Marginal costing is a technique that differentiates between fixed and variable costs. It involves charging only variable costs to cost units and treating fixed costs as period costs. This allows marginal costing to provide useful information for management decision making like cost control, profit planning, and performance evaluation. Some key advantages of marginal costing include simplicity, improved cost control by avoiding arbitrary allocation of fixed costs, and better analysis of alternative production/sales policies. However, marginal costing also has limitations like difficulty separating fixed and variable costs precisely and not representing profits fully by excluding fixed costs from inventory valuation.

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:
I begin my project by throwing light on the various concepts of marginal costing including
contribution, profit and breakeven analysis. Marginal costing also helps in understanding the
margin of safety and desired profile.
Marginal cost is the cost management technique for the analysis of cost and revenue
information and for the guidance of management. The presentation of information through
marginal costing statement is easily understood by all mangers, even those who do not have
preliminary knowledge and implications of the subjects of cost and management accounting.
Marginal costing provides this vital information to management and it helps in the discharge
of its functions like cost control, profit planning, performance evaluation and decision
making. Marginal costing plays its key role in decision making.

2. INTRODUCTION
Cost accounting is the process of collecting, processing and presenting financial and
quantitative data within an entity to ascertain the cost of the cost centres and cost units.
Revenue expenditure can be divided into direct costs (eg direct materials) and indirect costs
(eg production overheads) and the information is used to prepare a total cost statement
Product direct costs + Indirect costs = Total cost
One problem with methods of total costing is that the classification of revenue expenditure
into direct costs and indirect costs ignores their different behaviours when production or sales
activity varies. An alternative is to use marginal costing, where the main purpose is to provide
detailed cost information for planning and short-term decisions in a business where activity
levels fluctuate Actual or budgeted/planned figures can be used
The marginal cost of an item is its variable cost. The marginal production cost of an item is
the sum of its direct materials cost, direct labour cost, direct expenses cost (if any) and
variable production overhead cost. So as the volume of production and sales increases total
variable costs rise proportionately.
Fixed costs, in contrast are cost that remain unchanged in a time period, regardless of the
volume of production and sale.
Marginal production cost is the part of the cost of one unit of production service which would
be avoided if that unit were not produced, or which would increase if one extra unit were
produced.
Marginal costing is a method of cost accounting and decision-making used for internal
reporting in which only marginal costs are charged to cost units and fixed costs are treated as
a lump sum. It is also known as direct, variable, and contribution costing.
In marginal costing, only variable costs are used to make decisions. It does not consider
fixed costs, which are assumed to be associated with the time periods in which they were
incurred.
Marginal costs include:
 The costs actually consumed when you manufacture a product
 The incremental increase in costs when you ramp up production
 The costs that disappear when you shut down a production line
 The costs that disappear when you shut down an entire subsidiary
In this technique, cost data is presented with variable costs and fixed costs shown separately
for the purpose of managerial decision-making.

3. Marginal costing is not a method of costing like process costing or job costing. Rather, it is
simply a way to analyze cost data for the guidance of management, usually for the purpose of
understanding the effect of profit changes due to the volume of output.
The direct costing concept is extremely useful for short-term decisions, but can lead to
harmful results if used for long-term decision-making, since it does not include all costs that
may apply to a longer-term decision. Furthermore, marginal costing does not comply with
external reporting standards.
The costs that vary with a decision should only be included in decision analysis. For many
decisions that involve relatively small variations from existing practice and/or are for
relatively limited periods of time, fixed costs are not relevant to the decision. This is because
either fixed costs tend to be impossible to alter in the short term or managers are reluctant to
alter them in the short term.

4. MEANING OF MARGINAL COSTING
Marginal Costing is ascertainment of the marginal cost which varies directly with the volume
of production by differentiating between fixed costs and variable costs and finally
ascertaining its effect on profit
It is a costing technique where only variable cost or direct cost will be charged to the cost unit
produced.
Marginal costing also shows the effect on profit of changes in volume/type of output by
differentiating between fixed and variable costs.
Salient Points:
 Marginal costing involves ascertaining marginal costs. Since marginal costs are direct
cost, this costing technique is also known as direct costing;
 In marginal costing, fixed costs are never charged to production. They are treated as
period charge and is written off to the profit and loss account in the period incurred;
 Once marginal cost is ascertained contribution can be computed. Contribution is the
excess of revenue over marginal costs.
 The marginal cost statement is the basic document/format to capture the marginal costs...
 It is the additional cost of producing an additional unit of a product.
Marginal cost= prime cost + total variable overheads
MARGINAL COSTING - DEFINITION
Marginal costing distinguishes between fixed costs and variable costs as convention ally
classified.
 The marginal cost of a product –“is its variable cost”. This is normally taken to be; direct
labour, direct material, direct expenses and the variable part of overheads.
 Marginal costing is formally defined as;
‘the accounting system in which variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixed costs
of the period are written-off in full against the aggregate contribution. Its special value is in
decision making’.
 Marginal Costing is defined as the amount at any given volume of output by which
aggregate costs can be changed if the volume of output is increased or decreased by one
unit.
 J. BATTY: ‘a technique of cost accounting which pays special attention to the behavior
of costs with changes in the volume of output’.

5. FEATURES OF MARGINAL COSTING
The main features of marginal costing are as follows:
1. Cost Classification- The marginal costing technique makes a sharp distinction between
variable costs and fixed costs. It is the variable cost on the basis of which production and sales
policies are designed by a firm following the marginal costing technique.
2. Stock/Inventory Valuation- Under marginal costing, inventory/stock for profit
measurement is valued at marginal cost. It is in sharp contrast to the total unit cost under
absorption costing method.
3. Marginal Contribution- Marginal costing technique makes use of marginal
contribution for marking various decisions. Marginal contribution is the difference between
sales and marginal cost. It forms the basis for judging the profitability of different products or
departments.
 It is a method of recording costs and reporting profits;
 All operating costs are differentiated into fixed and variable costs;
 Variable cost –charged to product and treated as a product cost whilst
 Fixed cost treated as period cost and written off to the profit and loss account
 It involves ascertaining marginal costs which is the difference of fixed cost and variable cost.
 The operating costs are differentiated into fixed costs and variable costs. Semi variable costs are
also divided in the individual components of fixed cost and variable cost.
 Fixed costs which remain constant regardless of the volume of production do not find place in
the product cost determination and inventory valuation.
 Prices of products are based on variable cost only.
 Marginal contribution decides the profitability of the products.
 Costs are divided into two categories, i.e., fixed costs and variable costs.
 Fixed cost is considered period cost and remains out of consideration for determination of
product cost and value of inventories.
 Prices are determined with reference to marginal cost and contribution margin.
 Profitability of departments and products is determined with reference to their Contribution
margin.
 In presentation of cost data, display of contribution assumes dominant role.
 Closing stock is valued on marginal cost

6. COMMON USE CASES FOR MARGINAL COSTING
Marginal costing can be a useful tool for evaluating some types of decisions. Here are some
of the most common scenarios where marginal costing can provide the most benefit:
Automation investments: Marginal costing is useful to determine how much a firm
stands to gain or lose by automating some function. The key costs to take into consideration
are the incremental labour cost of any employees who will be terminated versus the new costs
incurred from equipment purchase and subsequent maintenance.
Cost reporting: Marginal costing is very useful for controlling variable costs, because you
can create a variance analysis report that compares the actual variable cost to what the
variable cost per unit should have been.
Customer profitability: Marginal costing can help determine which customers are worth
keeping and which are worth eliminating.
Internal inventory reporting: Since a firm must include indirect costs in its inventory
in external reports, and these can take a long time to complete, marginal costing is useful for
internal inventory reporting.
Profit-volume relationship: Marginal costing is useful for plotting changes in profit
levels as sales volumes change. It is relatively simple to create a marginal costing table that
points out the volume levels at which additional marginal costs will be incurred, so that
management can estimate the amount of profit at different levels of corporate activity.
Outsourcing: Marginal costing is useful for deciding whether to manufacture an item in-
house or maintain a capability in-house, or whether to outsource it.

7. CRITICISM OF MARGINAL COSTING
 In recent years, there has been a widespread interest in marginal costing. Still very few have
adopted it as method of accounting for cost. Main points of criticism are:
 It is not proper to disregard fixed cost for product for product cost determination and
inventory valuation.
 Marginal costing is especially useful in short profit planning and decision-making. For
decision of far reaching importance, one is interested in special purpose cost rather than
variability of costs.
 Marginal costing technique disregards the use of recovering fixed cost through product
pricing. For long run continuity of business it is not good. Assets have to be recovered of
costs.
 Establishing variability of costs is not an easy. I real life situations, variable costs are rarely
completely variable and fixed costs are rarely completely fixed.
 Exclusion of fixed cost from inventory valuation does not conform to accept accounting
practice.
 The income tax authorities do not recognize the marginal cost for inventory valuation. This
necessitates keeping of separate books for separate purposes.
The basic assumptions made by marginal costing are following:
o Total variable cost is directly proportion to the level of activity. However, variable
cost per unit remains constant at all the levels of activities.
o Per unit selling price remains constant at all levels of activities.
o All the items produced by the organization are sold off.

8. THE PRINCIPLES OF MARGINAL COSTING
The principles of marginal costing are as follows.
 For any given period of time, fixed costs will be the same, for any volume of sales and
production (provided that the level of activity is within the ‘relevant range’).
Therefore, by selling an extra item of product or service the following will happen.
 Revenue will increase by the sales value of the item sold.
 Costs will increase by the variable cost per unit.
 Profit will increase by the amount of contribution earned from the extra item.
 Similarly, if the volume of sales falls by one item, the profit will fall by the amount of
contribution earned from the item.
 Profit measurement should therefore be based on an analysis of total contribution.
Since fixed costs relate to a period of time, and do not change with increases or
decreases in sales volume, it is misleading to charge units of sale with a share of fixed
costs.
 When a unit of product is made, the extra costs incurred in its manufacture are the
variable production costs. Fixed costs are unaffected, and no extra fixed costs are
incurred when output is increased.

9. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MARGINAL
COSTING
Advantage:-
 Cost control: Marginal costing makes it easier to determine and control costs of
production. By avoiding the arbitrary allocation of fixed overhead costs, management can
concentrate on achieving and maintaining a uniform and consistent marginal cost.
 Simplicity: Marginal costing is simple to understand and operate and it can be combined
with other forms of costing (e.g. budgetary costing and standard costing) without much
difficulty.
 Elimination of cost variance per unit: Since fixed overheads are not charged to the cost of
production in marginal costing, units have a standard cost.
 Short-term profit planning: Marginal costing can help in short-term profit planning and is
easily demonstrated with break-even charts and profit graphs. Comparative profitability
can be easily accessed and brought to the notice of the management for decision-making.
 Accurate overhead recovery rate: This method of costing eliminates large balances left in
overhead control accounts, which makes it easier to ascertain an accurate overhead
recovery rate.
 Maximum return to the business: With marginal costing, the effects of alternative sales or
production policies are more readily appreciated and assessed, ensuring that the decisions
taken will yield the maximum return to the business.
 It is a relatively simple pricing method - quick to calculate and easy to implement
 Can help to smooth fluctuations in demand.
 It can be very useful where the firm has spare capacity and may not be able to put its
resources to other, perhaps more profitable, uses.
 Can be a useful way to attract other different market segments into the market e.g. low
peak train travellers may be attracted by lower prices and only travel during the day
because of low prices - they may not otherwise have travelled.
 Can be a good way to remain in business and price-competitive in a time of difficult
trading. Prices can then be raised later when the economic situation improves.
 Marginal costing is simple to understand.
 By not charging fixed overhead to cost of production, the effect of varying charges per unit
is avoided.
 It prevents the illogical carry forward in stock valuation of some proportion of current
years fixed overhead.
 The effects of alternative sales or production policies can be more readily available and
assessed, and decisions taken would yield the maximum return to business.
 It eliminates large balances left in overhead control accounts which indicate the difficulty
of ascertaining an accurate overhead recovery rate.
 It identifies the importance of fixed costs involved in production.

10. Disadvantages:-
 Classifying costs: It is very difficult to separate all costs into fixed and variable
costs clearly, since all costs are variable in the long run. Hence such classification
sometimes may give misleading results. Furthermore, in a firm with many
different kinds of products, marginal costing can prove less useful.
 Accurately representing profits: Since the closing stock consists only of variable
costs and ignores fixed costs (which could be considerable), this gives a distorted
picture of profits to shareholders.
 Semi-variable costs: Semi-variable costs are either excluded or incorrectly
analyzed, leading to distortions.
 Recovery of overheads: With marginal costing, there is often the problem of
under or over-recovery of overheads, since variable costs are apportioned on an
estimated basis and not on actual value.
 External reporting: Marginal costing cannot be used in external reports, which
must have a complete view of all indirect and overhead costs.
 Increasing costs: Since it is based on historical data, marginal costing can give an
inaccurate picture in the presence of increasing costs or increasing production.
 The separation of costs into fixed and variable is difficult and sometimes gives
misleading results.
 Normal costing systems also apply overhead under normal operating volume and
this shows that no advantage is gained by marginal costing.
 Under marginal costing, stocks and work in progress are understated. The exclusion
of fixed costs from inventories affect profit and true and fair view of financial
affairs of an organization may not be clearly transparent.
 Volume variance in standard costing also discloses the effect of fluctuating output
on fixed overhead. Marginal cost data becomes unrealistic in case of highly
fluctuating levels of production, e.g., in case of seasonal factories.
 Application of fixed overhead depends on estimates and not on the actual and as
such there may be under or over absorption of the same.
 Control affected by means of budgetary control is also accepted by many. In order
to know the net profit, we should not be satisfied with contribution and hence, fixed
overhead is also a valuable item. A system which ignores fixed costs is less

11.  effective since a major portion of fixed cost is not taken care of under marginal
costing.
 In practice, sales price, fixed cost and variable cost per unit may vary. Thus, the
assumptions underlying the theory of marginal costing sometimes becomes unrealistic
 Marginal cost has its limitation since it makes use of historical data while decisions by
management relates to future events;
 It ignores fixed costs to products as if they are not important to production;
 Stock valuation under this type of costing is not accepted by the Inland Revenue as
its€™s ignore the fixed cost element;
 It fails to recognize that in the long run, fixed costs may become variable;
 Its oversimplified costs into fixed and variable as if it is so simply to demarcate them;
 It’s not a good costing technique in the long run for pricing decision as it ignores fixed
cost. In the long run, management must consider the total costs not only the variable
portion;
 Difficulty to classify properly variable and fixed cost perfectly, hence stock valuation
can be distorted if fixed cost is classify as variable

12. TECHNIQUES OF COSTING
Besides the methods of costing, following are the types of costing techniques which
are used by management only for controlling costs and making some important
managerial decisions. As a matter of fact, they are not independent methods of cost
finding such as job or process costing but are basically costing techniques which can
be used as an advantage with any of the methods discussed above.
1. Marginal Costing
Marginal costing is a technique of costing in which allocation of expenditure to
production is restricted to those expenses which arise as a result of production, e.g.,
materials, labour, and direct expenses and variable overheads. Fixed overheads are
excluded in cases where production varies because it may give misleading results. The
technique is useful in manufacturing industries with varying levels of output.
2. Direct Costing
The practice of charging all direct costs to operations, processes or products and
leaving all indirect costs to be written off against profits in the period in which they
arise is termed as direct costing. The technique differs from marginal costing because
some fixed costs can be considered as direct costs in appropriate circumstances.
3. Absorption or Full Costing
The practice of charging all costs both variable and fixed to operations, products or
processes is termed as absorption costing.
4. Uniform Costing
A technique where standardized principles and methods of cost accounting are
employed by a number of different companies and firms is termed as uniform costing.
Standardization may extend to the methods of costing, accounting classification
including codes, methods of defining costs and charging depreciation, methods of
allocating or apportioning overheads to cost centres or cost units. The system, thus,
facilitates inter- firm comparisons, establishment of realistic pricing policies, etc.

13. PROCESS OF MARGINAL COSTING
Under marginal costing, the difference between sales and marginal cost of sales is
found out. This difference is technically called contribution. Contribution provides for
fixed cost and profit. Excess of contribution over fixed cost is profit emphasis remains
here on increasing total contribution. Variable Cost. Variable cost is that part of total
cost, which changes directly in proportion with volume. Total variable cost changes
with change in volume of output. Variable costs are very sensitive in nature and are
influenced by a variety of factors.
Main aim of ‘marginal costing’ is to help management in controlling variable cost
because this is an area of cost which lends itself to control by management
 Fixed Cost. It represents the cost which is incurred for a period, and which,
within certain output and turnover limits tends to be unaffected by fluctuations in
the levels of activity (output or turnover). Examples are rent, rates, insurance and
executive salaries.
 Variable Costs Variable costs are those costs which vary directly with the level
of output. They represent payment output-related inputs such as raw materials,
direct labour, fuel and revenue-related costs such as commission. A distinction is
often made between "Direct" variable costs and "Indirect" variable costs.
Direct variable costs are those which can be directly attributable to the production
of a particular product or service and allocated to a particular cost centre. Raw
materials and the wages those working on the production line are good examples.
Indirect variable costs cannot be directly attributable to production but they do
vary with output. These include depreciation (where it is calculated related to
output - e.g. machine hours), maintenance and certain labour costs.
 Semi-Variable Costs Whilst the distinction between fixed and variable costs is
a convenient way of categorising business costs, in reality there are some costs
which are fixed in nature but which increase when output reaches certain levels.
These are largely related to the overall "scale" and/or complexity of the business.
For example, when a business has relatively low levels of output or sales, it may
not require costs associated with functions such as human resource management or
a fully-resourced finance department. However, as the scale of the business grows
(e.g. output, number people employed, number and complexity of transactions)

14. then more resources are required. If production rises suddenly then some short-term
increase in warehousing and/or transport may be required. In these circumstances,
we say that part of the cost is variable and part fixed.
Variable cost = It changes directly in proportion with volume
1. Variable cost Ratio = {Variable cost / Sales} * 100
2. Sales – Variable cost = Fixed cost + Profit
3. Contribution = Sales * P/V Ratio
 Break-Even Point. Break-even point is the point of sale at which company
makes neither profit nor loss. The marginal costing technique is based on the idea
that difference of sales and variable cost of sales provides for a fund, which is
referred to as contribution. Contribution provides for fixed cost and profit. At
break-even point, the contribution is just enough to provide for fixed cost. If actual
sales level is above break-even point, the company will make profit if actual sales
are below break-even point the company will incur loss.
BREAK EVEN POINT [BEP]:-
1. Fixed cost / Contribution per unit [in units]
2. Fixed cost / P/V Ratio [in value] (or) Fixed Cost * Sales value per unit
(Sales – Variable cost per unit)
 Contribution. - Marginal costing analysis depends a lot on the idea of
contribution. In this technique, efforts are directed to increase total contribution
only. Contribution is the difference between sales and variable cost, i.e., marginal
cost. It can be expressed as follows:
Contribution = Sales - Variable cost of sales.
No.
1.
2.
3.
Contribution
It is a concept used in Marginal costing.
It is before deducting Fixed Costs.
At break- over point, Contribution is equal to
fixed cost.
Profit
It is an accounting concept.
It is after deducting Fixed Costs.
Profit arises only when Sales go beyond
the break- even point.
 Profit/Volume Ratio. When the contribution from sales is expressed as a
percentage of sales value, it is known as profit/volume ratio (or P/V ratio). It
expresses relationship between contribution and sales. Better P/V ratio is an index

15. of sound ‘financial health’ of a company’s product. This ratio reflects change in
profit due to change in volume. Broadly speaking, it shows how large the
contribution will appear, if it is expressed on equal footing with sales. The
statement that P/V ratio is 40% means that contribution is Rs. 40, if size of the sale
is Rs. 100. One important characteristic of P/V ratio is that it remains the same at
all levels of output. P/V ratio is particularly useful when it is considered in
conjunction with margin of safety.
P/V ratio may be expressed as:
P/V ratio = (Sales - Marginal cost of sales)/Sales or = Contribution/Sales or =
Change in contribution/Change in sales or = Change in profit/Change in sales
PROFIT VOLUME RATIO [P/V RATIO]:-
1. {Contribution / Sales} * 100
2. {Contribution per unit / Sales per unit} * 100
3. {Change in profit / Change in sales} * 100
4. {Change in contribution / Change in sales} * 100
Advantages of P/V Ratio
I. .It helps in determining the break-even point
Ii...It helps in determining profit at various sales levels.
iii. It helps to find out the sales volume to earn a desired quantum of profit.
iv. It helps to determine relative profitability of different products, processes and
departments
Limitations of P/V Ratio
There is a growing trend among companies to use the profit -volume-ratio in deciding
the product-worthy additional sale efforts and productive capacity and host of other
managerial exercises. Following are the limitations of the use of P/V Ratio
1 .P/V ratio heavily leans on excess of revenues over variable cost.
2. The P/V ratio fails to take into consideration the capital outlays required by the
additional productive capacity and the additional fixed costs that are added.
3. Inspection of P/V ratio of products can suggest profitable product lines that might
be emphasized and unprofitable lines, which may be re-evaluated or eliminated. Mere
inspection of P/V ratio will not help to take final decision. For this purpose, analysis
has to be broadened to take into consideration different cost of the decision and
opportunity costs, etc. Thus, it indicates only the area to be probed. .

16. 4. The P/V ratios has been referred to as the questionable device for-decision-making
because it only gives an indication of the relative profitability of the products/product
lines that too if other things are equal.
The above points highlight that P/V ratio should not be used inconsiderately.
 Margin of Safety. Margin of safety represents the difference between sales at a
given activity and sales at breakeven point. (B.E.P. is the point of sales where
company makes neither profit nor loss). Consequently, it indicates the extent to
which a fall in demand could be absorbed, before company begins to sustain losses.
The margin-of safety is expressed as percentage of sale. The validity of safety
always depends on the accuracy of cost estimates. The wide margin of safety is
advantageous for the company. Margin of safety depends on level of fixed cost,
rate of contribution and level of sales. The relationship of margin of safety with
sales can be expressed as follows: -
Sales - Sales at B.E.P = Margin of safety.
Thus, soundness of a business can be measured by margin of safety. This
knowledge is very useful in taking policy decision like reduction in price to face the
competitors. Margin of safety indicates how many present sales are able to keep
business away from, the crucial point, where business will earn neither profit not
loss. Its relationship with P/V ratio and profit can be expressed as follows:
Basic marginal cost equation is S - V = F + P
MARGIN OF SAFETY [MOP]
1. Actual sales – Break even sales
2. Net profit / P/V Ratio
3. Profit / Contribution per unit [In units]
4. Sales unit at Desired profit = {Fixed cost + Desired profit} / Cont. Per unit
5. Sales value for Desired Profit = {Fixed cost + Desired profit} / P/V Ratio
 Cost-Volume-Profit Relationship
Introduction
Profit is, always a matter of primary concern to management. The volume of sale
never remains constant. It fluctuates up and down and. income also goes up and down
with fluctuations in volume. Profit is actually the result of interplay of different factors
like cost, volume and selling price. Effectiveness of a manager depends on his
capability to make right predictions about future profits. This can be done when
correct relationship existing between cost, volume and profit is known. For this

17. reason, knowledge of relationship among cost, volume and profit is of immense help
to management...
Objectives of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
 In order to forecast profits accurately, it is essential to ascertain the relationship
between cost and profit on one hand and volume on the other.
 Cost-volume-profit analysis is helpful in setting up flexible budget which indicates
cost at various levels of activities.
 Cost-volume-profit analysis assists in evaluating performance for the purpose of
control.
 Such analysis may assist management in formulating pricing policies by projecting
the effect of different price structures on cost and profit.
Use of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
 This relationship enables management to predict profit over a wide range of
volume. This knowledge is very useful in preparing flexible budget.
 In a lean business season, company has to determine the price of the products very
carefully. It becomes necessary sometimes to bring down the price to boast the sale
of a product. For all decisions like this, management must determine, by cost-
volume profit analysis, what impact this reduction in price is going to have a profit
position of a company.
 Analysis of cost-volume-profit relationship helps in decision-making. There are
situations when management has to decide whether It should add to its capacity or
not. With the knowledge of cost -volume- profit analysis, a manager can easily take
decision showing in its report haw utilization of available capacity will lead to
increase in profit.
 Cost-Volume-Profit analysis helps in profit planning. Under profit planning,
company first declares the profit that it wants to make during the ensuing year.
Thereafter, sales level necessary to yield that profit is attempted. Cost-volume-
profit analysis helps in profit planning in the following ways.
 It hems in estimating income at a particular sales level.
 It helps to determine change in profit due to change in sales volume.
 It helps to execute the idea of profit planning. In other words, we
arrive at the sales level to be attempted for a desired profit by the
knowledge of relationship existing between cost, volume and profit.
 It helps to find out the sales required to meet proposed expenditure

18.  BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS
Definition
 Breakeven analysis is also known as cost-volume profit analysis
 Breakeven analysis is the study of the relationship between selling prices, sales volumes,
fixed costs, variable costs and profits at various levels of activity
Application
 Breakeven analysis can be used to determine a company’s breakeven point (BEP)
 Breakeven point is a level of activity at which the total revenue is equal to the total costs
 At this level, the company makes no profit
Assumption of breakeven point analysis
 Relevant range
 The relevant range is the range of an activity over which the fixed cost will remain
fixed in total and the variable cost per unit will remain constant
 Fixed cost
 Total fixed cost are assumed to be constant in total
 Variable cost
 Total variable cost will increase with increasing number of units produced
 Sales revenue

19.  The total revenue will increase with the increasing number of units produced
Limitations of breakeven analysis
 Breakeven analysis assumes that fixed cost, variable costs and sales revenue behave in linear
manner. However, some overhead costs may be stepped in nature. The straight sales revenue
line and total cost line tent to curve beyond certain level of production
 It is assumed that all production is sold. The breakeven chart does not take the changes in
stock level into account
 Breakeven analysis can provide information for small and relatively simple companies that
produce same product. It is not useful for the companies producing multiple products

20. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ABSORPTION
COSTING
Absorption costing, also known as full absorption costing can be defined as a
managerial accounting cost method of expensing all costs related to manufacturing of
a specific product. The absorption costing method involves the use of total direct costs
and overhead costs related to the manufacturing of a product as the cost base. Besides,
absorption costing is also required by the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
(GAAP).
As presented by Investopedia, some of the direct costs related to manufacturing a
product consist of wages for workers involved physically in manufacturing a product,
the raw materials involved in production, as well as the overhead costs, like utility
costs. Moreover, absorption costing counts anything that is a direct cost in production
of goods. Besides, absorption costing is promoted by the advocates for the future
benefits provided.
Absorption costing is, therefore, different from the other costing methods as it takes
into account fixed manufacturing overhead (counting expenses like factory rent,
utilities, amortization). It is, moreover, difficult to factor in the fixed manufacturing
overhead expenses into computing the per unit price of goods, which are not
accounted for by other methods like Variable costing.
Advantages and disadvantages of Absorption Costing
Advantages
The key advantages of absorption costing include:
 It identifies the importance of fixed costs involved in production.
 The absorption costing method is accepted by Inland Revenue as stock is not
undervalued.
 The absorption costing method is always used for preparing financial accounts.
 The absorption costing method shows less fluctuation in net profits in case of
constant production but fluctuating sales.
 Contrasting marginal costing which involves fixed cost changing into variable cost,
it is cost into the stock value thus distorting the stock valuation.
 Gives attention to both fixed and variable costs; that is, all production costs are
considered regardless of whether they are variable or fixed. And, this is very

21. important when it comes to pricing decisions since the manufacturer can have a
clear picture of the profit margin to be made on each sale, as all costs would have
been incorporated into the product cost.
 Provides realistic periodic profits if company has a natural business cycle; profits
are realistic in the sense that all production costs are matched to sales volume,
rather than production volume as under Marginal Costing.
 It is consistent with external reporting requirements; in fact, International
Accounting Standard Board recommends the use of absorption costing method over
marginal costing, which is considered more useful for internal reporting.
Disadvantages
The main drawbacks of Absorption Costing include:
 Since absorption costing emphasized on total cost that is to say both variables as
well as fixed, it is not useful for management to use to make decision, control, and
planning.
 Besides, since the manager emphasizes on the total cost, the cost volume profit
relationship is ignored. The manager, therefore, needs to use his intuition for
decision making.
 Absorption costing, a portion of fixed cost is carried over to the subsequent
accounting period as part of closing stock. This is an unsound practice because
costs pertaining to a period should not be allowed to be vitiated by the inclusion of
costs pertaining to the previous period and vice versa.
 Further, absorption costing is dependent on the levels of output which may vary
from period to period, and consequently cost per unit changes due to the existence
of fixed overhead. Unless fixed overhead rate is based on normal capacity, such
changed costs are not helpful for the purposes of comparison and control.

22. The features which distinguish marginal costing from absorption
costing are as follows.
 In absorption costing, items of stock are costed to include a ‘fair share’ of fixed
production overhead, whereas in marginal costing, stocks are valued at variable
production cost only. The value of closing stock will be higher in absorption costing
than in marginal costing.
 As a consequence of carrying forward an element of fixed production overheads in
closing stock values, the cost of sales used to determine profit in absorption costing
will:
i. include some fixed production overhead costs incurred in a previous period but
carried forward into opening stock values of the current period;
ii. Exclude some fixed production overhead costs incurred in the current period by
including them in closing stock values.
In contrast marginal costing charges the actual fixed costs of a period in full into the
profit and loss account of the period. (Marginal costing is therefore sometimes known
as period costing.)
 In absorption costing, ‘actual’ fully absorbed unit costs are reduced by producing in
greater quantities, whereas in marginal costing, unit variable costs are unaffected by
the volume of production (that is, provided that variable costs per unit remain
unaltered at the changed level of production activity). Profit per unit in any period can
be affected by the actual volume of production in absorption costing; this is not the
case in marginal costing.
 In marginal costing, the identification of variable costs and of contribution enables
management to use cost information more easily for decision-making purposes (such
as in budget decision making). It is easy to decide by how much contribution (and
therefore profit) will be affected by changes in sales volume. (Profit would be
unaffected by changes in production volume).
In absorption costing, however, the effect on profit in a period of changes in both:
I. production volume; and
II. sales volume
Is not easily seen, because behavior is not analyses and incremental costs are not
used in the calculation of actual profit.

23. MARGINAL COSTING V/S ABSORPTION COSTING
The difference between Marginal costing & absorption costing is as below:
1. Under Marginal costing: for product costing & inventory valuation, only variable cost is
considered whereas, under absorption costing; for product costing & inventory valuation,
both fixed cost & variable cost are considered.
2. Under Marginal costing, there is a different treatment of fixed overhead. Fixed cost is
considered as period cost & by Profit/Volume ratio (P/V ratio); profitability of different
products is judged. On the other hand, under absorption costing system, the fixed cost is
charged to cost of production. A reasonable share of fixed cost is to be borne by each
product & thereby subjective apportionment of fixed overheads influences the profitability
of product.
3. Under Marginal costing, the presentation of data is so oriented that total contribution &
contribution from each product gets highlighted. Under absorption costing, the presentation
of cost data is on conventional pattern. After deducting fixed overhead, the net profit of each
product is determined.
4. Under Marginal costing, the unit cost of production does not get affected by the difference
in the magnitude of opening stock & closing stock. Whereas, under absorption costing, due
to the impact of the related fixed overheads, the unit cost of production get affected by the
difference in the magnitude of opening stock & closing stock.
Effects of opening & closing stock on profit:
When income statements under absorption costing & Marginal costing are compared, the
under mentioned points should be considered:
1. The results under both the methods will be same in situations where sales & production
coincide i.e., there is neither opening stock nor closing stock.
2. Profit under absorption costing will be more than the profit under Marginal costing, when
closing stock is more than the opening stock. The reason behind this is that, under
absorption costing, a portion of fixed overhead, instead of being charged to the current
period, is charged to the closing stock & carried over to the next period.
3. Profit shown under absorption costing will be lower than the profit shown under Marginal
costing, when closing stock is less than the opening stock. The reason behind this is that,
under absorption costing, to the current period, a portion of fixed cost related to previous
year is charged.
Reconciliation of results of absorption costing & Marginal costing:

24. When comparison of the results of absorption costing & Marginal costing is undertaken,
the adjustments for under- absorbed & / or over absorbed overheads becomes necessary.
Under absorption costing, on the basis of normal level of activity, the fixed overhead rate
is predetermined. A situation of under-absorption &/or over-absorption arises when there is
a difference between actual level of activity & normal level of activity.
(I) Under-absorbed fixed overhead = Excess of normal level of activity over actual level of
activity * Fixed overhead rate per unit.
If there is under-absorption, the profit under absorption costing, before comparison with
profit as per Marginal costing, should be reduced with under-absorbed fixed overheads.
Alternatively, by adding the under-absorbed fixed overhead to the cost of production, the
same objective can be achieved.
(ii) Over absorbed Fixed overhead = Excess of actual level of activity over normal level of
activity * Fixed overhead rate per unit.
If there is over absorption, then before the comparison of profit as per absorption costing
with the profit as per Marginal costing, with over-absorbed fixed overheads, the profit
under absorption costing should be increased. Alternatively, by reducing the over-absorbed
fixed overhead from the cost of production, the same objective can be achieved
Argument for absorption costing
 Compliance with the generally accepted accounting principles
 Importance of fixed overheads for production
 Avoidance of fictitious profit or loss
 During the period of high sales, the production is small than the sales, a smaller
number of fixed manufacturing overheads are charged and a higher net profit will
be obtained under marginal costing
 Absorption costing is better in avoiding the fluctuation of profit being reported in
marginal costing
Arguments for marginal costing
 More relevance to decision-making
 Avoidance of profit manipulation
 Marginal costing can avoid profit manipulation by adjusting the stock level
 Consideration given to fixed cost
 In fact, marginal costing does not ignore fixed costs in setting the selling price. On
the contrary, it provides useful information for break-even analysis that indicates
whether fixed costs can be converted with the change in sales volume

25. Amul (Anand Milk Union Limited)
Amulcompany.jpg
Type - Cooperative
Industry - Dairy/FMCG
Founded - 1946
Headquarters -Anand, Gujarat, India
Key people
Chairman, Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd. (GCMMF)
Products - See complete products listing
Revenue - Increase US$3.1 billion (2013–14)
Number of employees
750 employees of Marketing Arm. However, real pool consist of 3 million milk
producer members
Slogan - the Taste of India
Website - www.amul.com

26.  Amul ("priceless" in Sanskrit. The brand name "Amul," from the Sanskrit "Amoolya,"
(meaning precious) formed in 1946, is a dairy cooperative in India. It is a brand name
managed by an apex cooperative organization, Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing
Federation Ltd. (GCMMF)
 The Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd, Anand (GCMMF) is the largest
food products marketing organization of India.
 In 1997, Amul ice creams entered Mumbai followed by Chennai in 1998 and Kolkata and
Delhi in 2002.
 The portfolio consisted of impulse products like sticks, cones, cups as well as take home
packs and institutional/catering packs.
 It achieved the No 1 position in the country. This position was achieved in 2001 and it has
continued to remain at the top.
 Today the market share of Amul ice cream is 38% share against the 9% market share of
HLL (Kwality Walls), thus making it 4 times larger than its closest competitor.
 Not only has it grown at a phenomenal rate but has added a vast variety of flavors to its ever
growing range.
 In January 2007, Amul introduced SUGAR FREE &ProLifeProbiotic Wellness Ice Cream,
which was a first in India.
 Amul’sentry into ice creams is regarded as successful due to the large market share it was
able to capture within a short period of time – due to price differential, quality of products
and of course the brand name.
Amul the co-operative registered on 1 December 1946 as a response to the exploitation of marginal
milk producers by traders or agents of the only existing dairy, the Polson dairy, in the small city
distances to deliver milk, which often went sour in summer, to Polson. The prices of milk were
arbitrarily determined. Moreover, the government had given monopoly rights to Polson to collect
milk from mikka and supply it to Bombay city.
Angered by the unfair trade practices, the farmers of Kaira approached Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
under the leadership of local farmer leader Tribhuvandas K. Patel. He advised them to form a
cooperative and supply milk directly to the Bombay Milk Scheme instead of Polson (who did the
same but gave them low prices).He sent Morarji Desai to organise the farmers. In 1946, the milk
farmers of the area went on a strike which led to the setting up of the cooperative to collect and
process milk. Milk collection was decentralized, as most producers were marginal farmers who
could deliver, at most, 1–2 litres of milk per day. Cooperatives were formed for each village, too.

27. The cooperative was further developed and managed by Dr.Verghese Kurien with H.M. Dalaya.
Dalaya's innovation of making skim milk powder from buffalo milk (for the first time in the world)
and a little later, with Kurien's help, making it on a commercial scale, led to the first modern dairy
of the cooperative at Anand, which would compete against established players in the market.
Kurien's brother-in-law K.M. Philip sensitized Kurien to the needs of of attending to the finer points
of marketing, including the creation and popularization of a brand. This led to the search for an
attractive brand name. In a brainstorming session, a chemist who worked in the dairy laboratory
suggested Amul, which came from the Sanskrit word "amulya", which means "priceless" and
"denoted and symbolised the pride of swadeshi production."
The trio's (T. K. Patel, Kurien and Dalaya's) success at the cooperative's dairy soon spread to
Anand's neighbourhood in Gujarat. Within a short span, five unions in other districts – Mehsana,
Banaskantha, Baroda, Sabarkantha and Surat – were set up. To combine forces and expand the
market while saving on advertising and avoid competing against each other, the GCMMF, an apex
marketing body of these district cooperatives, was set up in 1973. The Kaira Union, which had the
brand name Amul with it since 1955, transferred it to GCMMF.
In 1999, it was awarded the "Best of all" Rajiv Gandhi National Quality Award.
Adding to the success, Dr. Madan Mohan Kashyap (faculty Agricultural and Engineering
Department, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana), Dr. Bondurant (visiting faculty) and Dr
Feryll (former student of Dr Verghese Kurien), visited the Amul factory in Gujarat as a research
team headed by Dr. Bheemsen. Shivdayal Pathak (ex-director of the Sardar Patel Renewable
Energy Research Institute) in the 1960s. A milk pasteurization system at the Research Centre of
Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Ludhiana was then formed under the guidance of Kashyap
FACTS
 The portfolio consisted of impulse products like sticks, cones, cups as well as take home
packs and institutional/catering packs.
 In 1997, Amul ice creams entered Mumbai followed by Chennai in 1998 and Kolkata and
Delhi in 2002. Nationally it was rolled out across the country in 1999.
 Has combated competition like Walls, Mother Dairy and achieved the No 1 position in
the country.
 Today the market share of Amul ice cream is 38%.

28.  Amul’s entry into ice creams is regarded as successful due to the large market share it
was able to capture within a short period of time.
Ice Cream Industry in India
Industry Snapshot:-
 Market Size - 1200 Cores
 Ice Cream market is growing at 26%
Major players:-
 Amul - Market Leader with share of 36%
 HLL - Kwality Walls - 2nd biggest player
 Mother Diary
 Arun - Chennai Based Hatsun Agro Product
Few Brands/ Target Consumers
 1. Youth Centric - Chillz
 2. Kids - Moo
 3. Teenagers - Cornetto

29.  4. Health Conscious - Amul Sugarfree& Pro-Life
MARGINAL COST SHEET
SALES 9256250
Variable Cost:
Purchases 3200000
RM Consumed 3384500
CONTRIBUTION 2671750
- Fixed Cost
Factory Expenses 905000
Employee Cost 1000000
Depreciation 100000
Other Expenditure 190000
PROFIT 476750
COST SHEET ANALYSIS
 The company is producing 100000 units of ice cream at Rs. 74.05 for which
the total cost incurred is Rs. 7405000 and the total sales is Rs. 9256250
which implies that that the profit being made is Rs. 1851250.
 The company is producing a single cup of ice cream at Rs. 92.5625 which
includes the cost of a cup ice cream at Rs. 74.05 which again implies that the
profit of Rs. 18.5125 is earned on a single unit of Amul ice cream
 Since the company is earning some percentage of profit above the cost, it
means a slight increase in the cost will not have too much of an effect on the
profit since there is a large margin of safety.
 Since the company is earning some amount of profit, the business is capable
to expand and diversify over a period of time.
 PVR = C/S = 2671750/9256250 = 28.86%
 BEP (in Rs.) = FC/PVR = 2195000/28.86 = Rs.760568.26
 BEP (in units) = FC/C = 2195000/2.67175 = 821558.9 = 821559
 MOS = Profit/PVR = 476750/28.86 = 16519.404.

30. DETERMINATION OF SP
 Amul Ice Cream has marked the selling price of their product roughly 20%
above the cost price.
 This implies that they are making a profit on each unit of output that is sold.
 These profits can be ploughed into the business again to create more output

31. CONCLUSION
Marginal cost is the cost management technique for the analysis of cost and revenue
information and for the guidance of management. The presentation of information through
marginal costing statement is easily understood by all managers, even those who do not have
preliminary knowledge and implications of the subjects of cost and management accounting.
Absorption costing and marginal costing are two different techniques of cost accounting
Absorption costing is widely used for cost control purpose whereas marginal costing is used
for managerial decision-making and control.
Amul has shown in all the ways that why it is one of the leading company in the market for
dairy products. Since the company is earning some amount of profit, the business is capable
to expand and diversify over a period of time...Amul Ice Cream has marked the selling price
of their product roughly 20% above the cost price. This implies that they are making a profit
on each unit of output that is sold.

32. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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