and not only to construct their own models
VM RUV^SLKNL I[ HSZV [V JVUZVSPKH[L [OL ULÎPS[ TVKLSZ HUK HWWS` [OLT PU KPќLYLU[ JVU[L_[Z
ÔPSLKPZJV]LYPUN[OLUH[YHS^VYSK:[KLU[ZSLHYUHIV[UH[YHSWOLUVTLUHMYVTHTVYLZJPLU[PÄJ
perspective.
;OLSLHYUPUNVIQLJ[P]LZHYLTHKLL]PKLU[[VZ[KLU[ZH[[OLILNPUUPUNVMLHJOTVKSL;OLWYWVZLPZ
to make the teaching-learning process as well as the assessment criteria implemented throughout the
modules meaningful to learners. This process also promotes both collaborative learning and students’
autonomy. Students learn cognitive academic language in a foreign language (English).
The course is well organized, but when developing the course there were some key aspects to
JVUZPKLY;OLÄYZ[VM[OLZLPZ[PTPUN(JJVYKPUN[V[OLZ[KLU[Z[VÔPJO[OLTVKSLPZHKKYLZZLK
teachers should be careful when considering the number of sessions to devote to each activity
because of CLIL’s double purpose, the learning of both language and content. The fact that the
course is delivered in a language that students do not master implies extra time in the whole teaching-
learning process. Moreover, the innovative science approach in which the concepts are introduced
PTWSPLZRLLWPUNHUH[YHSWHJLPU[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OLZLZZPVUZZV[OH[WWPSZJHULUQV`KVPUN
learning and communicating science.

The second issue to consider is that teachers need to have the all necessary resources at hand. They
need to plan in advance what material will be needed for each activity, especially in two of the stages
described below, ‘discovering’ and ‘creating’.
The last aspect to bear in mind is the need to plan in terms of language so that students are able
to communicate in the target language. This planning occurs on three levels: language of (the What:
Content), language for (How to: metacognition grammar system) and language through (The Why:
Cognition, thinking skills, new knowledge).
;OLJVYZLPU[LNYH[LZHWHWLYIVVRHÄLSKIVVRÔPJOPZVULVM[OLZ[KLU[Z»[VVSZHUKVUSPUL
TH[LYPHSZIHZLKVU[OLÄLSKIVVR;OLYVSLVM[OLVUSPULTH[LYPHSZPZKL[LYTPUHU[MVYZ[KLU[ZSLHYUPUN
autonomously. They can enter the platform and check if some of the activities done in the paper book
HYLKVULHZL_WLJ[LK;OLVUSPUL]LYZPVUHSZVVќLYZZ[KLU[Z[OLWVZZPIPSP[`VMSPZ[LUPUN[V[L_[ZHUK
thereby improving their own oral production.
Teachers can keep track of the students’ logins in the platform and evaluate them.
)V[O[OLWHWLYIVVRHUK[OLVUSPULTH[LYPHSZHYLWYLZLU[LKZPUNÄ]LJVSVYJVKLKISVJRZ;OLZL
indicate the following stages in the learning process: Starting (blue), Discovering (green), Structuring
(yellow), Creating (red), My portfolio, Vocabulary and paper cut-outs (purple).
The course modules start with an introduction where two main characters, real students in a school,
explain the stages in which the learning process will develop throughout the module. They consider four
main stages: starting, discovering, structuring and creating. Language support is provided in all stages.
• Starting – A video sets the topic. The scenario is always a classroom in a school, where a lesson
is in progress. In the video, a case for study is presented which generates students’ questions.
;OLXLZ[PVUZ^PSSIL[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[MYVTÔPJO[OLTVKSL^PSSKL]LSVWPUVYKLY[VÄUK[OL
JVYYLJ[HUKZJPLU[PÄJHUZ^LYZ[V[OLXLZ[PVUZ;OLHJ[P]P[PLZPU[OPZZLJ[PVUOLSWZ[KLU[ZYL]PZL
their prior knowledge of the topic.
• Discovering – At this stage new concepts are introduced and students’ thinking skills challenged.
It involves students’ cooperative work, games, readings, observations and some investigations.
The activities conclude with a rounding-up text called ‘We have learned that …’ which
summarizes the new facts discovered that are the core of the learning process and that should
WYV]PKLHZJPLU[PÄJHUZ^LY[V[OLPUP[PHSXLZ[PVUZ;OPZPZ[OLSVUNLZ[ZLJ[PVUVM[OLJVYZLHUK
the one that takes most time in the teaching-learning process.
• Structuring – This stage helps students mentally organize the newly introduced concepts. A
mind map, as a graphic organizer, is the tool used in this stage. Students should also be able to
give answers to the initial questions that arose in the Starting section.
• Creating – Once the new knowledge has been acquired, students should be able to apply it
to new situations, that is, to give evidence that the learning in the Discovering stage has been
consolidated. During this stage some problems and new contexts are given to students. They
should be able to solve them and to create new proposals.
The course focuses on learner-centred instruction in most of the activities. The teacher becomes an
VIZLY]HU[NPKLHUKMHJPSP[H[VYÔVSLHKZ[OLZLZZPVUHUKOLSWZV]LYJVTLKPѝJS[PLZ
0U[OLÄYZ[[^VZ[HNLZVM[OLTVKSL[OLYLHYLHSV[VMVYHSXLZ[PVUHUKHUZ^LYPUN[HZRZZPUJL[OL
WYWVZLVMIV[OZ[HNLZPZMVY[LHJOLYZ[VÄUKV[Z[KLU[Z»WYPVYRUV^SLKNLHUKLUJVYHNLZ[KLU[Z
[VYLÅLJ[VU[OL[HZRZ

As science itself demands, collaborative work is a goal in most of the activities, which must be carried
V[ZPUNZL]LYHSJVVWLYH[P]L[LJOUPXLZZJOHZKPHTVUKUPULQPNZH^YLHKPUNL[J7YHJ[PJHSHUK
meaningful investigations and observations are included in the module, too. These kinds of activities
are encountered particularly in the second stage of the module where students ‘discover’ new
content and concepts. Pair work and individual work are used in activities which require a more
ZWLJPÄJSLHYUPUNZ[`SLMVYL_HTWSLÔLUYLÅLJ[PUNVU[OLUL^S`HJXPYLKJVUJLW[ZVYÔLUKVPUN
the online activities.
(Z H YLJHWWPUN HUK YVUKPUNW HJ[P]P[` H TPUK THW VќLY Z[KLU[Z ]PZHS PUMVYTH[PVU VU HSS [OL
introduced content. Sometimes games help students consolidate the new knowledge, too.
0U[OLÄUHSZ[HNLVM[OLTVKSLZ[KLU[ZTZ[^VYRJVVWLYH[P]LS`[VJVTWSL[LHJOHSSLUNPUNWYVQLJ[
in which they must demonstrate that the learning has been meaningfully achieved.
=PZHSZWSH`HJYJPHSYVSLILJHZLVM[OL*303HWWYVHJO7VZ[LYZÅHZOJHYKZHUKPU[LYHJ[P]LZPTSH[PVUZ
are a must. They support language and make content comprehensible.
;VOH]LHNVVKZWVRLUTVKLSOLSWZZ[KLU[Z»VYHSWYVKJ[PVUHUKWYVTV[LZYLHKPUN^P[OÅLUJ`
Investigations also support understanding of the activity, even for weak learners. Materials help cater
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'LGRXH[SHULHQFHDQGLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH
Happily, the course was carefully designed and the sections in it thoughtfully planned, which eases
the whole teaching-learning process. All steps are clearly explained and provide advice on how to
PTWSLTLU[ [OL HJ[P]P[PLZ /V^L]LY PM HU` KPѝJS[` ZOVSK IL TLU[PVULK [OH[ ^VSK IL [OL THQVY
concern about timing. Experimenting and investigating often need time and may slow the average
rhythm of the sessions; likewise, the fact that whole lessons are conducted in a foreign language
(the use of English means that the teacher must employ resources and strategies such as repetition,
paraphrasing, revision, and extra language support). These appear to be basic requirements in order
for pupils to acquire and consolidate new knowledge through English. Again these activities might at
times be time-consuming, especially depending on the level of autonomy and capacity of the students.
The Thinking Lab considers the assessment principles established by the Assessment Reform Group
(ZZLZZTLU[PZPU[LNYH[LKHZWHY[VMHULќLJ[P]LWSHUUPUNVM[OL[LHJOPUNSLHYUPUNWYVJLZZ
It has its own section in the course called ‘My Science Portfolio’ in which students keep a record of
[OLPYSLHYUPUN0[PUJSKLZÄ]LHJ[P]P[PLZ!
1. 6IQLJ[P]LZHUKHJ[P]P[PLZ0U[OPZWVY[MVSPVZ[KLU[ZOH]L[VTHRLL_WSPJP[ÔPJOHJ[P]P[PLZVM[OL
TVKSLJV]LY[OLSLHYUPUNVIQLJ[P]LZ
2. Portfolio cards. Under ‘personal and individual opinion’, students note down the most important
activity, the most challenging activity, their feelings (I’m proud of …HUKÄUHSS`[OLPYWYVNYLZZPU
knowledge development (At the beginning I thought that … Now I know that …).
3. Final test. This is to record the mark, comments and improvement.
4. Peer-assessment and oral presentation. A rubric is used as the assessing tool.
5. Self-assessment. ‘What do I know? What can I do?’ Students tick graded boxes alongside a
series of ‘I can …’ statements. Students are also asked to make a note of things they want to
improve on in the future.

Assessment always has an impact on students, and that’s why some of the activities described above
have emotional and constructive elements. The assessment activities in this course make evident
Z[KLU[Z»HJOPL]LTLU[ZKL]LSVWZ[KLU[Z»JHWHJP[`MVYZLSMHZZLZZTLU[HUKWYVTV[LYLÅLJ[PVUHUK
autonomy. Finally, assessment is intended to be a constructive guide so that students know how to
improve themselves under teacher supervision.
Reference
Assessment Reform Group. 2012. Assessment for Learning: Research-based principles to guide
JSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJL(ZZLZZTLU[9LMVYT.YVW3LHÅL[+V^USVHKHISLMYVT!^^^HZZLZZTLU[
reform-group.org.uk
Rosa Bergadà is an English language and CLIL teacher and teacher-trainer, who also specializes
in Maths and Science teaching. She holds a postgraduate degree in ICT and foreign language
[LHJOPUN:OL^HZNYHU[LKWHPKZ[K`SLH]LI`[OL*H[HSHU.V]LYUTLU[[V^VYRVUKL]LSVWPUN*303
ZJPLUJLTH[LYPHSPU[OL2:OLJVSSHIVYH[LZVU[OLKLZPNUVMVUSPUL,UNSPZOSHUNHNLTH[LYPHS^P[O
the Catalan Department of Education. She is a co-author of a coursebook for Cambridge University
Press. She has also written several articles on CLIL for Spanish educational magazines.
CASE STUDY 13 A pre-university course for international students in Australia
Phil Chappell
This is a pre-university course for international students in Australia who are undertaking a Diploma
in Business Studies as a pathway to an undergraduate degree. A requirement of the diploma course
PZ[OH[[OLZ[KLU[ZZJJLZZMSS`JVTWSL[L[^VHJHKLTPJSP[LYHJ`ZIQLJ[Z^OPJOHYLJYLKP[ILHYPUN
Many of the students have already undertaken an EAP course at the University language centre,
and therefore the focus of the course is less on learning the formal and communicative properties of
SHUNHNLHUKTVYLVU[OLZWLJPÄJZRPSSZYLSH[LK[VYLHKPUNHUK^YP[PUNMVYHJHKLTPJZJJLZZPUH
UP]LYZP[`ZL[[PUN0HTYLMLYYPUN[V[OLÄYZ[SL]LSVM[OPZ[^VSL]LSZIQLJ[PU[OPZJHZLZ[K`
The course goals are quite explicit. They are linked to students successfully achieving learning
outcomes based on a set of academic literacy skills required for studying at undergraduate level in
business disciplines. These include:
• identifying relevant research-based texts and critically evaluating their quality and relevance;
• UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLNLULYPJHUKSPUNPZ[PJJVU]LU[PVUZVM[OLZL[L_[ZPUVYKLY[VLќLJ[P]LS`HUK
LѝJPLU[S`SVJH[LYLSL]HU[PUMVYTH[PVU^P[OPU[OLT
• evaluating a range of perspectives on a topic, synthesising the key themes;
• developing comprehensive notes and producing succinct outlines and full texts for a report on a
chosen topic;
• HWWS`PUNLќLJ[P]LLKP[PUNZRPSSZ[VHJOPL]LHOPNOXHSP[`ÄUHSKYHM[
;OL JVYZL ^HZ KL]LSVWLK PU JVUZS[H[PVU ^P[O HJHKLTPJ Z[Hќ ^P[OPU [OL UP]LYZP[` HZ ^LSS HZ
experienced tutors in the academic literacy section of the college. The course was planned to cover
[^VRL`HJHKLTPJNLUYLZ¶9LWVY[PUNHUK(YNPUN9LWVY[PUNPZ[OLJVUJLYUVM[OLZIQLJ[YLWVY[LK

VU OLYL HUK ZHTWSL HZZPNUTLU[Z HUK NYHKLK YLWVY[Z MYVT ÄYZ[`LHY UP]LYZP[` ZIQLJ[Z ^LYL
analysed to inform the academic literacy curriculum. Importantly, the marking criteria developed by
HJHKLTPJSLJ[YLZ^LYLTHKLL_WSPJP[PU[OLTH[LYPHSZ[VWYV]PKLHZLUZLVMH[OLU[PJP[`[V[OLZIQLJ[
Ethics approval was obtained to use marked reports as teaching materials.
;OL ZLXLUJPUN VM [OL ZIQLJ[ [OYVNO WHYHSSLS Z[YLHTZ VM YLHKPUN HUK ^YP[PUN ^HZ HJOPL]LK I`
considering the relationships between reading and writing in Stream A, with a focus on reading, and
the academic literacy practices for preparing academic reports in Stream B. This was planned at
[OLZHTL[PTLHZ[OLZLJVUKZIQLJ[PU]VS]PUN[OLNLUYLVM(YNPUN;OLYLMVYL[^V^LLRZ`SSHIP
were developed that involved three-hour workshops, divided by time into Stream A (90 minutes) and
Stream B (90 minutes).
:[KLU[ MLLKIHJR PU [OL ÄYZ[ [^V ZLZZPVUZ [OH[ [OL ZIQLJ[ ^HZ YU ^HZ JYJPHS PU YL]PZPUN HUK
reworking particular elements of the syllabus. Notably, students favoured the workshop sessions of
Stream B, and therefore more time was allocated to these practical sessions, and some additional
out-of-class work was assigned to ensure the areas of Stream A were adequately covered.
As mentioned above, organizational principles guiding the course were based on the academic
literacy skills required for tertiary studies. In each of 13 weeks, there was a particular business theme
HUKHMVJZVUZWLJPÄJYLHKPUNHUK^YP[PUNWYHJ[PJLZPU:[YLHT(HUKWYHJ[PJHS^VYRVUWYVKJPUN
written text in Stream B. For example, in Stream A one week involved the practices of locating
PUMVYTH[PVUYLWVY[Z[OYVNOVUSPULKH[HIHZLZJP[PUN[L_[ZHWWYVWYPH[LS`PKLU[PM`PUNZWLJPÄJKL[HPSZPU
information reports and synthesizing those details in written form through paraphrasing and quoting.
In Stream B, the workshop activities are to locate, cite, summarize and synthesize information from
a range of information reports.
;OL ZIQLJ[ ^HZ WSHUULK ^P[O H ]PL^ [OH[ HJHKLTPJ SP[LYHJ` WYHJ[PJLZ HYL ILZ[ SLHYULK [OYVNO
modelling and guiding the students through a range of skills and practices involving academic texts.
;LHJOPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ^LYLIHZLKVUWYPUJPWSLZVMZJHќVSKPUNNPKPUNHUKTVKLSSPUN3LHYUPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ
were collaborative and stressed the principle of ownership – the students were expected to use the
support to develop their own set of practices for successful academic literacy.
When texts were modelled, I used the principles of the teaching/learning cycle from the Australian
genre school. This involves four main stages (Chappell and Moore 2012):
• )PSKPUNRUV^SLKNLVMÄLSK
• Modelling of text
• 1VPU[JVUZ[YJ[PVUVM[L_[
• Independent construction of text
7ISPZOLKH[OLU[PJTH[LYPHSZWSH`H]LY`PTWVY[HU[YVSLPU[OLZIQLJ[(Z[OPZPZ[OLÄUHSVWWVY[UP[`
for students to receive explicit guidance in working with authentic academic materials, it was felt
HWWYVWYPH[L [OH[ [OL ZIQLJ[ PZ º[L_[ YPJO» HUK [OH[ Z[KLU[Z ZOVSK IL PTTLYZLK PU [OL RPUKZ VM
authentic texts that they would need to deal with in their university courses. Technologically, these
texts are available in print and in electronic mode to be read across a range of devices, and therefore
students were encouraged to bring their own devices to workshops and develop their own practices

in using them to work with texts. As the teacher, I modelled these practices using portable devices
as much as possible. However, the underlying literacy practices remained the key focus, and it was
necessary many times to sideline distracting uses of technology in favour of getting on with working
with academic reports.
(Z H JYLKP[ILHYPUN ZIQLJ[ ZTTH[P]L HZZLZZTLU[ ^HZ ]P[HS PU PUMVYTPUN Z[HRLOVSKLYZ VM LHJO
student’s readiness for entrance to university, based on their academic literacy skills. Formative,
developmental assessment was also a key part of the program and was carried out by both the
teacher and the student through self-assessment. In order to prepare students for the range of rubrics
ZLK I` HJHKLTPJ Z[Hќ H[ [OL UP]LYZP[` HZZLZZTLU[ YIYPJZ ^LYL PTWSLTLU[LK [OYVNOV[ [OL
ZIQLJ[(SSHZZLZZTLU[[HZRZ^LYLKL]LSVWLK[VHZZLZZ[OLZ[KLU[Z»HIPSP[PLZ[VUKLY[HRLH[OLU[PJ
academic literacy tasks using authentic information reports.
-Y[OLYHZTLU[PVULKHIV]LJVYZLL]HSH[PVU^HZPTWVY[HU[HUKHJHKLTPJZ[HќMYVT[OLUP]LYZP[`
as well as students from the course were invited to provide regular feedback. Key areas that
continued to require innovation were:
• paraphrasing, citing and referencing;
• structuring information reports;
• critically evaluating a range of sources.
Reference
Chappell, P., and S. Moore. 2012. Novice teachers and linguistics: Foregrounding the functional. TESOL
Quarterly 46(3): 589–598.
Phil Chappell has taught English, developed curriculum and managed language programs in Asia and
(Z[YHSPH/LJYYLU[S`SLJ[YLZPU(WWSPLK3PUNPZ[PJZHUK;,:63H[4HJXHYPLUP]LYZP[`^OLYLOL
also conducts research and publishes in a range of areas related to second language teaching and
learning.

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