Online learners' struggles with computer-mediated communication

Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 539–545
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c
a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
The personal experience of online learning: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.015
0747-5632/� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 8991312 (home),
mobile: +30 6938281602.
E-mail addresses: [email protected]hoo.co.uk (R. Symeonides),
[email protected]
(C. Childs).
Roberta Symeonides a,⇑ , Carrie Childs b
a Samou 1a Street, Dilofou, Vari, Athens 166-72, Greece
b College of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Derby,
UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 19 June 2015
Keywords:
Online learning
Personal experience
Interpretative phenomenological analysis
(IPA)
a b s t r a c t

Student interaction is critical to online social cohesion and
collaborative learning. However, online learn-
ers need to adjust to the computer mediated communication
(CMC) medium of the online environment.
This study explores online learners’ experiences of
asynchronous text-based CMC using an interpretative
phenomenological analysis of interviews with six online
students. The analysis revealed that the
constraints of written communication and lack of human
interaction causes difficulties in adjusting
and coping with the online learning environment. Four major
themes were identified: the inability to
express one’s self fully; difficulties establishing relationships;
comparing one’s self to others and the
written word as an ineffective learning medium. The study’s
findings highlight a need for better student
and tutor collaboration to facilitate a safe and interactive
environment. Effective academic and social
support can enhance online learning, improve student
satisfaction and encourage students to persist with
their learning.
� 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Advances in communication technology have led to a surge in
the number of individuals taking online courses. With the
flexibil-
ity of online courses comes a greater responsibility for learners
to
be self-directed. Online learning, where computer technology
com-
munication (CMC) is used as the primary learning medium,
differs
to face-to-face learning environments in some fundamental

ways.
For students the experience of learning online, within an
unfamil-
iar environment, demands personal adaptability and coping
skills.
Many students may enroll in online courses without any
guidance
and may learn just enough about the online environment to com-
plete the course-learning the new skills required is not an easy
task
(McGilvray, 2014).
Tutor moderated asynchronous discussion, which typically
takes place via discussion board forums, is a main feature of
online
learning. Learners ‘sign on’ at times of their choosing using the
computer as a ‘meeting place’. However, life in such a ‘written
world’ gives rise to many unfamiliar problems. Written
communi-
cation violates many deeply ingrained assumptions about
commu-
nication, creating difficulties in establishing one’s own identity
(Feenberg, 1989). Void of elements of speech such as intonation
and non-verbal cues makes conveying how we feel and who we
are problematic (Pennebaker, Mehl, & Niederhoffer, 2003). The
issue of online student identity is not well recognized in the
peda-
gogical literature, which until recently has focused mainly on
aspects of instructional design (e.g. Sims, 2014), learning
outcomes
(e.g. Keramati, Afshari-Mofrad, & Kamrani, 2011) and student
sat-
isfaction (e.g. Kuo, Walker, Schroder, & Belland, 2014).
However as
Oztok, Lee, and Brett (2012) note, identities play an important
role

in online learning practices and a more refined understanding of
identity is needed to address the relationship between the
concept
of identity and learning.
There has been an increasing trend for research to focus on the
role of student interaction in relation to collaborative learning
to
establish a ‘community of inquiry’ for constructing, sharing and
understanding of knowledge ((Betts, 2009; Rouke, Anderson,
Garrison, & Archer, 2001; Shea et al., 2014). The need to
provide
shared learning spaces and tools for collaboration is well docu-
mented (e.g. Häkkinen & Hämäläinen, 2012). This body of work
is underpinned by constructivist learning theory, which under-
stands knowledge as constructed by learners through social
inter-
action with others. As Shea (2006) notes, within online learning
there has been a philosophical shift from objectivism to
construc-
tivism and a pedagogical shift from direct instruction to the
facili-
tation of collaborative learning (Jones & Brader-Araije, 2002).
It has
been suggested that the online environment is an effective plat-
form for promoting constructivist learning as it meets needs for
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540 R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior
51 (2015) 539–545
students to access academic coursework at any time while
enhancing communication skills (Schell & Janicki, 2013).
However constructivism’s focus on group activities that
facilitate
collaborative learning via peer–peer interactions may present
challenges for the online learning environment (Huang, 2002).
Effective student interaction is critical to constructivist learning
success as ‘‘effective and lasting learning takes place for the
individual when engaged in social activity with a range of
others’’
(Pritchard & Woollard, 2010, p. 7).
Discussion forums aim to cultivate a social environment for stu-
dent interaction, collaboration and exchange of ideas,
establishing
a ‘community of enquiry’ fostering a sense of belonging to
reduce
feelings of alienation associated with online learning (Rovai &
Wighting, 2005; Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004).
Participation
in discussion forums serves a dual purpose – to enhance
learning
and provide support (Davies & Graff, 2005). Frequent student
inter-
action has been associated with increased satisfaction (Gilbert,
Morton, & Rowley, 2007; Perez-Prado & Thirunarayanan,
2002).
However, frequency of interaction as an outcome measure pro-
vides little insight into the experience of interacting and the
importance of this for learning experience. As Gilbert et al . note
in-depth qualitative interviews may provide richer insights
‘‘and
answers to ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions’’ (p. 571). There has also

been
criticism of over reliance on the instructional design,
technological
and cognitive aspects of learning with little attention to
emotional
aspects (MacFadden, 2007; Montero & Suhonen, 2014;
Zembylas,
2008). If approaches do not provide any details of the particular
nuances of any one individual’s experience little is known about
the role of students’ feelings, thoughts and experience in the
pro-
cess of their interaction and learning. Failing to explore these
‘‘can only offer an incomplete view of the learning experience’’
(Montero & Suhonen, 2014, p. 165). A philosophical shift to
focus
on students as experts of their own experience is necessary. A
phe-
nomenological approach can illuminate this process to gain a
dee-
per understanding of human interactions (Hignett & Wilson,
2004)
and users’ needs (Bogner, 1998) in order to understand how
indi-
vidual learners experience their learning.
2. Methodology
2.1. Data collection
The dataset comprises semi-structured interviews with six
mature online students. Participants were aged between 29 and
52 years of age at different stages of their Master’s degree pro -
gramme. A request for participants was emailed to all students
on the same programme and participation was voluntary.
Purposive homogenous sampling was employed to obtain a
closely
defined group for whom the experiential research question is

sig-
nificant. The interviews were conducted using Skype™ online
tele-
phony. Interviews lasted approximately 60 min. All names are
pseudonyms.
2.2. Analysis
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) provides a
means of explicating how participants make sense of their
personal
and social world and the meanings that particular events and
expe-
riences hold for them (Smith & Osborne, 2008). Its
philosophical
underpinnings are within phenomenology, symbolic interaction-
ism, hermeneutics and idiography (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin,
2009). Developing from the work of Husserl, phenomenological
psychology rejects the notion that one can construct an
objective
‘truth’ about an experience; rather the focus is an individual’s
per-
sonal perception or account. One cannot construct an objective
third person account as there is something indispensable in
first-person experience – ‘‘what it is like’’ for the individual to
have
such an experience (Summa & Giuffrida, 2013). As such, there
is no
attempt to construct an objective truth about an experience,
rather
individuals’ experiences, understandings, perceptions and
accounts are honoured (Reid, Flowers, & Larkin, 2005). As IPA
is
concerned with the subjective account and meaning of an
experi-
ence (Brocki & Wearden, 2006) this allows one to appreciate
the

perceptions and understandings of a particular group, rather
than
prematurely make more general claims (Smith & Osborne, 2008)
which may lead to false assumptions and misunderstandings.
Although IPA is an idiographic mode of inquiry the importance
of
theory is recognized. It is useful to judge IPA in terms of
vertical,
rather than horizontal generalizability. While horizontal
generaliz-
ability aims to demonstrate that findings are applicable across
set-
tings, vertical generalizability is concerned with building
interpretative theory. Findings should be judged in terms of
their
ability to enhance understanding and insight, to contribute to
existing theory and to generate new hypotheses and research
questions (Johnson, 1997).
The analytic process was as follows: (a) interview transcripts
were read and reread a number of times to establish a general
feel-
ing of participants’ accounts; (b) exploratory comments were
made
and emergent themes were identified and organized; (c)
attention
was focused on the themes to define them in detail and establish
inter-relationships and (d) the themes were organized to make
consistent and meaningful statements of the meaning and
essence
of the participants’ experience grounded in their own words
(Smith et al., 2009).
3. Results
The overarching theme was difficulties experienced in relation

to written communication within the online learning
environment.
Participants struggled as they felt written communication was
‘not
real’ and ‘unnatural’ and often felt vulnerable when ‘talking’
publically on discussion forums. The analysis shows some of
their attempts to adjust to the online environment, but
uncertainty
and ambiguity pervades. Four major themes were identified: (1)
the inability to express one’s self fully; (2) difficulties in
establishing relationships; (3) comparing one’s self to others
and
(4) the written word as an ineffective learning medium. Each
theme is intrinsically interwoven and pivotal to written
communi-
cation. These themes are presented below, with illustrative
extracts.
3.1. Inability to express yourself fully – ‘it’s not necessarily me
at all’
The first theme encapsulates participants’ sense of loss of
human interaction. The online environment, void of human
senses
meant that participants felt that interaction was dehumanized,
unnatural and ‘not real’. As participants struggled to adjust,
feel-
ings of frustration and uncertainty prevented them interacting in
a way they were accustomed to. This meant they were often
reluc-
tant to communicate. Their accounts reveal their attempts to
cope
with these difficulties and strategies to overcome them.
‘all you have now is the way they write in the forum and the
picture. So you may well have seen, if you’ve checked my intro-

ductory post on the forum, you’ll have seen my picture and
you’ll have also have read the post and I think that comes
across
as rather hard, as a bit stiff – it’s not necessarily me at all, but
that’s the way the picture looks and I tend to write a little
directly I don’t – so again does that actually represent the
way the people are?’
[Paul]
R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51
(2015) 539–545 541
Paul, a novice online learner was shocked and disorientated as
he felt robbed of the important aspects of face-to-face
communica-
tion. His sense of bewilderment and frustration are apparent as
he
struggles to portray his own identity and understand others’. As
he
struggles to overcome his difficulties his sense of loss and
hope-
lessness prevail as he is unable to recognize himself as ‘me’ and
establish himself as a member of the student group.
‘em it’s not human, not as human Yep? Because you’re missing
out that face-to-face communication. I think with being face to
face you’ve got the advantage of, you kind of, there’s more –
when
you’re face to face because you’re face to face there’s more
inter-
action. It’s like a natural interaction and its there in abundance,
whereas online you’ve got to force yourself to interact yeah?
[John]

Other participants who were more experienced with the online
communication also struggled to communicate effectively.
John’s
notion of face-to-face communication as natural and effortless
contrasts with the unnatural and stark online environment where
he has to ‘force’ himself to interact.
‘I pick up on people’s actual thoughts better when you get body
language rather than in a text it doesn’t give you the feeling of
the person’
[Janet]
Janet feels that written communication is not as sincere as
face-to-face communication where the subtle aspects of
communi-
cation give her an in-depth understanding of the person’s
character
not possible with written communication.
Not being able to naturally express one’s self negatively influ-
enced participants’ interaction with others. Participants felt
con-
strained and were concerned about causing offense, being
misunderstood, which led to feelings of isolation and not
belonging
to the student community. These difficulties recur throughout
the
participants’ accounts as a barrier to establishing meaningful
relationships.
3.2. Difficulty in establishing relationships – ‘you don’t really
know,
sometimes, who you’re talking to’

Participants’ accounts reveal importance placed on interacting
with other students to provide a support network. Participants
felt
frustrated that some students did not reveal their ‘real’ identity.
The lack of human interaction and sincerity associated with
writ-
ten communication meant that participants felt they were inter -
acting with strangers.
‘One or two of the students have chosen just to use their own
student number or a pseudonym, so you don’t really know,
sometimes, who you’re talking to’.
[Paul]
Paul was disappointed and frustrated that communication was
‘staid’ and ‘virtually non-existent’ and became more frustrated
when other students held back and did not reveal their true iden-
tity. He was unable to ‘read’ them and saw their lack of
openness as
a barrier to establishing relationships.
Whilst the discussion forums aim to provide a ‘meeting place’
for student interaction some participants felt exposed ‘talking’
publically on the forum.
‘it’s kind of nerving, you have to get into it so to speak [. . .]
the
fact that you are basically talking to a stranger, on air if you
like
through the airways [. . .] In a funny sort of way it kind of feels
unnatural because you’re not face to face, you can’t be face to
face.’
[John]
John’s feelings of exposure could be equated with public speak-

ing where the audience is often strangers, physically far
removed
and unresponsive. The notion of communication as unnatural
per-
sists as John’s reluctance to interact reveals his feelings of
alien-
ation in his reference to classmates as strangers. His narrative
portrays his sense of frustration and loss as he is deprived of
nat-
ural ways of communicating and struggles to cope with the
imper-
sonal online environment. Sarah also wants to establish herself
as a
member of the student community but is unable to identify with
some people. She differentiates between different types of
students.
‘the kind of hard core students that you see on the forum, you
know what I mean, continually posting massive, massive posts
and out shining the rest of us’
[Sarah]
Sarah does not want to identify with the very studious and cap-
able ‘hard core’ group of students who she perceives as
threatening
and domineering. She instead identifies with more laid-back
stu-
dents like herself in order to establish her own identity and her
place within the student community to gain a sense of
belonging.
To overcome the difficulties with establishing relationships
using written communication some participants sought other
means of communicating-talking on the telephone and meeting
at conferences or university open days. This allowed some

partici-
pants to establish purposeful relationships in the ‘real world’.
‘He wasn’t just a pseudo name on the forum. I’d met him in per-
son and knew who he was so I could just pick up the phone and
talk to him.’
[Janet]
Janet values her relationship with this student – their relation-
ship had been founded in the ‘real world’. Her real world is
tangible
and provides an environment where people are authentic, honest
and open in contrast with the pseudo ‘course world’. Her
relation-
ship with him is her ‘mini-support network’ as they support
each
other at stressful times during their years as online students. In
this way Janet could depend on him for support and avoid
interact-
ing with others.
‘. . . and I did find, you know, that even just people saying that
they’re struggling as well probably gives you an idea of where
everybody else is at and maybe you’re not on your own strug-
gling or something.’
[Fiona]
Fiona had not established any close relationships with other
students but found other students’ self-disclosures on the forum
a valuable source of comfort and reassurance. As a private
person
who felt she should be able to ‘get on with it’ she was reluctant
to disclosure her difficulties in coping and appreciated and
recog-

nized other students’ courage in publicizing their own struggles.
She found their admissions a relief – she was not the only one
struggling which helped alleviate her own anxiety and helped
her cope.
‘It puts you on an even keel and that’s sort of it’s in some ways
is, I wouldn’t say comforting, but it’s good to know that you’re
not just struggling yourself.’
[John]
John also had not established relationships with other students.
He also found reading other students’ disclosures on the forum
a
source of relief. This process provided him with a readily
available
and accessible source of support and encouragement without the
need to ‘force’ himself to interact while still being able to
share in other students’ experiences. All participants expressed
542 R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior
51 (2015) 539–545
experiencing stressful times during their studies and
conclusively
used the forum as a source of encouragement and reassurance.
However, student interaction varied and the depth and
frequency
was reflected in their different types of relationships with some
students being more willing to self-disclose and express their
struggles publically on the forum while others were more
reluctant
or chose to ‘lurk’ out of sight. Even though participants found
the
forum a source of support, a sense of not belonging to the

student
community prevails which is reflected in participants’ accounts
as
reference to fellow students as ‘they’, ‘people’ or ‘strangers’.
Common struggles and shared experiences with other students
were a more frequent source of support than tutor support.
Participants relied primarily on their tutors for academic sup-
port but there is an underlying need for tutors to recognize
partic-
ipants’ psychological needs. Participants valued tutors’ input
and
feedback on discussion forums as a means of developing and
for-
mulating their ideas and framing their knowledge. ‘Having the
tutors there have helped me formulate my ideas and sort of look
at [. . .] from a wider aspect.’ (Janet). However, participants
were
often unsure when and whether to approach their tutors for extra
support. Most participants communicated privately by email
with
tutors when they needed extra guidance, but there was a general
feeling of trepidation ‘because you don’t want to trouble
anybody’.
Participants sometimes felt they should be able to ‘get on with
it’
by themselves.
Written communication had been a barrier to Sarah establish-
ing relationships with tutors, but her feelings changed after a
face-to-face meeting.
‘I think, having a face that I can place to the name and also
knowing the personality [. . .] and chatting and knowing that
actually they are quite approachable. I feel that I can approach
them about anything and they won’t judge me or think I’m stu-

pid. But prior to that I probably was a bit – well I was – a lot
more hesitant.’
[Sarah]
Sarah’s relationship with her tutors in the written world was
based on mistrust and a misconception that they would judge
her or think her ‘stupid’ if she asked for help. Her face-to-face
meeting meant she could communicate in a way she was accus-
tomed to. This allowed her to see her tutors as genuine and
trust-
worthy people with whom she could establish a relationship.
After
this her feelings towards her tutors changed and she felt more
con-
fident and safer interacting with them. Fiona had a similar
experi-
ence following a telephone conversation with one of her tutors
for
the first time. In her narrative she reflects on a time when she
was
struggling to cope:
‘in the past when I was struggling a bit it would have been more
useful to have a conversation and hear a voice erh, erh, that
might have been a better way of dealing with it. I think you sort
of have this impression that they’re you know, that maybe
aren’t as human, but they obviously are.’
[Fiona]
Fiona needed her tutor’s comfort and reassurance at a time
when she was having difficulties coping but was reluctant to
dis-
close her feelings to them. Fiona’s perception of her tutors as
not

only strangers but not ‘as human’ portrays her deep sense of
isola-
tion and lack of tutor support.
Christine portrayed a different experience. She was not as
apprehensive as other participants about seeking extra help and
guidance from her tutors, although she did this privately by
email.
‘They seem to – they kind of encourage it so, erm, if they’re
offering I’m gonna use it’.
[Christine]
Christine enjoyed interacting on the forum with other students
and valued her tutors’ academic support and ‘a pat on the back
when you get a concept right’. Christine’s geographical location
meant that meeting her tutors face to face was not possible.
3.3. Comparing one’s self to others – ‘I tend to erm, maybe lose
a bit of
confident if I’m with a lot of people that appear to be doing a
lot better
than I can do’
Participants actively sought to establish their identity as stu-
dents within the community by comparing themselves to others.
These comparisons often left participants with a sense of
self-doubt – they felt other students were more qualified or
expe-
rienced than them.
‘They’ve all got a lot of experience in various different things
and sometimes you worry about putting your neck on the line
don’t you and looking a little bit silly, but em, you know, I’m
happy to do that, but you know, I’d like not to look silly if
possible’.

Sarah, who was younger than some of the other students, felt
her contributions to the forum would not be as valuable. The
forum
posed a personal risk to her and her sense of trepidation made
her
reluctant to post on the forum unless she felt it was ‘worth
sharing’.
‘I look up to a lot of them because they are, I find them quite
intelligent and it’s a kind of, they give me like a standard to
or a level to work with yeah? So there is a lot of respect there
from that point of view.’
[John]
John’s sense of inferiority is accentuated by his feeling that his
classmates are strangers who appear more intelligent than him.
His benchmark comparison ‘to look up to’ suggests a lack of
self-confidence. These feelings prevented him from establishing
himself as a valuable member within the student community.
‘I tend to erm, maybe lose a bit of confident if I’m with a lot of
people that appear to be doing a lot better than I can do’
[Fiona]
Fiona discusses a similar experience. Her lack of confidence
and
feelings of being undermined by other students is a barrier to
her
interacting.
Participants’ self-doubts posed a personal risk of embarrass-
ment when discussing and sharing academic issues with other
stu-

dents. However, when students shared their personal struggles
and
anxieties this helped alleviate these feelings temporarily but
per-
sistent feelings of self-doubt led to a reluctance to ‘put your
neck
on the line’ in front of others.
3.4. Written communication as an ineffective learning medium –
‘knowing whether you know what you know or whether you’re
kind of
way off the mark’
Participants’ narratives revealed that all felt online learning was
‘a struggle’ and ‘hard work’. Janet describing it as ‘a necessary
evil’
while John felt frustrated that his efforts went unrecognised.
Participants felt uncertain of their understanding of the
academic
material and assignment requirements, some attributing the
prob-
lem to their own weaknesses and others to ambiguous
guidelines.
This uncertainty peaked towards the end of modules and up to
and
including the assignments. Online learning with lack of
face-to-face interaction was portrayed as not ‘true learning’,
more
ambiguous and somehow incomplete.
R. Symeonides, C. Childs / Computers in Human Behavior 51
(2015) 539–545 543
Janet and Sarah found reading the material off the screen diffi -
cult and discuss how reading printed copies ‘goes in better’.

‘there will be things that I don’t fully understand but I’ve man-
aged to cuff it so far em, you know, had I been in a more
face-to-face environment, I’m pretty sure that even just chat-
ting to other peers, we’d have kind covered the bases and dis -
covered where our little holes are and kind of filled them in
for each other’.
[Sarah]
Sarah felt fraudulent and concerned that compared to
face-to-face learning her online learning was incomplete and
lacked true understanding as she was unable to informally talk
things through with others. When discussing face-to-face
learning
her reference to other students as ‘peers’ reveals her eas e in
iden-
tifying with others face-to-face, in contrast to the online
environ-
ment. The inability to informally and spontaneously talk things
through meant participants often harboured feelings of
self-doubt and ambiguity in relation to their assignments. They
were often unsure whether they had fully understood.
‘you’re really trying to pull everything together and just hope
that you’re heading in the right direction. [. . .] ‘I miss it about
getting the answers right away I think is what I miss. Having
the discussions right away to kind of put you on the right track.
Or not even put you on the right track but just to say I’m grasp-
ing some of this and you’re in the right direction.’
[Christine]
Christine portrays serious doubts about her understanding
compounded by the lack of immediate …

page iEmployment Law for
Business
Ninth Edition
Dawn D.
Bennett-
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University of Georgia
Laura P. Hartman
DePaul University
page ii
EMPLOYMENT LAW FOR BUSINESS, NINTH EDITION
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page iv
page iiiDedication
To my Ancestors who endured the Middle Passage, slavery, and
its
aftermath, so that I could exist; and my parents, Rev. William
H., and
Anne P. Liles Bennett, who, by their lives of steadfast hard
work, faith,
and civic engagement made me and my contributions not only
possible, but inevitable.
—My progeny:
Jenniffer Dawn Bennett Alexander Jones
Ann Alexis Bennett Alexander
Tess Alexandra Bennett Harrison
—and my Grands:

Makayla Anne Jones
Edward Christian Alexander Jones
You are such a big part of why I work so hard to make the
world a
better place.
— The indomitable Lizzie Lou Jackson Thomas (1918–2015)
who was
one of my first introductions into coming to understand the
reality of
the dehumanizing invisible lives of difference that we lead and
that I
needed to work to change it. Lizzie Thomas was a long-time
member
of the church my father pastored. After the birth of my first
daughter,
Ms. Thomas insisted on giving me the gift of spotlessly
cleaning my
heretofore unseen house from top to bottom without asking a
single
question about what went where. When I asked how in
the world she knew what to do, her simple answer
opened my eyes to an entirely new reality: she was a maid in the
homes of the wealthy in Washington, DC. I was stunned. I had
known
her all my life and had no idea. I only ever knew her as a tiny,
hardworking, generous, dependable church member with a big,
kind
heart, indefatigable energy, and ready, tinkling laugh. I quickly
learned
page v
that those she worked for had no idea of who she was outside of

being their maid. I, on the other hand, only knew her as a
wonderful
human being and didn’t even know she was a maid. They had no
idea
of the lively, lovely Lizzie Thomas I had known and enjoyed all
my life.
They had no real idea of who she was other than the woman
who
cooked for them, cleaned for them, and served their needs. That
simple exchange spurred me on to a life of fighting for the
equality of
humanity and a quest to have people viewed as human beings
deserving of respect rather than nameless, faceless group
members
judged on the basis of their socially constructed “place” in
society
based on race, gender, and other immutable characteristics. RIP,
Lizzie Thomas. And thank you. Your exemplary life and simple
words
had a profound impact far greater than you ever knew.
—My sister, Brenda Lynn Bennett Watkins, without whose love,
support and devotion my life would be such a different place.
Thank
you, my sister. What would I do without you?
—And last but certainly not least, to Jere W. Morehead,
22nd president of the University of Georgia and my 30-
year colleague. Keep up the good and courageous work and I’ll
keep
sending the love. Simply put: You. Rock.
D D B-A
For those whose voices continue to be silenced by others, ours
is now
and always a responsibility to speak. Kenbe la: stand firm, stay

true.
L P H
page viAbout the Authors
Dawn D. Bennett-Alexander University of Georgia
Courtesy Mike Horn
With over forty awards to her credit, Dawn D. Bennett-
Alexander,
Esq., is a tenured associate professor of Employment Law and
Legal
Studies at the University of Georgia’s Terry College of
Business. An
attorney admitted to practice in the District of Columbia and six
federal
jurisdictions, she is a cum laude graduate of the Howard
University
School of Law and a magna cum laude graduate of the Federal
City
College, now the University of the District of Columbia. With
her
coauthor, she was cofounder and cochair, of the Employment
and
Labor Law Section of the Academy of Legal Studies in Business
and
coeditor of the section’s Employment and Labor Law Quarterly;
past
coeditor of the section’s newsletter; and past president of the
Southeastern Academy of Legal Studies in Business. Among
other
texts, she coauthored, with Linda F. Harrison, McGraw-Hill’s

groundbreaking The Legal, Ethical, and Regulatory
Environment of
Business in a Diverse Society, in 2011. Bennett-Alexander
taught
Employment Law in the University of North Florida’s MBA
program
from 1982 to 1987 and has been conducting Employment Law
seminars for managers and supervisors since 1985. Prior to
teaching,
Bennett-Alexander worked in Washington, DC, at the Federal
Labor
page vii
Relations Authority, the White House Domestic Council, the
Federal
Trade Commission, the Department of Justice Appellate
Division,
Antioch School of Law, and and as law clerk to the Honorable
Julia
Cooper Mack as she became the first black female judge to be
appointed to a court of last resort in the country, the D.C. Court
of
Appeals. Bennett-Alexander publishes widely in the
Employment Law
area; is a noted expert on Employment Law and Diversity and
Inclusion issues; was asked to write the first-ever sexual
harassment
entry for Grolier Encyclopedia; edited the National Employee
Rights
Institute’s definitive book on federal employment rights; has
chapters
in several other books including five Employment Law entries
in Sage

Publications’ first and second editions of the Encyclopedia of
Business
Ethics and Society; has been widely quoted on TV and radio,
and in
the print press, including USA Today, The Wall Street Journal,
and
Fortune magazine; and is founder of Practical Diversity,
consultants
on Diversity and Inclusion as well as Employment Law issues.
Among
other accomplishments, Bennett-Alexander was one of only ten
winners of the prestigious national award for teaching
excellence, the
2015 Elizabeth Hurlock Beckman award, presented an invited
diversity paper for the Oxford Roundtable at Oxford University,
Oxford,
England in 2014, and was a 2000–2001 recipient of the
Fulbright
Senior Scholar Fellowship under which she taught at the Ghana
School of Law in Ghana, West Africa, and conducted research
on race
and gender in employment. She has also taught in Budapest,
Krakow,
Austria, Prague, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and Costa Rica.
She is
the recipient of the 2011 University of Georgia President’s
Martin
Luther King, Jr., Fulfilling the Dream Award, her University’s
highest
diversity award, for her outstanding work in building bridges to
understanding and unity; the 2010 recipient of the
University of Georgia’s Terry College of Business inaugural
Diversity Award; and the 2009 recipient of the Ernst & Young
Inclusive
Excellence Award for Accounting and Business School faculty.
She

dedicates all her research and writing to her Ancestors, three
daughters, and two grandchildren.
Laura P. Hartman DePaul University (Chicago) & The School of
Choice/l’Ecole de Choix (Haiti)
Courtesy Marketing & Communications Department, Questrom
School of Business
Laura Pincus Hartman is on extended leave from DePaul
University to
serve as Executive Director of the School of Choice Education
Organization, a U.S.–based nonprofit that she co-founded,
which
oversees the School of Choice/l’Ecole de Choix, a unique
trilingual
elementary school in Haiti that provides high-quality leadership
development education to children living in extreme conditions
of
poverty.
From 2015–2017, Prof. Hartman also served as the inaugural
Director of the Susilo Institute for Ethics in the Global
Economy and
Clinical Professor of Business Ethics in the Department of
Organizational Behavior. She also was an Associated Professor
at the
Kedge Business School (Marseille, France).
At DePaul, Prof. Hartman is Vincent de Paul Professor of
Business
Ethics at DePaul University’s Driehaus College of Business and
has
held numerous other positions, such as Associate Vice President

for
Academic Affairs and Director of its Institute for Business and
Professional Ethics. Hartman also has taught at INSEAD
(France),
HEC (France), the Université Paul Cezanne Aix Marseille III,
the
University of Toulouse, and at the Grenoble Graduate School of
Business. Hartman is past president of the Society for Business
Ethics, presently co-chairs its Committee on International
Collaborations, and directs its Professional Mentorship
Program.
In the private sector, concurrent to her academic work, Hartman
was Director of External Partnerships for Zynga.Org (2009–
2012),
through which Zynga players of FarmVille, Words with Friends,
and
other online games have contributed over $20 million toward
both
domestic and international social causes. From 2009–2011, she
represented DePaul University on the Worldwide Vincentian
Family’s
Vincentian Board for Haiti, and was instrumental in the hands-
on
design and implementation of a micro-development, finance,
and
education system for people living in poverty in Haiti. A
thought leader
in leadership and ethical decision making, Hartman’s work has
resulted in the publication of more than 80 articles, cases, and
books,
and demonstrates the potential for innovative and profitable
partnerships to alleviate poverty while providing measurable

value to
all stakeholders involved.
A winner of the Microsoft CreateGOOD award at Cannes Lions
(2015), named one of Ethisphere’s 100 Most Influential People
in
Business Ethics, and one of Fast Company’s Most Creative
People in
Business (2014), Hartman serves as an advisor to a number of
start-
ups and has consulted with multinational for-profits, non-
profits, and
educational institutions. She was invited to BAInnovate’s
inaugural
UnGrounded lab and has been named to Fast Company’s
“League of
Extraordinary Woman.”
Hartman graduated magna cum laude from Tufts University and
received her law degree from the University of Chicago Law
School.
She divides her time between Haiti, Chicago, and Sint Maarten,
and
has been a mother to two daughters.
page viiiPrelude to the 9th Edition
Cover photo: The cover photo is of a classic and well -known
American quilt block called Drunkard’s Path. I am an avid
quilter not
just because I enjoy it, but because in so many ways for me,
quilting is
a metaphor for life and so much in this text. Nothing illustrates
that

more than this quilt block. The quilt block is composed of only
two
curved pieces, one concave quarter square and one convex
quarter
circle. While the curves fit together perfectly and look neat and
tidy
when you look at the finished, quilt, when they are being sewn
together, right sides facing, the two pieces look like they will
never fit.
After all, one is concave and one is convex. Putting them
together is
not an easy task and looks messy in the process. But, in fact,
they do
fit together and the result is a lovely quilt block with graceful,
beautifully fitting curves. The reason I love Drunkard’s Path so
much
and enjoy working with it is that it always reminds me of what
so much
of this text is about. It is one of the reasons I admire it so.
People who
seem quite different in terms of race, gender, ethnicity, religion,
sexual
orientation, disabilities, etc., much like the Drunkard’s Path
pieces,
and may not seem like they will fit together. But, in the end,
they
actually do end up fitting together quite well when the law is
used and
applied as intended. In addition, just by using different ways of
putting
these same two pieces together and using contrasting colors, the
quilt
can look entirely different including circles, concentric
diamonds, and
ocean waves. Like people, change a thing here or there like
hair, eye

color, skin color, etc., and we may look different, but, like the
two quilt
pieces, we are all actually the same basic thing: a human being.
I
hope you enjoy this beautiful cover as much as we do.
On this day, as I write this, the country has just experienced the
election and inauguration of a new president of the United
States (see
Addendum, below). It is unusual for us to mention politics in
our
pages. After all, we, as a society, like to think that “the law is
the law”
page ix
so politics does not come into it. Since this is a legal textbook
we
generally honor that. We do so even though we realize that law
does
not occur in a vacuum. It is not created in one. It is not
interpreted in
one, and it is not enforced and executed in one. Other factors
greatly
impact both what becomes law as well as how laws are imposed,
executed, and interpreted.
However, like the new president, this presidency and
administration
is not business as usual. The reason we mention it is not
political.
Everyone is entitled to their own political beliefs and we
absolutely
respect and honor that. The reason the recent election must be

mentioned is because a great deal of the election cycle focused
on
issues that are greatly impacted by this text. These issues were
portrayed in a very negative light for nearly a year and a half.
In the
end, the candidate who did so won the election. The impact of
the
negative portrayal by such a high-profile figure was
immediately clear
when individual acts of harassment and violence against groups
protected by the laws in this text broke out across the country.
The
perpetrators cited the position advocated by the winner as the
basis
for their feeling validated in carrying out the violence. Time
magazine
reported that the Southern Poverty Law Center noted a
significant rise
in hate crimes in the weeks after the election, with over 200
incidents
in just over one month, as white supremacists celebrated the
winner’s
victory.1
As such, and because the workplace is a microcosm of the
greater
society, there are bound to be repercussions in the workplace.
Since,
by the nature of the negativity, many of the groups protected by
the
laws herein and traditionally the objects of discrimi nation will
form
most of those claims, it is worthy of note here. So, politics
or no, this we cannot ignore. We choose not to take the
head-in-the-sand approach in providing you information on this
subject

matter. It will also help you to be prepared and have context for
what
will inevitably find its way into the workplace.
This textbook is primarily about workplace discrimination under
the
American laws providing protection from discrimination against
groups
traditionally treated less well because of some immutable
characteristic having nothing to do with their qualifications for
a job.
Women, the disabled, racial and ethnic minorities, and religious
minorities have all been, at some point or another,
marginalized,
demeaned, castigated, even mocked by the person now leading
the
country. Supporters took this as permission to do the same, or
as
validation of their own previously held positions regarding
those
groups. For instance, former Ku Klux Klan leader, David Duke,
today
tweeted out his congratulations on the inauguration, saying “We
did
it!”2 Tomorrow, the day after the inauguration, Washington,
DC, is
scheduled to have what has been said to be the largest
demonstration
in the history of National Mall demonstrations. The Women’s
March is
bringing together from all over the country, thousands of
women as
well as men, who are concerned about the way women and

others
have been treated by the new officeholder and what that
portends for
the future. Over 600 demonstrations are being held across the
rest of
the country and world that day for the same reason.3
But, aside from the people themselves, who may be the object
of
the claims, there is also the issue of the legal changes to come.
We
are not seers and we have no crystal ball. However, given the
promises made by the new officeholder over the past 18 months,
and
the consistency of those promises regarding issues impacting
these
same groups, we have every reason to believe that changes will
come
and that they may greatly impact the groups protected by these
laws,
including women, immigrants, minorities, the LGBT
community, and
issues such as equal pay, family leave, and labor unions, among
others.
In the 24+ years since we first began authoring this text, we
have
seen presidents come and go. We have watched as presidents
either
engaged in some version of “benign neglect,” or as the outgoing
president (Obama), vigorous enforcement of the laws covered
by this
text. We rarely mention them outside of the context of saying
they
signed something into law. We have never given an opinion of
them.

This time around, given the statements made over the past 18
months
of the election cycle by the winner of the election, we must. We
must
say that we stand steadfastly behind the laws this textbook
addresses.
page x
We must say that we believe in the worth and dignity of all
employees
and applicants—all human beings—and believe they are due
respect
as human beings. Any policies that fly in the face of that are not
okay
with us. We hope for the best, but given the rhetoric of the past
18
months, we nervously await the fate of these laws. This is in
stark
contrast to this author’s elation on September 24, 2016, as she
stood
before the 1964 Civil Rights Act exhibit at the historic
dedication and
opening ceremony of the Smithsonian’s newest addition, the
National
Museum of African American History and Culture on the
National Mall
in Washington, DC.
Meanwhile, we will continue to do our part to enlighten, to
teach,
and to stand in the truth of the U.S. Constitution that all are
created
equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights. Rights

carried out
by both the U.S. Constitution as well as the laws reflecting them
such
as those in this text. As an addenda to that, I invite you to check
out
my TED Talk on these issues on YouTube. Just put my name
and/or
Practical Diversity into your search engine or YouTube search
and it
will show up.
Enjoy! As always, we are delighted to receive your
feedback and we very much appreciate it!
Dawn D. Bennett-Alexander
Athens, GA
January 20, 2017
Addendum: Nearly six months have passed since I wrote the
prelude
immediately above. It is so interesting to see the changes
between
then and now. As you are well aware, the Women’s March was,
in fact
held, and it became an on-going, embarrassing sore spot that the
attendance was much larger than that of the inauguration the
day
before. Despite the fact that EEOC commissioner, Chai
Feldblum,
said on March 14, 2017, that the agency’s priorities would
remain the
same under the new administration,4 in the nearly six-month
time
period since the above, some of our worst fears are being
realized.5

There has been a rolling back of several gains made in the law
over
decades. Among them, there has been an order across the board
to
page xi
federal agencies to scale back civil rights activities, including a
proposal to fold the four-decades-old Office of Federal Contract
Compliance Programs (OFCCP) into the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC).6 Both are extremely
important
agencies with very different roles in stamping out workplace
discrimination. The executive order put in place by President
Obama
to make federal contractors who supply goods and services to
the
federal government more accountable for discriminatory
employment
practices and deter them has been revoked.7 A religious liberty
executive order has been instituted that could allow employers
to
discriminate on the basis of their religious beliefs,8 to name a
few
things. Just today, again huge demonstrations were held across
the
country, in part in response to the rise in racist and violent acts
toward
minorities, most recently the stabbing death of two (and injury
of a
third) Portland, Oregon, commuter train passengers who tried to
intervene when allegedly white supremacists were shouting
“hate

speech toward a variety of ethnicities and religions” at a young
woman
wearing a hijab and her friend.9 Things are moving very
quickly. All we
can say is that the text is as up to date as it could be at the time
of
publication, but do keep an eye out for changes that may impact
what
has been the established law you will read within these pages.
DDB-A
6/3/2017.
With such gratitude to so many, some of our students today
come from home environments of political peace and
stability. Others come from countries that currently or
historically are
or were in conflict. Who could have anticipated that ecosystems
that
were traditionally considered stable would be the source or
location of
today’s instability? Whether one supports their local systems or
opposes them, likely all have been somewhat surprised by the
upheaval the world has experienced in recent years.
Often, we and our students fall into a sense of complacency
surrounding the issues that fill the front pages of newspapers
today
and do not share the passion represented so poignantly in
Dawn’s
message, above. That is unfortunate because, without passion,
there
is inaction and apathy.
To the contrary, no matter what issues are important to you, we
encourage you to use your voices, inspired by education, to

impact
your lives and the lives of others in a way that raises the quality
of life
for all.
Dawn might agree that I have not been able to keep quiet in the
face of injustice. The responsibility that we now have as
educators—or
even as mere information sources—is how to transfer not
merely the
information but also the empathy, the deeply held disquiet in
the face
of injustice, the grueling sense of indignity even when the
affront is not
against ourselves. Through this text and our work, we seek to
equip
others with a strength of voice so that those without a voice can
be
heard more clearly.
Many years may have passed since our first edition was
published,
and that first edition came out a quarter of a century after Title
VII had
been passed. It may seem like a great deal of time, and perhaps
much
has changed, but not enough. Whether one agrees with his
politics or
not, it seems fitting to begin each edition with past President
Obama’s
words, “Change will not come if we wait for some other person,
or if
we wait for some other time. We are the ones we’ve been
waiting for.
We are the change that we seek.”

Be that change.
Laura Pincus Hartman
Port-au-Prince, Haiti & Chicago, USA June 2017
1Reilly, Katie, “Racist Incidents Are Up Since Donald Trump’s
Election. These Are
Just a Few of Them,” Time (November 13, 2016),
http://time.com/4569129/racist-
anti-semitic-incidents-donald-trump/.
2Source: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/donald-trump-
david-
duke_us_58824741e4b0e3a735689f21.
3Wang, Hansi Lo, “Protesters Prepare for Women’s March after
Trump’s
Inauguration,” NPR (January 20, 2017),
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-
way/2017/01/20/510706246/protesters-prepare-for-womens-
march-after-trumps-
inauguration.
http://www.time.com/4569129/racist-anti-semitic-incidents-
donald-trump/
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/donald-trump-david-
duke_us_58824741e4b0e3a735689f21
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-
way/2017/01/20/510706246/protesters-prepare-for-womens-
march-after-trumps-inauguration
4Otto, Nic, “EEOC to maintain key priorities under new White
House,” Benefit
News (March 15, 2017),
https://www.benefitnews.com/news/employee-benefits-

news-and-forum-expo
5Beirich, Heidi, “Hatred Is on the Rise in America, But What
Caused It?’ Southern
Poverty Law Center for HuffPost (June 3, 2017),
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/what-caused-increase-
hate-
crimes_us_593071f5e4b010df62cc7671?ixp
6Eilperin, Juliet, Emma Brown, and Darryl Fears, “Trump
Administration Plans to
Minimize Civil Rights Efforts in Agencies,” The Washington
Post (May 29, 2017),
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-administration-
plans-to-minimize-
civil-rights-efforts-in-agencies/2017/05/29/922fc1b2-39a7-
11e7-a058-
ddbb23c75d82_story.html?utm_term=.da1984adb735.
7Presidential Executive Order on the Revocation of Federal
Contracting Executive
Orders, 4/29/17, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2017/03/27/presidential-executive-order-revocation-
federal-contracting-
executive.
8Presidential Executive Order Promoting Free Speech and
Religious Liberty,
5/4/2017. https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2017/05/04/presidential-
executive-order-promoting-free-speech-and-religious-liberty
9Marco, Tony, Jason Hanna, and Steve Almasy, “Portland train
stabbings: FBI
looking into possible hate crime charges,” CNN (May 28, 2017),
http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/26/us/portland-train-stabbing/

https://www.benefitnews.com/news/employee-benefits-news-
and-forum-expo
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/what-caused-increase-
hate-crimes_us_593071f5e4b010df62cc7671?ixp
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-administration-
plans-to-minimize-civil-rights-efforts-in-
agencies/2017/05/29/922fc1b2-39a7-11e7-a058-
ddbb23c75d82_story.html?utm_term=.da1984adb735
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2017/03/27/presidential-executive-order-revocation-
federal-contracting-executive
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2017/05/04/presidential-executive-order-promoting-free-
speech-and-religious-liberty
http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/26/us/portland-train-stabbing/
page xiiPreface
Must an employer provide breaks for a nursing mother to
express
milk, and a private place in which to do it?
Must an employee allow time off to care for a sick child if the
employee is gay and is raising a child not his own, with his
partner of
several years?
If a disabled employee could perform the job requirements when
hired, but the job has progressed and the employee is no longer
able
to perform, must the employer keep her on?
Is an employer liable when a supervisor sexually harasses an
employee, but the employer knew nothing of it?

Is an employer liable for racial discrimination because she
terminates
a black male who refuses to abide by the “no-beard” policy?
Can an employer be successfully sued for “reverse
discrimination” by
an employee who feels harmed by the employer’s affirmative
action
plan?
Can an employer institute a policy prohibiting Muslim women
from
wearing their hijabs (head scarves)?
If an employer has two equally qualified applicants from which
to
choose and prefers the white one to the black one, is it illegal
discrimination for the employer to hire the white applicant, or
must
the employer hire the black one?
Must an employer send to training the employee who is in line
to
attend, if that employee will retire shortly?
Can an employer terminate a female employee because male
employees find her pleasing shape too distracting?
Is it a violation of wage and hour laws for an employer to hire
his 13-
page xiii

year-old daughter to pick strawberries during the summer?
Is an ex-employer liable for defamation if he gives a negative
recommendation about an ex-employee to a potential employer
who
inquires?
Must an employer disclose to employees that chemicals with
which
they work are potentially harmful?
Can an employer stop employees from forming a union?
These types of questions, which are routinely decided in
workplaces
every day, can have devastating …
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Adult learners' emotions in online learning
Zembylas, Michalinos
Distance Education; May 2008; 29, 1; ProQuest Central
pg. 71

This paper was downloaded from
The Online Educational Research Journal
(OERJ)
www.oerj.org
OERJ is an entirely internet-based educational research journal.
It is
available to anyone who can access the web and all articles can
be read
and downloaded online. Anybody can submit articles as well as
comment
on and rate articles. Submissions are published immediately
provided
certain rules are followed.

1
Cover Page
The balancing act: combining higher level study with work and
family
life
Helen Goodall and Alison Keyworth
Faculty of Education and Social Sciences, University of St Mark
& St John, Derriford
Road, Plymouth, PL6 8BH, UK. Tel: 01752 636700 ext 6502
[email protected] and [email protected]
2
The balancing act: combining higher level study with work and
family
life.
Abstract

This research investigates the strategies employed by par t-time
postgraduate students to
overcome the challenges associated with undertaking study
alongside full-time teaching
careers and busy family lives. Using purposeful sampling,
qualitative data was collected
via telephone interviews with participants on two masters’
programmes in the UK, both
primarily aimed at school teachers. The findings strongly
suggest that students were
able to overcome the perceived challenge of balancing the
demands placed on their time
and energy to achieve a work-life-study balance by developing
specific time-
management, personal organisation and self-reward strategies.
Similarly, a range of
support mechanisms, both formal and informal, were utilised or
constructed with
particular value placed by the study’s participants on the
collaborative networks and
discussions that they were able to have with fellow students.
These collaborative
encounters are represented as communities of practice (Lave

and Wenger, 1991;
Wenger, 1998) in this paper. The strategies and mechanisms
identified through this
research are offered as a heuristic to other students who are
invited to consider them as
possibilities in navigating their own way through similar,
challenging terrain. There are
also implications for educators supporting part-time
postgraduate learners which, again,
are offered for heuristic consideration.
Keywords: work-life-study balance; part-time masters’, CPD,
learners’
motivation
(Abstract word count 199)
Introduction
The disparity between students in respect of the ease with which
they negotiate their
studies is not peculiar to part-time masters’ programmes, as is
evident in the work of
others such as Klenowski et al (2011) and Bowyer (2012).
Balancing study with part or

full-time work and, for some, family life, is likely to present a
challenge for anyone
3
trying to undertake all three and engage in any other activities
simultaneously
(Dowswell et al, 1998). Such challenges are well documented in
the literature but, as
lecturers and programme leaders involved in part-time
postgraduate provision we, the
authors, observed significant differences in the ‘felt’ difficulty
that learners experienced
in respect of juggling the competing demands on their time and
energy. Whilst some
seem to manage without trying very hard to do so, others protest
that they do not have
the time to complete the course work and require substantial
assistance to navigate their
way through their masters’ degrees. As Kember (1999) notes,
students begin their
studies with varying degrees of competing demands on their
time from work, family
and social sources, yet the extent of these demands on

individual learners is not
necessarily mirrored in their levels of ‘felt’ difficulty. Neither
does it appear to be
reflected in their capacity to achieve a work-life-study balance
which enables them to
complete their course of study successfully.
‘Work-life-study’ balance
Since the launch of a major government campaign in 2000
(Changing Patterns in a
Changing World, DfEE, 2000), ‘work-life’ balance has been
widely discussed. It is
based on the notion that paid work and personal life should be
seen as complementary
and equally important rather than as in competition with each
other (Manfredit and
Holliday, 2004). In reality though, this involves constant
juggling (Bell et al, 2012) and
whilst ‘work-life’ balance may have received a considerable
amount of attention in
academic publications, there is a paucity of literature that
brings studying into the
equation. If balancing the demands of the workplace and

personal life is a difficult task
(Hill et al, 2001), it seems safe to assume that introducing the
additional dimension of
study will render such balancing even more of a challenge. The
potential magnitude of
such a challenge therefore begs the questions ‘what motivates
people to undertake part-
time postgraduate degrees and how is that motivation
sustained?’
Motivation to study
In the context of this study, motivation is understood to be
influenced by an individual’s
beliefs and values, and constructed through their prior
experiences. The motivation or
intention to learn is taken to mean ‘a person’s tendency to find
learning activities
4
meaningful and to benefit from them’ (Wlodkowski, 1999: 4),
although the learner may
not be aware of their own intent (Segers and van der Haar,
2011). Also accepted by the

authors is the idea that ‘individual people are microcosms of
their social environments’
(Fook and Gardner, 2007:15). It follows therefore that what
motivates individuals to
learn will be driven by what is generally perceived to be
important or desirable within
their specific socio-cultural context. If activities associated with
professional
development are valued, people are likely to be motivated to
participate in them. Ediger
(2011) argues that both newly qualified and experienced
teachers should be ‘well-
educated to provide for all pupils in the school setting’ (2011:
850) and recommends
participation in masters’ degrees for the enhancement of school -
place teaching. This
view echoes that of the last and previous Labour governments
whose initiatives to
encourage teachers to undertake masters’ degrees included the
provision of funding for
both of the programmes completed by participants in this study
(Department for
Children, Schools and Families, 2007).

The current government also emphasises the importance of
professional learning for
teachers (Department for Education, 2010 and 2011) but makes
explicit their
expectation that teachers should take responsibility for their
own continuing
professional development (Burn et al, 2010). As Opfer et al
observe...
Professional development is largely considered an individual
teacher’s
decision ... the effectiveness of professional development
activities is
therefore dependent on teachers’ perceptions of professional
learning
activities (2012: 4).
Although teachers may depend upon the support that they
receive from supervisors,
tutors, family, friends and colleagues during their studies
(Haggis, 2002), it is ultimately
their own responsibility-taking that enables them to complete
their masters’ degrees.
Their motivation to begin and to continue postgraduate study is
also associated with its

perceived value as a form of professional development. It is
therefore interesting to note
Anderson et al’s (2008) conclusion that individuals’ motivations
to complete their
courses of study are largely intrinsic, rather than being rooted
in the more extrinsic goal
of career advancement.
5
A further influence on student motivation is investigated by
Jamieson et al’s (2009)
research into the benefits of part-time higher education study.
The central focus of this
work is the significance that is placed on the perceived
increases in three areas of
capital - human capital, identity capital and social capital.
Jamieson et al conclude that
identity capital in particular is greatly improved through the
achievement of academic
qualifications. Although such achievement may also enhance
human capital by

increasing employment opportunities, this is not perceived to be
as important to students
as the impact that their achievements have on their sense of self
or growth in self-
esteem (Anderson et al, 2008).
It appears, then, that a number of motivating factors are likely
to be at play when a
teacher enrols on a part-time master’s degree programme, many
of which will remain
influential throughout the course of study. What is less clear in
the literature is the
impact of motivating factors on individuals’ perceptions of their
‘work-life-study’
balance.
Balancing strategies
Opfer et al suggest that ....
The choice to participate in any professional learning activity
occurs at the
intersection of individual orientation to learning and school
orientation to learning
(2011:20).
In other words, a teacher is able to commit to a course of study

if they are confident that
they will be supported in their endeavours by the school and by
their colleagues. As
already inferred, other important sources of support are family,
friends, peers and the
academic staff attached to the chosen programme of study
(Haggis, 2002). Support
might take the form of encouragement, mentoring, supervision
or the provision of a
‘sounding board’. In other instances, support might mean that
others take on some of
the student’s tasks and responsibilities, either at home or
elsewhere. Kember (1999)
identifies this as a renegotiation of social status or position that
enables study time and
space to be created. Kember also notes the need for the student
and others, such as their
families, to make some sacrifices during the period of study. He
concludes that those
who do not adopt coping mechanisms are less likely to complete
their course of study,
6

but he does not consider how the learning environment or
programme staff might
contribute to or assist with the development of such mechanisms
or strategies.
In our work with teachers engaged in part-time postgraduate
study, it became evident
that contact time with others who were further forward with
their studies and happy to
share their experiences was greatly valued by those students in
the early stages of their
programmes. Undertaking research is frequently a solitary
activity and, in this respect, it
contrasts significantly with the more interpersonal nature of
teaching (Cordingley,
2008). Given the research focus of the two programmes at the
centre of this
investigation and the extent of independent study involved, this
contrast may explain
something of the value placed on such contact time. Further,
Cowan (2012) argues that
communities of practice are highly effective in maintaining
participants’ engagement
and achieving high levels of completion of masters’
programmes. The opportunities

afforded to students that enable them to spend time with other,
more experienced
programme participants mirrors the peripheral participation of
newcomers that is
generally to be found in communities of practice (Lave and
Wenger, 1991). In time and
as their competence and confidence develops, the newer
students move from peripheral
to full participation and find themselves sharing their own
experiences with others in the
early stages of their respective learning journeys.
The rationale for this research
Anecdotal accounts and more formal evaluations from our own
students indicated that
what they found particularly valuable was hearing how others
had approached the
challenges associated with undertaking part-time study whilst
working and attempting
to maintain something of a personal life. It was with this work-
life-study balancing act
in mind that this research was undertaken: we wanted to
understand better how we
could help to facilitate both local and wider sharing of

experience and balancing
strategies. This study therefore brings together accounts from
past students who have all
managed to complete a part-time postgraduate programme
successfully whilst working
and maintaining a family life. The intention is to develop a
better understanding of how
students manage to achieve a ‘work-life-study’ balance and to
offer some ideas which
others, both students and educators, might find useful.
Specifically, we focus on:
7
with work and family
life
their period of
study
nisms that students employ and
utilise to overcome the

challenges they face
similar situations
Unlike similar studies, this investigation acknowledges the
situated and complex nature
of learning and the unique and individual experiences of
learners (Anderson et al, 2008)
whilst adopting a pragmatic approach that aims to offer a
heuristic to other part-time
learners and their educators. Any such offerings are given
cautiously and there is no
intention to establish universal truths: instead, our conclusions
are presented for each
learner and educator to consider and adapt.
The research context
This study was conducted in an education faculty and brings
together the views and
experiences of participants from two masters’ level
programmes: the Masters in
Education (MEd) and the Masters in Teaching & Learning
(MTL) programmes.
Participants in the study were full-time teachers who had all

successfully completed
their respective masters’ programmes at the same university
within the previous two
years.
Given the apparent significant differences in the felt difficulties
that learners
experienced in respect of achieving a work-life-study balance, it
seemed clear that
gathering data from past students who had all managed to
successfully negotiate a part-
time master’s programme whilst working and maintaining a
family life, would provide
some useful insights for current and future students, both on our
own and other part-
time postgraduate programmes.
The participants
Ten former postgraduate students were purposively selected
(Cohen et al, 2011) to
engage with this study based on the following criteria:
8

studies
-time during their studies
for their children)
Clearly, there are limitations associated with purposive
sampling and with using such a
small sample: it could certainly be argued that the views
collated here can only make a
modest contribution to this area of research. Nevertheless, as
researchers we align
ourselves with Holst’s (2009) position that those engaged in
research should avoid
philosophical ignorance: we have had lengthy conversations
about what does or does
not constitute a truth and accept that an individual’s reality is
just that. By adopting a
pragmatic approach and focusing on usefulness (Giacobbi et al,
2005; Baert, 2005;
Bernstein, 2010), we believe that the qualitative data collected
during this investigation
enables some helpful conclusions to be drawn. It is important to
note that this study

does not lay claim to offering fool-proof techniques for
maintaining a work-life-study
balance. Instead, it offers some helpful possibilities for better
balancing and a heuristic
for consideration by those wishing to benefit from the
experience of others.
Method and data analysis
Qualitative data were collated via telephone interviews using a
pre-constructed set of
questions. The semi-structured interview questions were open-
ended enough to allow
participants to express their perspectives freely whilst still
allowing for the generation
of comparable data (Savin-Baden and Howell Major, 2013). The
interviews sought to
elicit participants’ views and feelings regarding their higher -
level study, in so far as
what they found challenging, what motivated them to continue
studying and what
strategies they employed that enabled them see their studies
through to a successful
conclusion. Participants were also provided with an opportunity
to speak freely about

their experiences and raise any additional points which had not
been addressed through
the pre-set questions.
Data generated from the interviews were thematically coded and
analysed using the first
three areas of focus identified earlier: the challenges
experienced by students when
combining study with work and family life, the motivating
factors that persisted
9
throughout their course of study, and the enablers, strategies
and mechanisms utilised to
complete it.
Findings
Theme 1: Challenges
The dominant factor cited by all respondents when asked what
they found most
challenging about undertaking part-time study was time

management and having to
juggle the competing demands on their time. This is illustrated
in comments from
different participants ...
The most challenging aspect for me was juggling time. The
stress of balancing
home and work life and introducing study time into this as well
(Participant C).
Time management was a real challenge, as I had only just
started as an NQT
[newly qualified teacher] and was busy trying to get my head
around the
teaching job’ (Participant D).
The act of juggling the competing demands on time was clearly
experienced as
stressful. This echoes findings from Arthur et al’s study (2006)
which identified that a
lack of time, caused by having too many other personal and
professional commitments,
hindered postgraduate students in completing their assessment
tasks. As will become

apparent, students participating in this study were able to
formulate strategies to manage
this issue and their own associated feelings of being under
stress.
A further challenge noted by more than half of the participants
was their anxiety at
completing academic work at masters’ level. Some held
concerns over specific aspects
of writing at this level and/or not being sure of what would be
expected of them. Others
had been out of academia for some time and were anxious that
they had forgotten how
to approach academic work. The following extracts from
interviewees’ responses
highlight these points:
I was concerned that there seemed to be a big jump from
undergraduate work to
postgraduate (Participant A).
10

Reading around the subject for the literature review part of the
dissertation and
understanding ethical principles associated within educational
research was
challenging (Participant E).
I found it challenging initially to get back into higher level
study after a break
from academia. To begin with, it was tricky to know what was
expected of me
(Participant G).
In addition to the challenges associated with time management
then, the other most
frequently cited challenge lay in the students’ own perceptions
of their levels of
academic competence.
Theme 2: Motivating factors
(i) Support from others
One of the recurrent themes that emerged from participants’
views on what had helped
to maintain their motivation during their studies was the
instrumental role of the tutor in

this. All respondents made reference to the level of support
received by their allocated
university tutor and the significant extent to which this had
helped them to remain on
track and complete their studies. This is demonstrated in the
following contributions
from interviewees:
Regular tutorials with my tutor were a motivating factor as I
always came away
with a new focus to work towards (Participant B).
Face to face tutorials were invaluable as they helped me not to
feel isolated as a
distance learner (Participant D).
I found the goal setting element of tutorials helpful, as I came
away feeling
accountable and the fact that I had to commit to producing
something by a
particular date was certainly motivational (Participant H).
Having email contact with my tutor at key points was useful as
it kept me going

in the right direction and prevented me from just ‘floating out
on my own’
(Participant J).
However, it was not just tutor support that featured highly on
participants’ lists of
motivational factors. The majority of respondents (eight out of
ten) acknowledged how
important the support received from others had been in helping
them to stay focused
and on track. Participants mentioned a range of support
networks that they had drawn
upon whilst completing their masters’ level studies, with the
most common being family
11
members, friends and work colleagues. One respondent, for
example, noted how it was
hugely beneficial to know that another teacher at their school
was also working on a
masters’ qualification, enabling them to empathise and ‘bounce
ideas off each other’.

There are parallels here with the findings of Anderson et al
(2008) and Haggis (2002)
who also identify the benefits of support networks in helping
postgraduate students to
complete their studies.
Support from family members was also highlighted by most
respondents. As one
participant commented, the on-going encouragement and
support that he received from
his wife and mother were significant motivational factors in
helping him to see his
studies through to completion.
Feeling supported by or receiving support from others appears
to be an overwhelmingly
significant motivational factor for participants in this study. All
respondents made
reference to this and most cited the support network available to
them through the
University as being particularly beneficial in sustaining their
focus and drive:
The Masters’ Practitioner Days were a life-line. The chance to
connect with

others and be in an environment that was mutually supportive
was very
motivational (Participant B).
The support days at the University helped to keep me on track.
It showed me
that the masters was possible and manageable to do as others
had gone through
it and survived (Participant F).
Some of the presenters at the Practitioner Days who had
completed their
dissertations and shared their experiences were really helpful. A
real motivator
was those who explained how they had tackled their work. I
went away thinking
‘I can actually do this!’(Participant H).
As these comments demonstrate, having opportunities to discuss
research ideas with
other students (former and current) was perceived as extremely
motivational. This
corroborates Tobbell and Donnell’s findings, highlighting that
...

The necessity for wider relationships in the new community was
emphasised by
nearly all participants; they discussed the need to spend time
with fellow
students and seek their experience and advice (2013:132).
Both Tobbell and Donnell’s research and this study support
Cowan’s (2012) assertion
that communities of practice are highly effective in maintaining
participants’
12
engagement in and completion of masters’ programmes. The
Practitioner Days referred
to above are semi-facilitated weekend sessions that bring
together students at varying
stages of their studies: they create a forum for peripheral and
full participation in a
community of practice. The data from this study emphasise the
value that the
participating part-time students place on face-to-face contact
with peers. Although all of

the participants in this research had access to a virtual learning
community, none
explicitly mentioned this as helpful in maintaining their
motivation to complete their
studies: only face-to-face conversations and networking are
identified as valuable. It
seems evident then that educators who are leading such part-
time programmes consider
how best to enable and support students to engage in ‘actual’
collaborative
conversations and communities of practice. However, it is also
worth noting the
absence of reference by participants in the study to virtual or
digital learning
communities. Our students might be ‘digital natives’ or ‘digital
immigrants’ and there is
clearly a need for us, as educators in universities, to familiarise
ourselves with the
complexities associated with scholarly virtual network
participation (Berman and
Hassell, 2014). As Smith (2012) points out, sufficient research
is still not in place to
enable us to fully understand how technology can best address
the range of students’

needs and this is particularly evident in respect of scholarly,
virtual communities of
practice.
(ii) Having something ‘to prove’
Seven out of ten participants in this research mentioned that
their desire to prove
something to themselves or to someone else was critical in
helping them to maintain
their motivation to complete their course of study. The
following example of one
participant’s determination to succeed is representative of a
number of similar
responses:
What motivated me was the fact that I’d started so I told myself
that I would
finish. I had reached a point where I had invested so much time
that I didn’t
want to give in (Participant C).
Other participants described how they were driven by their
determination to prove

something to others, as well as themselves:
13
When I was at school in 1983 my form tutor told me ‘university
isn’t for the
likes of you’. I wanted to prove this person wrong! (Participant
F).
I messed up at school and university. I wanted to show that I
could apply myself
and achieve academically. I wanted to get a ‘monkey off my
back’ (Participant
I),
These articulations of the personal significance of
demonstrating academic capability
and the associated implications for increasing self-worth and
self-esteem support
Jamieson et al’s (2009) ‘identity capital’ theory of what
motivates students to learn.
Participants who had previously seen themselves or been
labelled as academically

deficient were driven to prove to themselves or others that thi s
was not the case by
successfully completing their masters’ degrees.
(iii) Professional development
Less frequently commented upon but still worth mentioning
here is that four of the ten
participants in this research experienced studying somethi ng
that they perceived as
highly relevant to their own practice as very motivational. One
person stated that...
The direct impact of my studies in my own classroom was very
motivational. I
could see that what I was studying and applying was making a
difference to the
children, parents and colleagues (Participant B).
This view is also echoed in the following response:
Studying for my masters had such an immediate impact on me
as a teacher and
my own self-confidence grew out of this. I was able to choose a
research focus

that was directly relevant to my own practice (Participant C).
The emphasis placed on practical application and professional
development in
comments such as these does not specifically challenge
Anderson et al’s (2008)
conclusion that career advancement in itself is not a significant
motivator for students.
However, it is evident that relevance to practice and a
corresponding growth in
confidence in the classroom were perceived as motivational by
some participants. It
could therefore be assumed that such professional development
will, in turn, have
implications for the future career advancement of the
individuals in question, should
their increased confidence levels lead them to seek such
advancement.
14
Further, if practical relevance is seen as significant in

maintaining motivation to
complete masters’ studies, it seems evident that students should
give careful
consideration to the focus of their research during their studies.
Where there is freedom
of choice in research focus, as there is likely to be for most
masters’ programmes to a
greater or lesser extent, students (and their tutors) might
question both the extent to
which practical relevance is important to them and how it is
likely to be facilitated by
their research focus.
Theme 3: Enablers and strategies employed by students
Participants in this research were asked about the strategies that
they had employed to
manage the different demands on their time whilst they were
studying and, by
implication, minimise the potential detrimental impact that
these competing demands
might have on their motivation. In response, all participants
made reference to the
importance of organising their own time, citing a range of
strategies which included

blocking out time to study, setting time limits for study and
breaking work down into
’manageable chunks’.
Most participants explained how they had used the …
INTERNATIONAL
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May 2011
Volume 8 Number 5
Editorial Board
Donald G. Perrin Ph.D.
Executive Editor

Elizabeth Perrin Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
Brent Muirhead Ph.D.
Senior Editor
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Editor
ISSN 1550-6908
International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance
Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. ii
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Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. iii
Vol. 8. No. 5.
ISSN 1550-6908
Table of Contents – May 2011
Page
Editorial: itdl.org 1
Donald G. Perrin
How Award-winning Professors in Higher Education Use
Merrill’s First
Principles of Instruction
3
Joel L. Gardner
Developing Trust and Openness in an Online Environment 17
Christopher J. Devers

Comparing Student Learning and Satisfaction between Learning
Environments in Continuing Medical Education
29
Cheryl Fisher and William A. Sadera
Distance learners’ Work Life Learning Balance
43
Margarida Romero
Internal and External Factors that Influence Adult Learners in
an Online
Setting
49
Lara Henry
Managing Borderless Collaboration in Asia:
Commitment, Coordination and Communication
57
Juvy Lizette Gervacio
The Impact of Smaller and Larger Online Group Conferences on
Student
Achievement
67
Stafford A. Griffith

Quality Assurance and Open Educational Resources in Online
Courseware Development and Delivery
81
Mohammad Issack SANTALLY
Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. iv
Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 1
Editorial
itdl.org
Donald G. Perrin
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Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 2
Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 3
Editor’s Note: Translating theory into practice is difficult
without activity models, concrete examples and a
consistent strategy for observing and recording data. Dr.
Gardner’s observations give strong support for
efficacy of Merrill’s first principles of instruction to enhance
the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
How Award-winning Professors in Higher Education Use
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction
Joel L. Gardner
USA
Abstract

There is increasing evidence that using Merrill’s First
Principles of Instruction as part of an
instructional strategy increases learning. However, these
principles are written in general terms,
and little is written about how these principles function in the
real world. Knowing how these
principles are currently used in the real world would extend our
understanding of the principles
and provide insight into how they can be implemented.
Therefore, a study was conducted to
determine how four award-winning instructors in higher
education used First Principles of
Instruction in their teaching. The instructors’ use of these
principles is described and analyzed. In
addition to these principles, several additional strategies for
providing effective instruction
emerged during the study, including instructor enthusiasm,
compassion, organization, and
expertise. Specific methods for using these principles in higher
education are explored, and
several important questions regarding the use of First Principles
of Instruction are posed,
particularly related to the use of real-world problems in
instruction. Suggestions for future

research and practice are also provided.
Keywords: teaching, higher education, instructional theory, first
principles of instruction, instructional
principle, learning theory
Note: Names of schools and people in this article are
pseudonyms.
Introduction
One current theory of instruction is Merrill’s First Principles of
Instruction (Merrill, 2002, 2007,
2008), which proposes five foundational principles of
instruction which, when used, are proposed
to increase student learning. Merrill states the following
principles: (1) Task/Problem-Centered –
learning is increased when instruction is centered on real -world
problems or tasks; (2) Activation
– learning increases when learners recall or demonstrate
relevant prior learning and recall or are
given a way to organize what they will learn; (3) Demonstration
– learning increases when
learners observe a demonstration in which a similar problem is
solved and/or a similar task is
performed; (4) Application – learning increases when learners

apply what they have learned by
solving real-world problems and/or performing real-world tasks;
(5) Integration – learning
increases when students reflect on, discuss, debate, or give a
presentation on what they have
learned (Merrill 2002; 2006). These principles can be
converted into a cycle of instructional
activities, centered on real-world tasks and problems. See
Figure 1.
Learning
May 2011 Vol. 8. No. 5. 4
Figure 1. Instruction can follow a cycle of instruction centered
on real-world tasks
beginning with activation and continuing through integration.
There is some evidence that these principles increase learning.
Thomson (2002) reported a study
in which an online Excel spreadsheet course using First
Principles was compared with a
traditional online course teaching Excel. Basing the course on
real-world tasks and using the four-

phase cycle of instruction caused a 30% student improvement in
performance accuracy using
Excel, including a 41% improvement in the time taken to
complete tasks (p.8). In a separate
study, Frick (2009) discovered a significant correlation between
student satisfaction with a course
and the reported use of First Principles of Instruction. There is
also evidence that these principles
are supported by various instructional models and theories
(Gardner, 2010; Merrill, 2002; Merrill,
Barclay, & van Schaak, 2008). In addition, there is some
empirical support for the individual
principles (Merrill, 2006; Merrill, Barclay, & van Schaak,
2008). Additionally, several authors
have described successful instruction that uses First Principles
(Collis and Margaryan 2005;
Mendenhall, et al., 2006; Gardner, et al. 2008). Growing
empirical, theoretical, and anecdotal
support for First Principles of Instruction warrants further
investigation and understanding of how
these principles operate in a live instructio nal setting.
Study Purpose
Principles are intentionally general and to be used effectively
must be tailored to specific

contexts, problems and situations (Merrill, 2002; Keller, 2008).
Because these principles are
written in a general form, it can be difficult to interpret and
apply these principles to a real-world
setting, and guidance on how to implement these principles is
needed (Merrill, 2007). Because
effective practice can contribute to and help build theory
(http://www.aect.org/), it would be
beneficial to study how these principles are used successfully
by expert teachers. To date there
have been no studies that report how award-winning instructors
are using Merrill’s First
Principles of Instruction in higher education. Therefore, I
studied four award-winning professors
in higher education with the goal of discovering methods of
instruction that adhere to Merrill’s
First Principles of Instruction. The guiding question in the
design of the study is, “How do
effective, award-winning instructors at a large western
university use Merrill’s First Principles of
Instruction?”
Method
The study took place at a large western university. To ensure

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