Computer Hardware & Software Lab Manual 5

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Lab Five
Secondary Storage Devices
HDD
Solid State Drives
Objectives
 Assemble and Disassemble the HDD,CD/DVD
 Partitionand Format HDD
 Use of different HDD tools

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Definition of a Hard Disk
For Many users, the hard disk drive is the most important and yet the most mysterious part of a computer
system. A hard disk drive is a sealed unit that a PC uses for nonvolatile data storage.
Nonvolatile, or semi-permanent, storage means that the storage device retains the data even when no
power is supplied to the computer. Because the hard disk drive is expected to retain data until deliberately
erased or overwritten, the hard drive is used to store crucial programming and data. As a result, when the
hard disk fails, the consequences are usually very serious. To maintain, service, and upgrade a PC system
properly, you must understand how the hard disk functions.
A hard disk drive contains rigid, disk-shaped platters1, usually constructed of aluminum or glass unlike
floppy disks, the platters can't bend or flex hence the term hard disk. In most hard disk drives, you can't
remove the platters, which is why they are sometimes called fixed disk drives. Removable hard disk
drives are also available. Usually, this term refers to a device in which the entire drive unit (that is, the
disk unit containing the platters as well as the rest of the drive) is removable, but it can also refer to
cartridge drives, where the platters are contained in a removable cartridge.
Hard Disk Drive Operation
The basic physical construction of a hard disk drive consists of spinning disks with heads that move over
the disks and store data in tracks2 and sectors3. The heads read and write data in concentric rings called
tracks, which are divided into segments called sectors, which typically store 512 bytes each
Figure 5.0 track and sectors
Hard disk drives usually have multiple disks, called platters, that are stacked on top of each other
and spin in unison, each with two sides on which the drive stores data. Most drives have two or
three platters, resulting in four or six sides, but some PC hard disks have up to 12 platters and 24

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sides with 24 heads to read them (Seagate Barracuda 180). The identically aligned tracks on each
side of every platter together make up a cylinder4 A hard disk drive usually has one head per
platter side, with all the heads mounted on a common carrier device or rack. The heads move
radially across the disk in unison, they can't move independently because they are mounted on
the same carrier or rack, called an actuator.
Originally, most hard disks spun at 3,600rpm approximately5, now, however, most drives spin
even faster. Although speeds can vary, modern drives typically spin the platters at either
4,200rpm; 5,400rpm; 7,200rpm; 10,000rpm; or 15,000rpm.
Figure 5.1 cylinders
An Overview of the IDE Interface
The interface6 used to connect hard disk and optical drives to a modern PC is typically
called IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). Although ATA (Advance Technology
Attachment) is the official name of the interface, IDE is a marketing term originated by

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some of the drive manufacturers to describe the drive/controller combination used in drives
with the ATA interface.
ATA was originally a 16-bit parallel interface, meaning that 16 bits are transmitted
simultaneously down the interface cable. A newer interface, called Serial ATA, was
officially introduced in late 2000 and was adopted in desktop systems starting in 2003 and in
laptops starting in late 2005. Serial ATA (SATA) sends 1 bit down the cable at a time,
enabling thinner and smaller cables to be used, as well as providing higher performance due
to the higher cycling speeds it enables. SATA is a completely new and updated physical
interface design, while remaining compatible on the software level with Parallel ATA.
Throughout this book, ATA refers to either just the parallel or both the parallel and serial
versions, whereas Parallel ATA (PATA) refers specifically to the parallel version and Serial
ATA (SATA) refers specifically to the serial version.
Figure 5.2 Interfaces
Parallel ATA
Parallel ATA has unique specifications and requirements regarding the physical interface,
cabling, and connectors as compared to Serial ATA. The following sections detail the
unique features of parallel ATA.
Parallel ATA I/O Connector

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The parallel ATA interface connector is normally a 40-pin header-type connector with pins
spaced 0.1" (2.54mm) apart, and generally it is keyed to prevent the possibility of installing
it upside down. To create a keyed connector, the manufacturer usually removes pin 20 from
the male connector and blocks pin 20 on the female cable connector, which prevents the user
from installing the cable backward. Some cables also incorporate a protrusion on the top of
the female cable connector that fits into a notch in the shroud surrounding the mating male
connector on the device. The use of keyed connectors and cables is highly recommended.
Plugging an ATA cable in backward normally doesn't cause any permanent damage;
however, it can lock up the system and prevent it from running.
Figure 5 .3 Parallel ATA
Parallel ATA PIO Transfer Modes
ATA-2 and ATA-3 defined the first of several higher-performance modes for transferring
data over the parallel ATA interface, to and from the drive. These faster modes were the
main part of the newer specifications and were the main reason they were initially
developed. The following section discusses these modes.

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The PIO (programmed I/O) mode determines how fast data is transferred to and from the
drive using PIO transfers. In the slowest possible modePIO Mode 0the data cycle time can't
exceed 600 nanoseconds (ns). In a single cycle, 16 bits are transferred into or out of the
drive, making the theoretical transfer rate of PIO Mode 0 (600ns cycle time) 3.3MBps,
whereas PIO Mode 4 (120ns cycle time) achieves a 16.6MBps transfer rate.
Parallel ATA DMA Transfer Modes
ATA drives also support direct memory access (DMA) transfers. DMA means that the data
is transferred directly between drive and memory without using the CPU as an intermediary,
as opposed to PIO. This has the effect of offloading much of the work of transferring data
from the processor, in effect allowing the processor to do other things while the transfer is
taking place.
There are two distinct types of direct memory access: single word (8-bit) and multiword (16-
bit) DMA. Single word DMA modes were removed from the ATA-3 and later specifications
and are obsolete. DMA modes are also sometimes called bus master ATA modes because
they use a host adapter that supports bus-mastering. Ordinary DMA relies on the legacy
DMA controller on the motherboard to perform the complex task of arbitration, grabbing the
system bus and transferring the data. In the case of bus mastering DMA, all this is done by a
higher-speed logic chip in the host adapter interface (which is also on the motherboard).
Serial ATA
With the development of ATA-8, it seems that the parallel ATA standard that has been in
use for more than 10 years has finally reached the end of the line. Sending data at rates faster
than 133MBps down a parallel ribbon cable is fraught with all kinds of problems because of
signal timing, electromagnetic interference (EMI), and other integrity problems. The
solution is called Serial ATA, which is an evolutionary replacement for the venerable
parallel ATA physical storage interface. Serial ATA is software-compatible with parallel
ATA, which means it fully emulates all the commands, registers, and controls so existing
software will run on the new architecture without any changes. In other words, the existing
BIOSs, operating systems, and utilities that work on parallel ATA also work on Serial ATA.

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Of course, they do differ physically that is, you can't plug parallel ATA drives into Serial
ATA host adapters and vice versa, although signal converters make that possible. The
physical changes are all for the better because Serial ATA uses much smaller and thinner
cables with only seven conductors that are easier to route inside the PC and easier to plug in
with smaller, redesigned cable connectors. The interface chip designs also are improved
with far fewer pins and lower voltages. These improvements are all designed to eliminate
the design problems inherent in parallel ATA.
Serial ATA Transfer Modes
Serial ATA transfers data in a completely different manner from parallel ATA. As indicated
previously, the transfer rates are 1.5Gbps (150MBps), 3.0GBps (300MBps), and 6.0GBps
(600MBps), with most drives today supporting either the 1.5GBps or 3.0GBps rate. Note
that speeds are backward-compatible for example, all drives supporting the 3.0GBps rate
also work at 1.5GBps. Note that because SATA is designed to be backward-compatible with
parallel ATA, some confusion can result because SATA drives can report speeds and modes
that emulate parallel ATA settings for backward compatibility. This means the drive is
merely lying for backward compatibility with existing software.
For example, many motherboards detect and report a Serial ATA drive as supporting Ultra
DMA Mode 5 (ATA/100), which is a parallel ATA mode operating at 100MBps. This is
obviously incorrect because even the slowest Serial ATA mode (1.5GBps) is 150MBps and
Ultra DMA modes simply do not apply to Serial ATA drives.
Parallel and Serial ATA are completely different electrical and physical specifications, but
Serial ATA does emulate parallel ATA in a way that makes it completely software
transparent. In fact, the parallel ATA emulation in Serial ATA specifically conforms to the
ATA-5 specification.
This is especially apparent in the IDENTIFY DEVICE command used by the auto detect
routines in the BIOS to read the drive parameters. The Serial ATA specification indicates
that many of the items returned by IDENTIFY DEVICE are to be "set as indicated in
ATA/ATAPI-5," including available UDMA modes and settings.

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The SATA 1 specification also says, "Emulation of parallel ATA device behavior as
perceived by the host BIOS or software driver is a cooperative effort between the device and
the Serial ATA host adapter hardware. The behavior of Command and Control Block
registers, PIO and DMA data transfers, resets, and interrupts are all emulated. The host
adapter contains a set of registers that shadow the contents of the traditional device registers,
referred to as the Shadow Register Block. All Serial ATA devices behave like Device 0
devices. Devices shall ignore the DEV bit in the Device/Head field of received Register
FISs, and it is the responsibility of the host adapter to gate transmission of Register FISs to
devices, as appropriate, based on the value of the DEV bit."
This means the shadow register blocks are "fake" parallel ATA registers, allowing all ATA
commands, modes, and so on to be emulated. Serial ATA was designed to be fully software
compatible with ATA/ATAPI-5, which is why a Serial ATA drive can report in some ways
as if it were parallel ATA or running in parallel ATA modes, even though it isn't.
Disk Formatting
Two formatting procedures are required before you can write user data to a disk:
 Physical, or low-level formatting
 Logical, or high-level formatting
A hard disk, however, requires two separate formatting operations. Moreover, a hard disk
requires a third step, between the two formatting procedures, to write the partitioning
information to the disk. Partitioning is required because a hard disk is designed to be used
with more than one operating system. Using multiple operating systems on one hard drive is
possible by separating the physical formatting in a procedure that is always the same,
regardless of the operating system used and the high-level format (which is different for
each operating system). Partitioning enables a single hard disk drive to run more than one
type of operating system, or it can enable a single operating system to use the disk as several
volumes or logical drives. A volume or logical drive is any section of the disk to which the
operating system assigns a drive letter or name.
Consequently, preparing a hard disk drive for data storage involves three steps:
1. Low-Level Formatting

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2. Partitioning
3. High-Level Formatting
Low-Level Formatting
During a low-level format, the formatting program divides the disk's tracks into a specific
number of sectors, creating the inter sector and inter track gaps and recording the sector
header and trailer information. The program also fills each sector's data area with a dummy
byte value or a pattern of test values. For hard disks, the number of sectors per track depends
on the drive and the controller interface.
The original ST-506/412 MFM controllers always placed 17 sectors per track on a disk,
although ST-506/412 controllers with RLL encoding increased the number of sectors to 25
or 26 per track; ESDI drives had 32 or more sectors per track. The ATA/IDE and SCSI
drives found in PCs today can have anywhere from 17 to 900 or more sectors per track.
New Hard Disk Drives comes with ready LLF
Partitioning
Creating a partition8 on a hard disk drive enables it to support separate file systems, each in
its own partition.
Each file system can then use its own method to allocate file space in logical units called
clusters or allocation units. Every hard disk drive must have at least one partition on it and
can have up to four partitions, each of which can support the same or different type file
systems. Three common file systems are used by PC operating systems today:
9x/Me. FAT partitions support filenames of 11 characters maximum (8 characters + a 3-
character extension) under DOS, and 255 characters under Windows 9x (or later). The
standard FAT file system uses 12- or 16-bit numbers to identify clusters, resulting in a
maximum volume size of 2GB.
Using FDISK, you can create only two physical FAT partitions on a hard disk drive primary
and extended but you can subdivide the extended partition into as many as 25 logical

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volumes. Alternative partitioning programs, such as Partition Magic, can create up to four
primary partitions or three primaries and one extended.
 FAT32 (file allocation table, 32-bit). An optional file system supported by Windows 95
OSR2 (OEM Service Release 2), Windows 98, Windows Me, and Windows 2000/XP.
 FAT32 uses 32-bit numbers to identify clusters, resulting in a maximum single volume
size of 2TB or 2,048GB.
 NTFS (Windows NT File System). The native file system for Windows NT/2000/XP that
supports filenames up to 256 characters long and partitions up to (a theoretical) 16
exabytes. NTFS also provides extended attributes and file system security features that do
not exist in the FAT file system.
Up until the release of XP, FAT32 was by far the most popular file system. Because NTFS
is native to XP, NTFS is now more popular in newer systems. Still, the FAT file system is
accessible by nearly every operating system, which makes it the most compatible in a mixed
OS environment. FAT32 and NTFS provide additional features but are not universally
accessible by other operating systems.
Partitioning normally is accomplished by running the disk partitioning program that comes
with your operating system or you can download free Disk Mangers. You usually should
have as few partitions as possible, and many people (myself included) try to stick with only
one or two at the most. This was more difficult before FAT32 because the maximum
partition size for a FAT16 partition was only 2GB. With FAT32, though, the maximum
partition size can be up to 2048GB.
High-Level Formatting
During the high-level format, the operating system writes the structures necessary for
managing files and data on the disk. For example, FAT partitions have a Volume Boot
Sector (VBS), two copies of a file allocation table (FAT), and a root directory on each
formatted logical drive. These data structures enable the operating system to manage the
space on the disk, keep track of files, and even manage defective areas so they do not cause
problems.

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High-level formatting is not really a physical formatting of the drive, but rather the creation
of a table of contents for the disk. In low-level formatting, which is the real physical
formatting process, tracks and sectors are written on the disk. As mentioned, the DOS and
Windows 9x/Me FORMAT command can perform both low-level and high-level format
operations on a floppy disk, but it performs only the high-level format for a hard disk. Low-
level formats of ATA and SCSI hard disk drives are performed by the manufacturer and
should almost never be performed by the end user. The only time I low-level format ATA or
SCSI drives is when I am attempting to repair a format that has become damaged (parts of
the disk become unreadable) or in some cases when I want to wipe away all data on the
drive.

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Install the HDD, CD/DVD Drive
The front of Case
The Back of Case
1. Two drives can be installed with one cable. The place where you should connect the
cable is decided by the color of the connector.
Blue or Red
Black Master
Gray Master
the instructions written on the label.
M/B
0
2. You have to change the Jumper settings according to

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3. The shape of the Serial ATA cable is quite different from the IDE cable. Though the
installed place is decided to the connector of the IDE cable, in the Serial ATA cable, both
of the connector can be connected mother board or drive. The Serial ATA connects one
drive with one cable.
4. Connection of Power cable and IDE (HDD,CD/DVD Drive)

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5. Connection of Power cable and FDD
6. Wiring installation of front panel

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Before connection After Connection

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TROUBLESHOOTING HDDS
1. Connectivity
 Hard drive error
 No fixed disks present
 HDD controller failure
 NO boot device available
 Drive not found
Solutions include
I. Checking the cables to make sure they connected properly
II. Reseating the hard drive controller (if an expansion card)
III. Use auto detection in CMOS
IV. Check the jumper settings
V. Some EIDE drives are incompatible on the same controller
2. CMOS
 CMOS configuration mismatch
 No boot device available
 Drive not found
 Missing OS
Solutions
I. Always run auto detect in CMOS
II. Always select LBA

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3. Partitions

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 Failing to partition
Solutions
 Invalid drive specification error
 Making the wrong size or type of partition
4. Format
 Failing to format
Solutions
 Drive is not accessible
 Invalid media type
 “Trying to recover lost allocation unit” indicates the drive is dying
5. Data Corruption
 Caused by many things such as power surges, accidental shutdowns, viruses, and
corrupted install media
 Show up as
I. File is missing or corrupt
II. Download location information is damaged
III. Unable to load file
IV. Cannot find command.com
V. Error loading operating system
VI. Invalid boot.ini
 Try running Scandisk
6. Bad boot sector
 Show up as system lockups, missing drive letters, invalid partition, or bad or missing
command interpreter errors.
Solution
 An antivirus program needs to be run to ensure that the boot sector is not affected
by any virus.
 Restore the boot sector from a backup. If not available, you might try FDISK
/MBR

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7. Corrupted data on bad sectors

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Solution
 The built ‐in error correction code (ECC) checks the drive for bad sectors.
 Disk checkers can be used for fixing problems pertaining to corrupted data (such
as the one that comes with Windows – in the Tools tab under the drive properties)
8. Dying Hard Drive
 The following sounds indicate a drive about to die
 Continuous high ‐pitched squeal
 Series of clacks, a short pause, and then more clacks
 Continuous grinding or rumbling
9. HDD Hardware Checks
 If you cannot access the hard disk drive and its configuration settings are correct, you
must troubleshoot the hardware components associated with the hard disk drive.
 These components include the drive, its signal cable, and the HDC (on the system
board).
 Check the HDD signal cable for proper connection at both ends. Exchange the
signal cable for a known good one.
 Verify the Master/Slave jumper settings to make sure that they are set correctly.
 Exchange the HDD power connector with another one from the power supply, to
make certain that it is not a source of problems
 SATA cables have also been known to be a source of disk drive problems. Because the
SATA specification does not use a shielded cable, they are susceptible to induced noise
from other system components.
 You should not place SATA devices or cables near each other or near PATA
cables. Also, do not tie wrap SATA cables together or put sharp bends in them,
because doing so modifies their insulation and decreases their noise resistance.
Problems with Hard Drive Installations
 BIOS setup does not reflect new hard drive
 Enable auto detection and reboot system

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 “Hard drive not found”

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 Reseat data cable and reboot PC
 POST beeped three times and stopped
 Reseat memory modules and boot again
 “No boot device available”
 Insert bootable disk and reboot PC
 “Hard drive not present”
 Restore jumpers to original state
 If BIOS setup does not recognize newly installed hard drive:
 Has BIOS setup been correctly configured for auto detection?
 Are jumpers on the drive set correctly?
 Power cord and data cable properly connected?
 Verify solid connection both ends
 Check drive manufacturer web site for suggestions
 Look for diagnostic software downloadable from manufacturer web site.
How to Approach a Hard Drive Problem
1) Some post ‐installation problems
 Corrupted data files
 Corrupted Windows installation
 Hardware issue preventing system from booting
Preparation steps
 Start with end user: conduct an interview
 Prioritize what has been learned
Example: make data backup a first priority
 Be aware of available resources
Documentation, Internet, software tools, technical support
Boot Problem Caused by Hard Drive
Causes of problems present during boot:
 Hard drive subsystem
 Partition table

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 File system on the drive

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 Files required for the OS to boot
Problems at POST
 Caused by drive, data cable, electrical system, motherboard, controller card (if one is
present), or loose connection
Checks for Boot Problems at POST Caused by Hard Drive
 BIOS manufacturer website for error code explanation
 BIOS utility RAID utility
 BIOS setup: ability to disable block mode
 Remove and reattach all drive cables
 Check for correct pin ‐1 orientation
 Remove and reseat controller card
 Check drive jumper settings
 Inspect drive for damage
 Determine if the hard drive is spinning
 Check cable for frayed edges or other damage
 Check the installation manual
 Be sure power cable, drive data cable connections are good
 Check BIOS setup for errors in the hard drive configuration
 Try booting from another media
 Check drive manufacturer Web site for diagnostic software
 Create a boot CD with hard drive diagnostic software
 Exchange three field replaceable units
 Data cable, adapter card (optional), hard drive
 If hard drive refuses to work but its light stays
 Problem might be a faulty controller
 Sometimes older drives refuse to spin at POST
 Bumps are bad
 A scratched surface may cause a hard drive crash

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 Data may be recovered, even if drive is inaccessible

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 Invalid drive or drive specification
 System BIOS cannot read partition table information
 Boot from recovery CD and check partition table
 Bad sector errors
 Problem due to fading tracks and sectors
 Replace the drive
 Solid state drives
 No concerns with bumping the drive while it is in use
 May or may not need formatting
 If drive gives errors:
 Try using manufacturer diagnostic software
 Check manufacturer Web site support section for troubleshooting tips
 SATA and PATA connections and BIOS settings for solid state drives
 Look and work the same as for other drives
CD-ROM BASIC CHECKS
1. Verify their Master/Slave jumper settings to make sure that they are set correctly.
Normally, the CD ‐ROM or DVD Drive should be set up as the Master on the Secondary
IDE Channel. In this manner, each drive has its own Communications channel and does
not need to share.
2. If three or four IDE devices are installed in the system, you must determine which
devices can share the channels most effectively.
3. What is the ideal setup if you have 2 hard drives and 2 CD‐ROMs?
4. CD-ROM PROPERTIES

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5. Basically, the hardware consists of the drive unit, the signal cable, the power cord, the
media and the controller or host adapter.
6. In most systems, the CD ‐ROM and DVD drives share a controller or host adapter with
the hard disk drive. Therefore, if the hard drive is working and the CD ‐ROM drive is
not, the likelihood that the problem is in the CD ‐ROM or DVD drive unit is very high.
7. Before entering the system unit, check for simple user problems:
 Is there a CD or DVD in the drive?
 Is the label side of the disk facing upward?
 Is the disk a CD‐ROM or some other type of CD?
8. Can’t open the CD-ROM!
 If the drive is inoperable and there is a CD or DVD locked inside, you should

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insert a straightened paper clip into the tray‐release access hole that’s usually

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locate beside the ejection button.
 This will release the spring ‐loaded tray and pop out the disc.
CD-ROM hardware checks controller cards
1. If the controller is built into the system board and becomes defective, it is still possible to
install an IDE host adapter card in an expansion slot and use it without replacing the
system board.
2. This action can also be taken to upgrade older IDE systems to EIDE systems so they can
use additional IDE devices. The onboard IDE controller may need to be disabled before
the system will address the new host adapter version.
CD-burning problems
When burning CD’s, a number of things could have a negative impact on the operation of the
burner.
1. The quality of the drive’s controller circuitry.
2. The makeup and version of the drive’s read/write (R/W) application interface software.
3. Compatibility with the operating system’s multimedia support systems.
Writeable drive problems
1. A CD ‐write (burn) process cannot be paused or stopped after it has started. When the
computer is too slow in sending data to the CD burner. In this case, the buffer runs out of
data.
2. If the buffer runs out of information you will receive what kind of message?
3. Buffer Under run Error.

Computer Hardware & Software Lab Manual 5

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