The document provides a history of special education from the 18th century to modern day. It discusses how in the 18th century, enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau influenced new ideas about educating all children according to their needs and abilities. Pioneers in the late 18th century like Charles Michel L'Epeé and Valentin Haüy established the first schools for deaf and blind students. Throughout the 19th century, more schools and programs for disabled students were founded in the US and laws were passed to support special education. Major legislation in the 20th century like IDEA, ADA, and the Rehabilitation Act established legal rights and protections for students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education.

1. INTRO TO SPECIAL EDUCATION
compilation
AUGUST 18, 2018
ANALUZ A. FUENTEBELLA
MAED MA SPED MASE401A
Submitted to: DR. AIDA DAMIAN

2. Special Education
History of Special Education
From the 18th Century to Nowadays
The history of Special Education begins with the 18th century. Before that time,
persons with disabilities were not taken in consideration, and were often mistaken
as being possessed by evil powers, cursed, or simply stupid (Blackhurst 13, 14). With
the beginning of the 18th century, and also of the period known as the
Enlightenment, ideas about education started to arise.
The Enlightenment period influenced Special Education is many ways. To
start, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) publishes his Emile, a book about the
education of children. According to Rousseau, learning should happen in agreement
with a child’s cognitive speed, with minimal outer stimuli from society, which is known
for praising social roles, and wealth. This idea of teaching children in their own pace
set the ground for many educators (Johnston).
Charles Michel L’Epeé was one of the pioneers in the 18th century in what concerns
the education of the disabled. In 1760 he founded the first public school for people
with disabilities in France. He was concerned with language and phonetics being
taught in a different way as a tool for the education of deaf and blind students.
Following L’Epeé’s path, Valentin Haüy founded the “Institution Nationale des Jeunes
Aveugles” in 1784, which is recognized as the first school in the world for the
education of blind people. Haüy was inspired by many people: Rousseau, L’Epeé, and
Madame Von Paradis, who was blind, and helped him develop the methods used in the
school. Using these methods, Haüy was able to educate a blind boy who later became
a teacher in the same school (Safford 38-46). Another person who was also
concerned with the education of people with special needs, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard
was concerned with different methods in order to educate disabled children. He
tried to educate a boy, who was found in the wild, for about five years. With no
actual improvements, Itard gave up on the attempt and let the boy go back to his

3. wild life. Still, his researches and efforts were of great influence on the works of
special educators, especially in the United States.
On the 19th century special education became more palpable, with efforts from
people such as Rev. Thomas Gallaudet, and Samuel Howe in taking action on the
matter of special education. In Hartford, Connecticut, Rev. Thomas Gallaudet
implemented the first school for the deaf in 1817. The school was called American
Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, and it is nowadays the American
School for the Deaf. Another person of equal importance in the history of special
education is Samuel Gridley Howe. Howe was interested in the education of blind
students, and in 1829 founded the first school for blind children in the United
States. The school nowadays is called the Perkins School for the blind, and it is
located in Massachusetts. Howe also was the founder of the Massachusetts School
for Idiotic and Feebleminded children in 1848. Following the example of these two
people, other states started opening institutions that aim to educate disabled
children. In 1851 a school opened in Albany; in 1853 the Pennsylvania Training School
fro Feebleminded Children opened as well; in 1857, Ohio State opened the
Institution of the Feebleminded Youth; and in 1858 the first school for retarded
children was open in Connecticut (Kanner 63, 64). With special education becoming
more important through the years, in 1876 the Association of Medical Officers of
American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons was found, and in 1878
two more special education classes opened in Cleveland.
Changes were made also in what concerns the law of implementing special education
in schools. In 1890 it was the states’ responsibility to provide institutions for the
special children, and in 1897 the Department of Special Education was created by
the National Education Association.
The 20th century is characterized by the implementation of laws to assure that
people with disabilities would have their rights to education guaranteed. In 1906,
the New York University included in the courses offered by the school a training
program for special education teachers. In 1908 the French researcher Alfred
Binet, along with Theodore Simon, created the intelligence scale: a standardized

4. intelligence test in order to identify mentally retarded children. Later on, the test
would be applied to the American standards, and the idea of Intelligence Quotient
was introduced in 1916 by Lewis Terman, renaming the test from Simon-Binet scale
to Stanford-Binet scale. Continuing the wave of implementations, in 1918 all states
recognized that all citizens have the right to education, and in 1922 the Council for
Exceptional Children (CEC) was founded by Elizabeth Farrell. This Council plays an
important role in providing laws to protect those with disabilities. In 1931 the United
States Office of Education established a section on the exceptional children, and in
1936 blind persons are included in the Social Security Act of 1935. Despite some
efforts, the attention from special educational issues was shifted to other concerns
such as the Great Depression and the Second World War. However, in the 1950s the
number of changes made in the governmental area was significant (Winzer 373-375).
To start, in 1950 the National Association for Retarded Children (NARC) was
founded by parents of children with mental disabilities. This association ignited the
idea of public law 94-142, by asking that every mentally retarded child has the right
to education, and that such would occur depending on each person’s needs. In 1954,
in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education, it was stated by the supreme court of
the United States that all children have the right to education in equal terms. Finally,
in 1958, President Eisenhower signed public law 85-926, which provided grants to
colleges and universities to make sure that courses would be offered to prepare
teachers for special education. After this, a snowball effect ran through the sixties
and seventies.
In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was passed, and it provided
funds for schools in order to have a proper environment for children with disabilities.
In 1966 it was the turn of the Education of Handicapped Act, which was passed in
order to grant funds to schools to train teachers, but also required a Bureau of
Education for the Handicapped in the Office of Education.
In the early seventies two important cases started a revolution in Special Education:
the case of the Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children vs. Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania in 1971, and in 1972 the case of Millsvs. District of Columbia Board of
Education. The first case fought for the right of children with disabilities to a free
and appropriate public education, and the second served to reinforce the ideas of

5. the previous. Both cases though required that children and their families had the
right to a procedural due process when it comes to protecting the rights of those
with disabilities. After these two cases, thirty six other cases followed
The ideas to protect children with disabilities, and to guaranteed education for such
were becoming overwhelming, and it was coming time to put all those small accounts
in one effective law. In 1973, the Rehabilitation Act was passed and assured the
rights of people with disabilities in respect to a non-discriminative environment in
education, employment, and housing.
Students with disabilities have only had a legally protected right to attend public
school since the passing of The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-
142) in 1975. Here is a look at some of the key legislation that set the stage for the
special education system as we know it today.
(1975): The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) gave children
with disabilities specific legal rights to an education. Until this time, many
students with disabilities were not allowed to attend school at all. The act contained
a provision stating that students with disabilities should be placed in least
restrictive environment (LRE) in order to allow the maximum possible opportunity to
interact with non-disabled peers. Separate schooling may only occur when the nature
or severity of the disability is such that instructional goals cannot be achieved in
the regular classroom. The law also contained a due process clause that guarantees
an impartial hearing to resolve conflicts between the parents of disabled children
and the school system.
In the 1970s and 1980s, due to strong parent advocacy, students with “mild
disabilities” were mainstreamed with more frequency into regular classrooms
(Causton & Tracy-Bronson, 2015).
(1990): The EHA was reformulated as the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA). IDEA elaborated on the inclusion of children with disabilities into
regular classes and also focused on the rights of parents to be involved in the

6. education decisions affecting their children. IDEA required that an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) be designed with parental approval to meet the needs of
every child with a disability.
(1990): After IDEA and decades of campaigning and lobbying, the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed. This ensured the equal treatment and
equal access of people with disabilities to employment opportunities and to public
accommodations. The ADA was intended to prohibit discrimination on the basis of
disability in employment, services rendered by state and local governments, places
of public accommodation, transportation, and telecommunications services.
(1997): IDEA was reauthorized in 1997. In addition to upholding the rights
outlined in previous legislation. The act emphasized academic outcomes for students
with disabilities. This involved raising expectations for students, supporting
students who follow the general curriculum, supporting parents, and helping states
determine appropriate outcomes. With the focus on outcomes, school-to-work
transition planning gained new importance.
Inclusive education has become more accepted in the education community since
2000. The reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 Congress reiterated that special
education and related services should be designed to meet students’ unique needs.”
In addition, they stated that students with disabilities should have “access to the
general education curriculum in the regular classroom, to the maximum extent
possible.”
The use of “scientific, research-based interventions,” known as Response to
Intervention (RTI) also began because of the changes in the 2004 law. These
interventions, which are started in general education before students are given
special education services, are called “multitiered systems of support” (MTSS) in
ESSA.

7. IDEA should have been reauthorized in 2009 but was delayed because of the
changes to No Child Left Behind (NCLB), now the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA). It remains to be seen if IDEA and ESSA can coexist in an era of
deregulation, school vouchers, and local control. We can only hope that the gains we
have made for students with disabilities will continue long into our nation’s future.
History of Special Education in the 20th century
And The general philosophy of special education is that all people have the
ability to learn, regardless of their particular disabilities. The trend in public
education has shifted from isolating special education students in separate
classrooms to mainstreaming them in the regular classroom for at least part of the
day.

8. SPECIAL EDUCATION LAWS AND PRINCIPLES
Chapter 1. Special Education and the Laws That Affect It
In this chapter we discuss the main laws affecting special education and how
they apply to you as a general education teacher. The omnibus Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Family and Educational Rights and Privacy
Act (FERPA) provide important guidelines and, although the Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA) focuses on all students, it also has certain implications for students with
disabilities.
To provide context, we explain what special education is—its characteristics,
who receives it, its purpose and goal, why access to the general education classroom
and curriculum is important, and who the various professionals are who work with
students with disabilities. We also cover the rights and roles of parents of students
with disabilities, again pointing out information that is important for you to know.
(Keep in mind that some students with disabilities do not require special education
services but may be affected by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973;
basically, Section 504 is an anti-discrimination statute. For more about Section 504,
see Chapter 5.)
Public Law 94-142
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142), which is
frequently referred to as PL 94-142, provides guidance to states, allowing students
with disabilities to access public education and providing financial assistance to
states as supplemental funding for special education and related services. Passed in
1975, PL 94-142 mandated that in order to receive federal funding for special
education, states had to comply with the law (Yell, 2015).
The outcome of PL 94-142, now referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act, or IDEA (PL 108-446), is special education as we know it. Most
recently reauthorized in 2004, it is the main law regarding educational services for
students with disabilities, and its specific components are important to their
education. Before 1975, only a few small districts provided education for students
with disabilities in the United States. At that time it was legal to prevent students
with disabilities from receiving an education. PL 94-142 changed everything for
students with disabilities, and public education became education for all.

9. IMPORTANT POINTS
 IDEA is the main law governing the education of students eligible for special
education and related services.
 IDEA has eight main principles—most notably that students who qualify for special
education services are to receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE).
 FERPA is a law that governs who can see documents and files related to students
in schools.
 Parents of students with disabilities have extensive rights to help ensure that the
education their child receives is appropriate.
Eight Core Principles of Special Education
Special education law as it currently stands embodies eight core principles:
 Child find/zero reject
 Nondiscriminatory evaluation
 Individualized education program (IEP)
 Free appropriate public education (FAPE)
 Least restrictive environment (LRE)
 Related services
 Parent participation
 Confidentiality
Understanding these principles can help you understand how special education is
meant to be provided for students with disabilities; they can guide you as you work
to ensure that students make progress in the general curriculum.
Child find/zero reject
School districts are required by law to seek out and identify every eligible
student with a disability living within their jurisdiction. Once identified, with
parental permission, all students identified as having disability and requiring special
education are to receive an education based on their individual needs. It is important
to understand that this principle extends to students who may have committed a
serious offense. Such students are still eligible for services.

10. Nondiscriminatory evaluation
Before students with disabilities are eligible for special education services, they
must receive a nondiscriminatory evaluation, which is usually conducted by the school
district. The evaluations must conform to the following guidelines:
 Tests must be administered in the student's native language.
 Tests must be appropriate for the student's age and suspected disability.
 More than one test must be used in determining the disability and need for services.
 Knowledgeable and appropriately trained individuals must administer the tests.
 All areas of suspected disability must be assessed.
 All decisions about eligibility for special education and related services must be made
by a team, not a single individual.
 To be eligible for special education and related services, students must meet
specific criteria; school districts serve students' educational needs under specified
disability categories.
Individualized education program (IEP)
All students eligible for special education and related services receive an
individualized education program, or IEP. The IEP is one of the most important
educational documents for a student with a disability, and it should be viewed as a
contract between the district and the student's parents. The IEP lists the
educational and intervention services to be provided for the student, specifying the
types and amount of such services. The IEP serves many purposes: instruction,
communication, management, accountability, monitoring, and evaluation.
Free appropriate public education (FAPE)
All students in the United States have the right to receive an education, but
students who are eligible for special education and related services are entitled to
receive a free appropriate public education, or FAPE, which may look very different
than what the general education student receives. FAPE is the heart of special
education, and it includes several elements. First, the educational services provided
to the student (assessment, instruction, special transportation if needed, other
specialized services) are all provided at no cost to the family. Second, the education
must be appropriate in that it allows the student to make progress in the general
curriculum and is tailored and planned according to the student's individual needs.
It is important to note that an "appropriate" education does not require the best

11. possible services, but must ensure adequate progress in the general curriculum.
Third, FAPE means that the public education entity is responsible for educating
students within its boundaries. Some students may have such severe disabilities that
they need to attend a school outside of the district. When a district determines it
is unable to provide a free appropriate public education for a student, it is still
responsible for covering the cost for the student to receive that education in a
different setting.
Least restrictive environment (LRE)
"Least restrictive environment" is not only a special education term, but also
a legal principle—and one of the most important points for general education
teachers to know about because it determines where a student with a disability is
to receive education services. LRE requires that students with disabilities be
educated with their chronologically aged peers to the greatest extent possible, and
that typically means in the general education classroom.
Under LRE, students with disabilities who are in general education classrooms
are provided with supports and services that meet their needs as much as
possible. Students with disabilities are to participate fully, both academically
and socially. In addition, the general education teacher is expected to
differentiate the methods used to provide services so all students benefit
from instruction. Students with disabilities are to be educated in the general
education classroom until all available methods to meet their needs in this
environment are tried and deemed unsuccessful. A more restrictive setting
should be considered only if every available method has been tried in the
general education classroom and the needs of a student are still not met. It
is important to note that the meaning of "restrictive" is open to interpretation
and depends on the specific circumstances. For example, a paraprofessional
interacting with a student one-on-one all day in a general education classroom
could result in a more restrictive situation than the student would experience
in a separate setting for instruction, due to possible social repercussions.
Related services
In addition to special education services, a student may require related
services. Section 300.24(a) of IDEA defines "related services" as those that "are
required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education." They

12. include but are not limited to the following components: transportation, speech
pathology, audiology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, therapeutic recreation,
social work, medical services, counseling, and recreational services.
You may have students in your classroom who have articulation difficulties,
are uncoordinated, have poor handwriting, or face other challenges, but will not be
able to receive related services even though they might benefit from them. To be
eligible for related services, students must first qualify for special education under
one of the qualifying categories. Related services cannot be provided as standalone
services (with the exception of speech language services). Thus an IEP cannot
contain only related services. The purpose of a related service is to help a student
with a disability benefit from the special education program.
Parent participation
Before a student receives special education and related services, the parents
or guardians must sign on. They are equal participants in the process and must give
permission for the evaluation, participate in the development of the IEP, and agree
to any changes in either the program or placement. As a check on the system, parents
have the right to request a due-process hearing. Finally, parents may have access to
the student's records, including evaluation reports, IEPs, and disciplinary reports.
(We discuss parents' roles and responsibilities in greater detail later in this
chapter.)
Confidentiality
As a general education teacher, you will hear a lot of personal information
about students, especially those with disabilities. Needless to say, confidentiality is
very important. You should discuss information about a specific student only with
others who need to know. For example, a 3rd grade teacher might talk with the
special education teacher about problems in the classroom with a student who
receives services from that teacher but should not discuss these problems with
colleagues who are not part of the student's educational team. Additionally, there
needs to be a log of all personnel who see a student's special education records.
The Broader Picture: What Is Special Education?
IDEA defines special education as "specially designed instruction, at no cost
to the parents, to meet the unique needs of a student with a disability"(Sec.
300.39.a.l). But beyond the definition and the various components mandated by law,
what exactly is special education? In a broad sense, special education encompasses

13. the academic, physical, cognitive, and social-emotional instruction offered to
students who have one or more disabilities. Due to a specific disability, some
students' needs cannot be met within what might be called the "traditional"
classroom environment. Special education programs and services adapt content and
teaching methodology and deliver instruction to meet the needs of each student.
Special education has four main characteristics. First, it is individualized. For
example, a student with a learning disability might need a smaller class size with
individualized attention in reading; a student with a physical disability might need
specialized equipment and possibly some technology modification; a student with an
articulation disorder might need intensive instruction and modeling to improve her
ability to communicate with others.
Second, students who receive special education services may
receive modifications of teaching strategies or programs. Some students require
extensive modifications due to the nature and severity of their disabilities, whereas
others require only minimal changes.
Third, students who receive special education services are
systematically monitored. Data support all phases of the special education process.
Data are used to determine qualification for services and as the starting point for
the development of the IEP, in terms of present levels of academic and functional
performance, which includes all academic, behavioral, and social skills. Appropriate
assessment at the start of the IEP process provides baseline data from which future
progress can be measured. Progress toward goals can be measured by the student's
performance in relation to individual short-term objectives or through other means,
as determined by the IEP team. The IEP must also include a statement of how the
student's progress toward goals and objectives will be measured. The data
accumulated from these measurements are used to assess the student's progress.
Fourth, students who receive special education services also receive related
services necessary to help ensure an appropriate education. As noted in the earlier
discussion about the eight core principles of special education, these services are an
important and beneficial component of many students' programs.
Who receives special education services?
Parents and other staff may come to you requesting an IEP for a student who
has been diagnosed with a disability. However, it is important to understand that to
be eligible for special education and have an IEP, a student must (1) meet the
disability criteria outlined in federal and state law and (2) require individualized

14. instruction (i.e., instruction that is not available to the general population of
students). If these two criteria are not met, then a student does not qualify, even
if that student has a disability.
Keep in mind that some students may be diagnosed with a disability and only
require accommodations. Those students would not qualify for an IEP because
requiring accommodations is not the same as requiring individualized instruction.
However, they may qualify for a Section 504 plan (see Chapter 5 for more about
Section 504 plans). Some parents and educators believe a diagnosis of a disability
from a clinical psychologist or a physician automatically makes a student eligible for
special education and related services. The student may have a disability but may
not necessarily need specially designed instruction, and is therefore not eligible for
special education. If a student receives a diagnosis of a disability from someone
outside the school district, the district should consider this diagnosis and review
the student's educational performance closely to determine if special education is
necessary. The student may well be eligible, but that determination is made only
after a comprehensive evaluation.
A comprehensive evaluation includes all of the existing data gathered about
the student through the referral process and any additional assessments needed to
determine eligibility for special education. As part of this information, the general
education teacher provides an assessment of the student's progress in the general
education classroom. Also, observations of the student take place—probably in the
general education classroom. The purpose of this assessment is to help determine
present level of performance, instructional strategies that are both effective and
ineffective for the student, and any accommodations and modifications that may be
needed.
Obviously, as the general education teacher, you have a significant role in the
evaluation process. Each district will administer the assessments differently or use
different assessments. It is important that you talk with the special education
teacher, school psychologist, or administrator to determine your role and the tools
that are used. The initial evaluation report is used to determine if a student qualifies
and what special education and related services the student needs. And it is worth
repeating that the determination that a student is eligiblefor special education and
related services is a team decision, not a decision made by one person.
What is the purpose and goal of special education?
As noted earlier, students with disabilities have been historically excluded
from education services, and by definition they need something different than what

15. is provided for all students in order to be successful. The purpose of special
education is no longer just to give these students access to education, but rather to
teach the skills they need so they can be successful in the general education setting
or develop as much independence as possible for adult life. Once students are
receiving special education services, the goal is to enable them to use their potential
to benefit from education and to build their skills to the point that the services are
no longer required.
This goal is accomplished via individualized programs designed to address
students' needs in accordance with IDEA, and it leads to increased responsibilities
for general education teachers. In fact, only a small proportion of students with
disabilities currently receive more than 60 percent of their education outside the
general education classroom (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).
How much should a student benefit from special education?
Over the years, courts have attempted to help define how much benefit a
student with a disability should receive from special education. Court cases
regarding the implementation of IDEA have stated that IDEA does not require
schools to provide students with the best or an optimal education, nor to ensure that
students receive services to enable them to maximize their potential. Instead,
schools are obligated to offer services that provide students with "some educational
benefit" (Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson School District v. Rowley,
1982). Courts sometimes refer to this as the "Cadillac versus Chevrolet" argument,
with the student entitled to a serviceable Chevrolet, not a Cadillac (Doe ex rel. Doe
v. Bd. of Ed. of Tullahoma City Sch., 1993).
Some courts refined the "some educational benefit" standard to require that
students achieve "meaningful benefit" or make "meaningful progress" in the areas
where their disability affects their education. In Rowley (1982), the Supreme Court
of the United States mentioned that grades and advancement from grade to grade
were factors in assessing benefit for mainstreamed students. Post-Rowley, courts
have viewed passing grades and grade advancement as important factors in
determining if students have received educational benefit. However, schools often
modify grades for students with disabilities, so grades lose their validity as a
measure of benefit or progress.
Some people may conclude that the lack of substantive standards for
combined with the current "Cadillac versus Chevrolet" perspective changes
expectations for students with disabilities compared with their typically learning
peers. However, for many students, as long as the teacher knows what is in the IEP,

16. and as long as the program is developed to appropriately meet the students' needs,
the expectation of educational benefit is not lower for a student who receives
special education services, it's just different.
Access to the General Education Classroom and Curriculum
There should be support for maintaining special education classrooms as part of the
continuum of services. Some students require more assistance with academics and
life skills, or their behaviors are such that they require a small classroom
environment with more supports than can be provided in a general education
classroom. However, there are a number of drawbacks associated with removing
students with disabilities from general education classrooms, including the following:
 The general education classroom is where same-age peers are educated, and
therefore it promotes social, emotional, and academic equality for all students.
 When appropriate support is provided, all students can benefit from inclusion. With
so many diverse learners in today's general education classrooms, a general
education teacher armed with better teaching tools will be better equipped to reach
typically developing students as well (Friend & Bursuck, 2014).
 The removal of students from the general education classroom carries an associated
stigma, including possible ridicule (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2013).
 When students leave the general education classroom to receive support, they often
lose valuable instructional time. For example, if students are "pulled out" for reading
instruction when general education science content is being delivered, they may miss
the opportunity to gain important science knowledge. Although the ideal is to remove
students only from the classes that they are unlikely to benefit from, this is often
not the case, due to scheduling conflicts.
Other researchers, such as Morse (1995), have discussed the disadvantage of
students not receiving adequate services in a pullout program.
Educators and others have noted academic, social, and emotional pros and cons in
both inclusive and special education settings for students with disabilities. But one
viable alternative approach focuses on the restructuring of schools to allow for
flexible learning environments with flexible instruction (Mastropieri & Scruggs,
2013). In a successful "merged" system, practices and methodologies are supported
administratively and set high expectations for all students (Friend & Bursuck, 2014).

17. The Professionals Who Provide Special Education Services
 General education teachers
 Special education teachers
 School administrators
 School psychologists
 School counselors
 Speech language pathologists
 Occupational therapists
 Physical therapists
 Audiologists
 Paraprofessionals
 Clinical psychologists, behavioral specialists, and other outside professionals
Who Are the Professionals in Special Education?
Providing services for students with disabilities is a team affair, and some students
have many members on their team. Some of the following individuals provide direct
support, whereas others play a more indirect role.
General education teachers are often the first persons to notice a student has a
disability, can compare the student to others of the same chronological age and
grade, and then are responsible for implementation of some services for the student.
The general education teacher is the person on the team knowledgeable about
curricular expectations and methods for differentiating so students with disabilities
can make progress. Also, many parents will use the general education teacher as a
point of contact for questions and concerns about educational services.
Special education teachers participate in meetings to help determine whether a
student is eligible for services, and they are the professionals who are responsible
for the facilitation and management of students' IEPs. They are often responsible
for writing the goals and objectives of the IEP, and they work closely with the
general education teacher on implementation of some of those goals and objectives.
Sometimes they work directly with students to provide remedial or developmental
instruction. Their specific role may vary dramatically depending on a student's

18. individual program. Some special education teachers spend time in the general
education classroom assisting the general education teacher and eligible students.
School administrators often provide indirect services for students with disabilities
by ensuring proper implementation of policies, procedures, and financial
responsibilities. School administrators range from building-level principals to
districtwide administrators; all are important in working behind the scenes to make
sure others can provide services.
School psychologists are licensed to administer assessments to help determine a
student's eligibility for special education and related services. They often also
provide consultation to classroom teachers for students who have problems with
social and emotional issues.
School counselors are responsible for all the students in the school, so although
they are not providers of specific special education services, they can be valuable
resources for students with disabilities. For example, in some states they are
responsible for developing students' Section 504 plans (see Chapter 5). They can
also help students deal with social and emotional issues and provide resources for
those students who need access to such basic provisions as clothing and food.
Speech language pathologists work with students who have issues related to
communication. They assess, participate in meetings to determine eligibility, develop
goals and objectives, and then work to provide instruction for students who may need
assistance with a variety of issues, including articulation disorders, language issues,
or physical problems with tongue movement or mouth and throat issues. The speech
language pathologist may also be a resource in a student's development of social
skills and the understanding and use of social communication.
Occupational therapists work with students who have problems with fine-motor
control. Fine-motor control helps students with such things as grasping, writing,
cutting, and using buttons, among other activities.
Physical therapists work with students who have difficulty with gross-motor
activities. They often help students who have difficulty with muscle strength,
balance, posture, and mobility. For students with more severe physical disabilities,

19. they (along with other staff) also help with positioning, lifting, and transferring of
students.
Audiologists help diagnose problems related to the ear and specifically to hearing.
Often audiologists help determine if a student would benefit from a hearing aid or
other amplification devices (personal or classroom).
Paraprofessionals work under the direction of a teacher or an administrator to
provide direct services for students with disabilities. Paraprofessionals can have
different titles, including classroom aide, teaching assistant, or one-on-one
assistant, and they have widely different roles from class to class and building to
building. One may provide reading assistance in a classroom, while another may help
with positioning of a student with a physical disability, while yet another might help
a student who has an emotional disorder deal with stressful situations.
Outside professionals are not employed directly by the district, but many states
rely on them to help meet the needs of students with disabilities. Some of these
professionals include clinical social workers and behavioral specialists.
The professionals highlighted in the preceding paragraphs typify those that you, as
a general education teacher, are likely to see in your school. Others who also provide
services typically work only with students who have a disability that is rare or more
severe. Examples of others who might provide services include the following:
 Orientation and mobility specialist
 Art therapist
 Therapeutic recreation specialist
 Interpreter for the deaf
 Technology specialist
 Personal care attendant (PCA)
Parents' Roles and Rights
Earlier in this chapter we noted that parent participation is one of the core
principles of special education, and as a general education teacher, it is important
that you understand the roles and rights of parents of children with disabilities.
IDEA outlines the rights of parents of students with disabilities. Those rights begin
with the initial request for assessment and flow all the way to being expected to be
an active participant in IEP discussions, as well as discussions regarding placement

20. and transition services. Figure 1.1 delineates the basic rights that parents have
regarding the education of their child.
Parents as team members
As Figure 1.1 illustrates, parents are active team members in the identification,
programming, and evaluation components of the education of a student with a
disability. Parents of students with disabilities have more rights regarding education
than parents of students without disabilities because students with disabilities are
historically a protected class. They were for many years excluded from the
educational process, and the additional rights provided to their parents serve as a
check on the system to help ensure the district is meeting the students' needs.
Figure 1.1. Parents' Rights Under IDEA
1. The right to request testing. Parents have the right to request that their child
be tested and considered for special education.
2. The right to give approval for testing. When a school district would like to
evaluate a student for special education, the process cannot move forward
without the expressed written consent of the parents.
3. The right to bring information to the evaluation and IEP teams for
consideration. Parents have the right to present any information they feel is
pertinent to consideration for eligibility or development of their child's IEP. The
team is obliged to consider this information.
4. The right to request an independent educational evaluation (IEE). If the
parents disagree with the evaluation completed by the school district, they can
request an independent evaluation from a professional not affiliated with the
district.
5. The right to have IEE results considered. Parents can ask that the results from
the IEE be considered as part of their child's educational programming and
placement.
6. The right to request an evaluation in a native or preferred language. Parents
can request their child be tested in their native or preferred language and that
the evaluation be conducted with the assistance of an interpreter or technology
supports to accommodate physical disability.
7. The right to be interviewed as a part of the assessment. Parents have the
right to have their ideas about their child's progress (or lack thereof) included
in the evaluation report generated by the district.

21. 8. The right to be informed of their rights. School districts are expected to
routinely provide parents with copies of procedural safeguards to assist the
parents in making an informed decision about their rights under IDEA.
9. The right to be a team member for the evaluation. Parents have the right to
participate as team members when their child is being considered for eligibility
for special education and related services.
10. The right to be a part of the IEP team. If a student is found eligiblefor special
education, parents may be a part of the team determining programming and
placement for the student.
11. The right to bring others. Parents have the right to bring others to an evaluation
or IEP meeting who have knowledge about the student or the disability, including
an outside specialist, an advocate, or an attorney.
12. The right to incur no cost. Special education and related services are to be
provided to the student at no cost to the student's parents.
13. The right to access due process/mediation. Parents have the right to call for a
due-process hearing or mediation if there is a dispute regarding the
identification, education, or placement of the student with a disability.
14. The right to file complaints with the state. Parents can file a complaint against
the district with the state education agency.
15. The right to receive notifications in writing. Parents must receive notifications
in writing whenever the school district proposes a change in placement or is
seeking to commence additional assessments to determine programming and
eligibility.
16. The right to receive regular reports. Parents can expect to receive regular
progress reports on their child at the same rate as parents of students without
disabilities.
17. The right to access records. Parents can access their child's records and
request a change if the records contain incorrect information.
18. The right to request explanation of information. Parents can request that the
district explain reports, records, and documentation kept about their child.
19. The right to obtain copies. Parents can ask for and obtain copies of reports,
records, and other documentation kept about their child. There may be
documents that parents do not have a right to obtain. A building or district
administrator can provide further clarification.
It is imperative that educators value the parental contribution—and remember that
students spend the majority of their time outside of school. If students do not miss
a single day of school (including full-day kindergarten), by the time they graduate
from high school they will have spent only 10 percent of their life in school. The

22. other 90 percent is the responsibility of the parents. Granted, some of that 90
percent is time that students are asleep (one would hope), but it is still the parents'
responsibility to make sure their children are safe and provided for. It is the parents
who help with sleeping problems, medical problems, finding help for services on
weekends and summers, and countless other matters.
Although parents have an essential role as team members, it is important to
acknowledge challenges that some teams face. Sometimes parents of children with
disabilities view professionals as their "enemies"—as being difficult to work with and
causing problems rather than providing help for the parent. According to Burke
(2012), the biggest problems described by parents include teachers not
understanding their child's disability, teachers not demonstrating commitment to
the job, teachers not demonstrating respect to minority families, concern about the
reception of services, too much jargon for the parent to understand, and
disproportionate power in special education meetings. Burke (2012) states
Regarding professional skills, for example, parents want school personnel to (1)
understand the disability of their child and (2) learn about their child as an
individual. School personnel need to recognize when they do not know something,
admit that they do not know, and, subsequently, seek out the answer. For both
general and special education teachers, it is important that teachers find
information about the disability of the student and corresponding interventions. (p.
201)
It is important that as school districts work with parents to provide services
for students with disabilities, the parents' rights and contributions are
acknowledged and respected. Students will bebest served when all members of their
teams are functioning together.
To ensure that parents and educators have the knowledge and skills necessary to
form effective teams on behalf of students with disabilities, districts can provide a
number of supports (see Figure 1.2 for a list of the basics).
Figure 1.2. Recommended District Supports for School Staff and Parents
 Provide learning opportunities for educators to meet their basic obligations to
work effectively with families and for families to meet their basic parenting
obligations.
 Ensure systematic two-way communication (school to home and home to school)
about the school, school programs, and students' progress.

23.  Provide learning opportunities for educators and families to work together so
that both can fulfill a wide range of support and resource roles for students and the
school.
 Provide educators and families with the skills to access community and support
services that strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and
development.
 Prepare educators and families to actively participate in school decision
making and exercise their leadership and advocacy skills.
 Provide educators and families with strategies and techniques for connecting
learning at school with learning activities the student can do at home and in the
community.
Parents and IEP approval
When parents make suggestions regarding the educational placement and
programming for their child, they have a long-term interest in mind. Parents of some
students with disabilities will be expected to help provide and care for their child
for many years after high school.
Congress rightfully provided a check on the provision of care for students with
disabilities by giving parents the right to approve the IEP. School districts cannot
evaluate, place, or provide services for students with disabilities without parental
consent. All states have detailed notices about procedural safeguards that are
provided to parents to make sure they understand their rights, and one of the most
important is IEP approval and consent.
When the terms "consent" or "parental consent" are used in IDEA, the meaning is
the same as the meaning of the term "informed written consent." It means that the
parent has been fully informed regarding the action for which parental consent is
being requested.
Parents have the right to disagree with decisions that the school system makes with
respect to their child with a disability. This includes the school's decisions about
the following:
 The identification of the student as a "student with a disability"
 The student's evaluation
 The student's educational placement
 The special education and related services that the school provides to the student
What should parents do when they don't agree with the school system regarding any
one of these matters? In such cases, it's important for both parties to first discuss
their issues and try to reach a compromise or an agreement. The compromise can be

24. temporary. It could be a trial agreement regarding transportation or the use of an
aide in the classroom. The district should gather data to determine if the trial
measure is working.
If a disagreement persists, the law and regulations include ways through which
parents and schools can resolve disputes. These include the following mechanisms:
 Mediation brings the parent and a representative of the school together with an
impartial third person to talk about the areas of disagreement, in an attempt to
reach an agreement.
 Resolution begins when the school system receives a parent's due-process complaint
and a meeting is held between parents and relevant members of the IEP team who
have specific knowledge of the facts identified in the due-process complaint.
 A hearing occurs if the resolution discussion fails. The parents and the school
present evidence before an impartial person (called a hearing officer), and that
individual issues a decision that resolves the issue or issues.
Keeping parents informed
Keeping parents informed is one of the best suggestions we can offer to
schools and districts, and as a general education teacher, you have a major role in
this effort. Parents need to be kept informed about their child's progress, any
problems that may occur with their child's education, and any plans for future
services.
Remember that parents are an essential part of the student's team and their rights
are embedded throughout the procedures of special education. Some would argue
that the most important work you can do to help students with disabilities is to build
a trusting working relationship with their families.
Withdrawal from special education programs
Along with the right to give consent for their child to participate in special
education programs, parents have the right to revoke that consent at any time. They
may do so even after a student has been placed into special education and things
seem as though they are going well (Letter to Cox, 2009). This means a parent may
remove a child from special education at any time.

25. What Parents Need to Know
 Grades, both good and bad
 Behaviors, both good and bad
 Problems with academics
 Problems with peers and other social difficulties
 Problems with transportation (such as on the bus to and from school)
 Schedule changes
 Any need for assistance
FERPA
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974 (PL 93-380)is
a federal law protecting the privacy of student education records. FERPA gives
parents certain rights with respect to their child's education records. These rights
transfer to the student when he or she reaches the age of 18 or attends school
beyond the high school level.
Here are the main points articulated in FERPA:
 Parents of students up to age 18 have the right to inspect and review the student's
school records unless their rights have been terminated under state law.
 School district employees can also access a student's education records when doing
so is necessary for their job.
 School districts are required to keep a record of all people, other than school
district employees, who access a student's school records.
 Parents have the right to receive one free copy of their child's records.
 Parents may request in writing that the school district change the student's school
records if they believe them to be inaccurate, misleading, or in violation of the
privacy or other rights of the student.
 Once a student turns 18, parents have the right of access to their child's educational
records only if they have the student's written consent, unless the parent maintains
the student as a dependent for tax purposes or has retained custodial rights of the
student.
ESSA and How It Relates to IDEA
IDEA and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015 (PL 114-95) are
the two most important federal laws related to the education of students in the
United States. As discussed earlier in this chapter, IDEA focuses on ensuring that
students with disabilities are able to access appropriate education, which involves

26. determining the individual needs of the student and building a program that
addresses those needs. ESSA, on the other hand, focuses on improving the education
of all students. Therefore, the provisions of ESSA also apply to students protected
under IDEA.
When ESSA was signed into law in 2015, the goals it set provided both
benefits and challenges for districts and students. Let's look briefly at the goals of
ESSA and highlight their impact on special education services.
Develop challenging academic standards and benchmarks. This concept adheres to
the intent of IDEA; however, when developing individual programs for students who
have more severe disabilities, the inclusion of academic standards and benchmarks
has been a bit of a challenge. Doing so is possible, however, and because of this goal,
standards-based IEPs are being developed and implemented.
Develop annual academic assessments. This goal relates to measuring growth and
determining if school programs are working for the majority of students. However,
special education has included regular assessment of student progress since its
inception. This part of ESSA implements a good practice that has been happening in
special education for a long time.
Limit alternative tests. In the past, IEP teams could determine that students with
disabilities did not need to take state and district assessments. Now the expectation
is that all students will participate. However, alternate assessments for up to 1
percent of the population are available for students with disabilities who are unable
to participate in the regular assessments.
ESSA and IDEA work together to ensure students with disabilities have the
following:
 Performance assessment based on the same standards as their general-education
peers
 Supports to help them succeed
 Assessments to help track their progress
Summary
This chapter discussed the law as it relates to students with disabilities. It also helped
to define what special education is, who receives special education, and the purpose of
special education; listed the professionals in special education; and covered in detail the
rights of parents. Understanding IDEA and parent rights relating to special education
is important to helping provide appropriate education for students with disabilities. As
the general education teacher, you are an influential professional with an important
responsibility to ensure that students with disabilities get the right services.

27. CHAPTER II
EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
The following words, terms and phrases, when used in this chapter shall have
the meanings ascribed to them except when the context clearly indicates a different
meaning:
(1) "Child" means a person of 3 years of age, or an earlier age if otherwise
provided in this title, until the receipt of a regular high school diploma or the end of
the school year in which the person attains the age of 21, whichever occurs first.
(2) "Child with a disability" means a child who because of mental, physical,
emotional, developmental, speech or learning disability problems, as defined by the
Department of Education rules and regulations approved by the State Board of
Education, requires special education and related services in order to develop that
person's own capabilities. A child with a disability is eligible for services beginning
on the child's third birthday, or earlier if otherwise provided in this title.
(3) "Disruptive child" means a child who continually exhibits behavior that
does not meet minimal standards of conduct established by the school authorities
and that are required in the school and classrooms; whose behavior is in defiance of
school personnel, disrupts the school instructional program and is antagonistic to
other students and the purpose of the school.
(4) "Exceptional child" means a child with a disability or a gifted and talented
child, as defined herein.
(5) "Free appropriate public education" means special education that is
specially designed instruction including classroom instruction, instruction in physical
education, home instruction and instruction in hospitals and institutions, and related
services as defined by Department of Education rules and regulations approved by

28. the State Board of Education and as may be required to assist a child with a
disability to benefit from an education that:
a. Is provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction and
without charge in the public school system;
b. Meets the standards of the Department of Education as set forth in this
title or in the rules and regulations of the Department as approved by the State
Board;
c. Includes elementary, secondary or vocational education in the State;
d. Is individualized to meet the unique needs of the child with a disability;
e. Provides significant learning to the child with a disability; and
f. Confers meaningful benefit on the child with a disability that is gauged to
the child with a disability's potential.
No court, administrative tribunal, school district, or school shall use a
definition of "free appropriate public education" that states or implies that the term
encompasses a lesser educational program than enumerated in this definition. Courts,
administrative, tribunals, and schools may use a definition of "free appropriatepublic
education" that states or implies that the term encompasses a more enhanced
educational program than described in this definition, if consistent with a decision
of the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals or the United States Supreme
Court.
The related services to be provided shall be based upon a program for each
child as approved by the Department; provided, that the State Board may review
any objection to the Department's decision. Funds for such services are to be paid
from the Educational Contingency Fund of the Department of Education.
(6) "Gifted or talented child" means a child in the chronological age group 4
through the end of the school year in which the child attains the age of 21 or until
receipt of a regular high school diploma, whichever occurs first, who by virtue of
certain outstanding abilities is capable of a high performance in an identified field.
Such an individual, identified by professionally qualified persons, may require
differentiated educational programs or services beyond those normally provided by
the regular school program in order to realize that individual's full contribution to

29. self and society. A child capable of high performance as herein defined includes one
with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas,
singularly or in combination:
a. General intellectual ability;
b. Specific academic aptitude;
c. Creative or productive thinking;
d. Leadership ability;
e. Visual and performing arts ability;
f. Psychomotor ability.

44. Chapter 4
Students with delayed skills or
other disabilities might be eligible for
special services that provide
individualized education programs
(IEPs) in public schools, free of charge
to families. Understanding your role in
educating a student with an IEP will
benefit both you and the student.
The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA 2004) makes teachers of students with special needs
responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help the
students succeed in school. The IEP describes the goals set for the students for
the school year, and any special support the students need to help them reach those
goals. The IDEA requires states to provide public education for students with
disabilities ages 3 to 21, no matter how severe the disabilities.
Who Needs an IEP?
Students struggling in school may qualify for support services, allowing them to be
taught in a special way, for reasons such as:
learning disabilities
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
emotional disorders
cognitive challenges
autism
hearing impairment
visual impairment
speech or language impairment
developmental delay
physical disabilities

45. Signs that a student may have a learning disability include:
getting poor grades despite significant effort needing continual, step-by-step
guidance for tasks not being able to remember problem-solving steps because he or
she does not understand the tasks or the logic behind them having poor memory of
spoken or written material having difficulty mastering tasks or transferring
academic skills to other tasks not being able to remember skills and facts over time
having strong general knowledge, but not being able to read (dyslexia), write
(dysgraphia), or do math (dyscalculia) at that level having difficulty with
communication and language processing, as well as expressive and receptive language
being extremely frustrated with school and homework
How Are Services Delivered?
In most cases, the services outlined in an IEP can be provided in regular
education classrooms. In other cases, IEP services might be delivered in separate
resource classrooms or even separate schools, depending on the students' needs.
Some students may have an IEP for one subject area only, while others may have one
for all academic subjects in addition to social skills instruction.
The least restrictive setting for students with IEPs is a regular education
classroom. Students with IEPs usually join regular education classes for special
subject areas such as science, social studies, art, music, library, gym, and health. It
is critical for regular classroom teachers to read students' IEPs and be familiar with
the services and monitoring that are required in the plan.
The next least restrictive setting is a resource or learning support classroom.
In this setting, groups of students with similar needs are brought together for
small-group instruction. A certified special education teacher is the instructor and
other school personnel (aides or support teachers) assist with teaching.
Students who need intense intervention, however, may be taught in a special
school environment. These schools have fewer students per teacher, allowing for
more individualized attention. Teachers in these schools usually have specific
training in helping students with specific special educational needs.

46. Evaluation and Referral
The referral process generally begins when a teacher, parent, or doctor is concerned
that a child may be having trouble in the classroom.
The first step is to gather specific data regarding the student's progress or
academic problems. This may be done through:
a conference with parents
a conference with the student
observations of the student
analysis of the student's performance (attention, behavior, work completion,
tests, classwork, homework, etc.)
This information helps teachers and school personnel determine the next step.
At this point, strategies specific to the student could be used to help the child
become more successful in school prior to any formal testing. If this doesn't work,
the child would be tested for a specific learning disability or other impairment to
help determine qualification for special services.
It's important to note, though, that the presence of a disability doesn't
automatically guarantee a child will receive services. To be eligible, the disability
must affect functioning at school.
To determine eligibility, a multidisciplinary team of professionals will evaluate
the child based on their observations, the child's performance on standardized
tests, and daily work such as tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework.
Who's On the Team?
The professionals on the evaluation team can include:
classroom teachers
a psychologist
a physical therapist
an occupational therapist
a speech therapist
a special educator
a vision or hearing specialist
others, depending on the child's specific needs

47. After it is determined that further testing is necessary, parents will beasked
to sign a permission form that will detail who is involved in the process and the types
of tests they use. These tests might include measures of specific school skills, such
as reading or math, as well as more general developmental skills, such as speech and
language. Testing does not necessarily mean that a child will receive services.
Once the team members complete their individual assessments, they develop
a comprehensive evaluation report (CER) that compiles their findings, offers an
educational classification, and outlines the skills and support the child will need.
The parents then have a chance to review the report before the IEP is
developed. If parents disagree with the report, they will have the opportunity to
work together with the school to come up with a plan that best meets the child's
needs.
Developing an IEP
The next step is an IEP meeting, during which the team and parents decide
what will go into the plan. Also, a regular classroom teacher should attend to offer
suggestions about how the plan can help the child's progress in the standard
education curriculum and how it can be used in a regular classroom setting, if that's
appropriate.
At the meeting, the team will discuss a student's educational needs — as
described in the CER — and come up with specific, measurable short-term and annual
goals for each of those needs.
The cover page of the IEP outlines the related services and supports students
will receive and how often they will be provided. These can include many different
things; for example, transportation; speech-language pathology and audiology
services; psychological services; physical and occupational therapy; recreation,
including therapeutic recreation; social work services; and medical services (for
diagnostic and evaluation purposes only).
If the team recommends several services, the amount of time they take in
the child's school schedule can seem overwhelming. To ease that load, some services
may be provided on a consultative basis. In these cases, the professional consults
with the teacher to come up with strategies to help the child but doesn't offer any
hands-on instruction. For instance, an occupational therapist may suggest

48. accommodations for a child with fine-motor problems that affect handwriting, and
the classroom teacher would incorporate these suggestions into the handwriting
lessons taught to the entire class.
Other services can be delivered right in the classroom, so the child's day isn't
interrupted by therapy. The child who has difficulty with handwriting might work
one-on-one with an occupational therapist while everyone else practices their
handwriting skills. When deciding how and where services are offered, the child's
comfort and dignity should be a top priority.
If a child has academic needs and is working below grade level, services may
be offered outside the regular education classroom, with students getting small-
group instruction in a particular subject area (usually language arts or math) by a
special education teacher with other students who have similar needs.
The IEP should be reviewed annually to update the goals and ensure the levels
of service meet the student's needs. During the school year, progress monitoring
will be done often to make sure the student is achieving goals set in the IEP. IEPs
can be changed at any time on an as-needed basis.
Specific timelines ensure that the development of an IEP moves from referral
to providing services as quickly as possible. Be sure to ask about this timeframe and
stay informed.
If parents disagree with any part of the CER or the IEP, mediation and
hearings are options.
It is important for teachers to understand the IEP process and their role in
delivering instruction to students who have an IEP. Any questions related to an IEP
can be directed to the team or the case manager assigned to a student.

49. Successful Strategies for Teaching Students with
Learning Disabilities
Research continues to confirm that we can teach students
with learning disabilities to “learn how to learn.” We can put
them into a position to compete and hold their own.
Some intervention practices that produce large outcomes are:
 direct instruction;
 learning strategy instruction; and
 using a sequential, simultaneous structured multi-sensory approach.
Teachers who apply those kinds of intervention:
 break learning into small steps;
 administer probes;
 supply regular, quality feedback;
 use diagrams, graphics and pictures to augment what they say in words;
 provide ample independent, well-designed intensive practice;
 model instructional practices that they want students to follow;
 provide prompts of strategies to use; and
 engage students in process type questions like “How is the strategy working? Where else might
you apply it?”
Scaffolding is also something that seems to make a real difference. Start out with the teacher
using heavily mediated instruction, known as explicit instruction, then slowly begin to let the
students acquire the skill, moving towards the goal of student mediated instruction.
Success for the student with learning disabilities requires a focus on individual achievement,
individual progress, and individual learning. This requires specific, directed, individualized,
intensive remedial instruction for students who are struggling.
Whether the student is in the general education classroom or learning in a special class setting,
focus the activities on assessing individual students to monitor their progress through the
curriculum. Concerns for the individual must take precedence over concerns for the group or the
curriculum or for the organization and management of the general education classroom content.

50. IDEA, IEPs, Co-Teaching Strategies, and More: The Teachers’
Ultimate Guide to Trends in Special Education
Special education—it’s a broad and incredibly complex
topic. And any educator who has worked in the field
will tell you, every special education program and each
student enrolled in them is entirely unique. While this
certainly leads to some challenges, working in special
education can also be incredibly fulfilling. Whether
you’re just diving into the world of special education,
or simply looking for a refresher on the latest trends,
issues, and happenings in the field, we’ve put together some of our best resources
to create this guide to all things special education. Read on to learn about important
terms, the role of technology, co-teaching strategies, program funding, and the IEP
process!
Understanding IDEA and Defining Special Education Classifications
The first step on the road to expert status in any field is getting familiar with the
basic terminology. The federal definition of special education is based upon
legislation from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This is the
arena where the legal language of special education was born. Special education
programs and services adapt content and teaching methodology in order to deliver
instruction that meets the needs of students managing a disability through the use
of an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Under IDEA, disabilities are classified to
fall into the following areas:
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): This refers to a developmental disability that
significantly affects both verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as social
interactions. These symptoms are typically evident early in a child’s development and
significantly affect a child’s educational performance.
Speech/Language Impairment: IDEA legislation defines this category of disability
as referring to communication difficulties like stuttering, impaired articulation, or
language/voice impairments that have a detrimental impact on a child’s educational
performance. The areas of impact include:

51.  Articulation:a problem with the production of sounds
 Fluency:the flow of speech is disrupted, which can be based on inappropriate
inhalation, exhalation, or phonemic expression
 Voice:a child’s voice has abnormal qualities
 Language:a child has issues with expression and or understanding what others
say
Visual Impairment (Including Blindness): This includes partial sight, as well as full
blindness, even after correction, which negatively affects a child’s performance.
Deaf or Hearing Impairment: This category is identified as a hearing impairment
(fluctuating or permanent) that is severe enough to impact the process of verbal
information (with or without amplification from hearing aids, cochlear implants, etc.)
and adversely affects—you guessed it—a child’s performance.
Deaf-Blindness: This combination creates severe communication and developmental
needs that, in turn, construct unique educational requirements that cannot be
serviced through traditional special education programs.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): This, as you can imagine, refers to an acquired injury
to the brain caused by external physical force, which results in lasting impairment.
This can be a partial or complete functional disability and/or psychosocial impairment
that have an adverse effect on the child’s educational performance.
Developmental Delay: This description refers to children from birth to age nine who
face a delay in one or more of the following areas:
 Cognitive development
 Physical development
 Socio-emotional development
 Behavioral development
 Communication
Emotional Disturbance: This description refers to children who experience a
condition that manifests in one or more of the following ways:
 An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or
health factors

52.  An inability to build and/or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships
with peers and teachers
 Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances
 A general pervasive mood of unhappiness/depression
 A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems
To qualify under this category, a student must display these characteristics over an
extended period of time and to an exceptional degree. It does not apply to children
who simply struggle socially, unless they do so to a degree that they fall under
IDEA’s regulations and, as expected, their schoolwork is affected.
Specific Learning Disability (SLD): This classification covers a bit more of a range
of impairments. It includes disorders in which one or more basic psychological
processes involved in the comprehension and/or use of language (spoken or written)
cause an impairment in a student’s ability to listen, think, read, write, spell, and or
complete mathematical calculations. This category serves as somewhat of a sweeping
classification for conditions which do not result from visual, auditory, motor,
intellectual, or emotional impairment or a severe environmental or economic
disadvantage. Here are a few examples of conditions that fall within the SLD
umbrella:
 Perceptual disabilities
 Dyslexia (dyscalculia, dysgraphia)
 Minimal brain dysfunction
 Developmental aphasia
Orthopedic Impairment: This refers to severe orthopedic impairments. These may
be caused by congenital anomalies and disease as well as other factors (i.e., cerebral
palsy) which have a significant impact on a student’s academic performance.
Multiple Disabilities: According to IDEA, the category of multiple disabilities
refers to “concomitant impairments . . . the combination of which causes such severe
educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program
solely for one of the impairments.” The term does not include deaf-blindness which
has its own category. Ultimately, this classification covers students whose needs fit
under more than one disability and are simultaneous. Different combinations of

53. disabilities can have a variety of impacts on a students’ educations; as such, these
students have unique disabilities, which offer unique challenges.
Other Health Impairment(s): This is the last of our identified buckets where a
student may become eligible for special education services. This category refers to
other health impairments which may include limitations in strength, vitality, or
alertness. They often are due to chronic or acute health problems, like ADD/ADHD,
epilepsy, and Tourette’s syndrome, and have an adverse effect on a child’s
educational performance
How are students classified as having one of these disabilities?
To qualify for special education services, a student must have a condition which falls
into one of these categories, AND this condition must adversely affect his or her
academic achievement and overall educational performance. But, how is that
determination made?
To be sure that we are providing a means to find a solution and not simply labeling a
child with a disability, there are in-depth evaluations that must be carried out by
professionals prior to designating a child as eligible for special education services.
These evaluations may be conducted by a child’s pediatrician, school psychologist,
social worker, teacher, or other specialist. This ensures that there is a net of
accountability, both in identifying and servicing students with special needs.
Beyond the tools and frameworks in place to identify students requiring special
education services, there are significant expectations for monitoring progress. With
potential changes coming with the pending reauthorization of the IDEA, there has
been a shift toward a results-driven accountability system which requires states to
compose comprehensive plans for improving student achievement for students with
an IEP. This, in turn, places a stronger focus on professional development around
creating IEPs with measurable objectives. It also calls for a way to address the need
for evidence-based practices and interventions for students with IEPs and monitors
and documents measured student progress with effective resources.
Understanding IEPs and Helping Students Take Ownership in the Process

54. Special education teachers need to have an intimate knowledge of the Individualized
Education Program (IEP) document and process. As already mention, an IEP is the
legal document mandated by IDEA that clearly lays out the individual goals and
objectives set for a child identified as having a disability and charts how those goals
will be achieved. The main purpose of a student’s IEP is to ensure that:
1. Reasonable learning goals have been set for the student
2. Required services have been determined and will be provided for the student
Who is involved in the IEP process?
There are many people involved in creating a student’s IEP, including the teacher(s),
parents, support staff, and other specialists a student may work with. At a minimum,
this team is required to meet annually to monitor the student’s academic growth and
measure progress toward goals. It is during this meeting that the team can make
adjustments or address concerns. Beyond this required annual meeting, any team
member can call for an additional IEP meeting whenever an evaluation is felt
necessary.
When students who are working under an IEP reach high school, it’s becoming
increasingly common that they are called upon to offer input throughout their own
IEP process. The goal is to prepare these students for a greater degree of
independence in life after high school. It also gives teachers more insight into the
learning methods these students favor and the challenges they encounter.
This trend toward inclusion seems to be a turning point in education. Instead of
school officials and other adults dictating what and how students with special needs
should learn, more emphasis is being placed on giving students the chance to lead
their own meetings and help chart their own course toward mastering academic and
life skills.
How can students take more ownership over their own IEP?
Creating opportunities for students to drive the IEP process could include asking
the student to:
 Set the IEP meeting date and location.
 Send an email invitation for the meeting to all members of the IEP team.

55.  Help plan the meeting agenda and communicate it to the invitees.
 Review the current IEP with instructors and parents. Have the student decide
what parts of the IEP are most important, where he or she has made progress
(and why), and what specific accommodations are helpful (or not).
 Identify areas of success, offer data to support his or her assertion, and
present his or her opinion on what contributed to that success.
 Set postsecondary goals for the transition to post-school life. Once a student
has reached high school, his or her long-term goals (such as college and career)
should be incorporated in a section of the IEP called the Individualized
Transition Program (ITP). In a student-led IEP meeting, the team can
encourage the student to ask questions about transitioning out of high school
and express what he or she would like to see in the ITP.
When students lead their own IEP meetings, it makes sense to display this new
ownership. One way to encourage students is letting them select the technology that
they are most comfortable with to use in the IEP meeting planning process and
presentation. Students may also want to map out the meeting presentation or even
deliver the presentation themselves.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities has some great resources offering
possible activities and recommendations for students working in the IEP process.
Check out this article on “Self-Advocacy: 5 Tips from a Student” as a starting point.
Another suggestion is to focus on incorporating technology in student-led IEP
meetings, which may motivate tech-savvy teens to assume greater responsibility
throughout the process. The use of mainstream technology and assistive technology
can add substance, structure, and creativity to IEP planning and to the IEP meeting
itself.
IEPs create the broad structure from which educators can develop a more detailed
and practical day-to-day instructional plan for students with all kinds of disabilities.
Technology can enhance the teacher’s ability to capture these students’ successes
and, in addition, provide opportunities for inclusion, which, in turn, foster social
interactions and social skills mastery. Giving students some control and input
throughout the process of creating their IEP drives ownership and engagement with
learning. It offers an opportunity to shift the purpose and power of an IEP from
stating what a child needs to do to demonstrating what that child can do.

56. The Role of Technology in Special Education
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed over 25 years ago, in 1990.
This groundbreaking legislation marked the beginning of a new age of accessibility,
and expanded on the possibilities for inclusive education that IDEA laid the
groundwork for. While IDEA is education-specific legislation, ADA is civil rights
legislation. The act prohibits discrimination against disability, giving individuals with
all manner of unique disabilities increased access to a wide variety of opportunities
and services. As time has passed since its passage, the challenges and barriers to
that access have evolved in the most phenomenal ways. Technology has helped to
knock down the brick-and-mortar walls that were once a barrier to many
opportunities. For that reason, technology has had significant effects on the quality
of life for people with disabilities and has dramatically altered the application of
ADA legislation.
There has long been a call for special education services to be on the cutting edge.
Advancements in technology have changed the playing field for education in general,
but special education classrooms have been targeted especially. As such, it is critical
that we continuously work to improve efficiency, implement evidence-based
practices, and provide greater accountability on key performance indicators that
support successful academic and post-school outcomes for students with disabilities.
Here are four of edtech’s most significant impacts in the world of special education.
Personalizing Learning Experiences
Technology makes it possible for classroom instruction to be enhanced with
individual learning events, allowing instructors to provide greater flexibility and
differentiation in instruction. Teachers can use technology to offer a variety of
learning opportunities and approaches that engage, instruct, and support special
education students with a myriad of tactics designed to appeal to individual learners.
No longer are students stuck in a classroom they don’t understand, trying to learn
at a pace they can’t keep up with or participate in.
Personalized learning embodies the true value of technology for special education—
it allows for a unique learning path to be created for every child, based upon their
specific situation and needs. Students have the opportunity to approach curricula
through a variety of learning modalities, while using a device they are familiar with

57. and enjoy. A computer or tablet will look the same in an AP® class, a general
education class, or a smaller self-contained classroom, but the digital content it
delivers and how that content is acted upon is completely customizable and within
the students’ control.
Building Skills for Life Outside of the Classroom
Technology is not just producing changes in the classroom; it is already ubiquitous in
today’s world at large. Preparing students for that world outside of school is critical,
and for students in special education programs this generally requires some extra
attention. Twenty-first century skillscross all domains and offer a new vison to guide
instruction and the application of education in the working world. It has become the
expectation that students graduate from the classroom with skills for the
technological world. Technology-assisted instruction allows students to learn in an
interactive, hands-on manner (often a great fit to begin with for students with
unique learning challenges), while also providing opportunities to build those
necessary tech skills. Technology in special education settings has blossomed well
beyond assistive applications into being an avenue to help students build a foundation
for success outside of the classroom.
There are also some specific considerations for high school students in special
education preparing for a postsecondary experience. Colleges and universities are
not required by ADA legislation to provide free appropriate public education (FAPE)
as public primary and secondary schools are, but they are required to provide
appropriate academic adjustments as needed, so as to ensure that students are not
discriminated against based on disability. This means that there are likely to be
expectations regarding technology use that students will need to meet. Similarly,
special education students entering a work field after high school must be ready to
manage the technology that has become an integral part of most work spaces.
Opening Doors for Autistic Students
Autistic students are one subgroup of the special education population who have,
overall, especially embraced and benefited from the introduction of technology in
the classroom. As a broad generalization, autistic students tend to struggle with
language and spoken communication. Tablets, as well as other mobile devices, are
helping overcome these language barriers by simplifying and providing alternative

58. avenues of communication, sometimes even allowing students to select an icon on the
screen and then letting the device speak for them.
As more and more autistic individuals use technology to make gains in the ability to
communicate, they are leading the charge in a growing call for a shift in the common
thinking about autism. As Steve Silberman argues in this Wired interview, instead
of a disability, autism is simply one dimension of neurodiversity, a concept that can
be understood by drawing parallels to computer operating systems.
A majority of computers may run on Windows, but there are plenty of other equally
capable operating systems out there, like Mac and Linux. These systems simply go
about tasks in different ways. Correlate this back to autism: autistic individuals tend
to struggle with reading social signals or coping with unexpected situations, but they
excel at spatial visualization and can complete tasks with uncommon focus.
Ultimately, the concept of neurodiversity asks us to move away from thinking in
terms of diseases, cures, and causations and instead consider autism, among other
conditions, as simply a different mode of being that deserves respect,
understanding, and accommodation.
Changing Landscapes for Students and Instructors
Just as students experience the many changes that technology is bringing about in
the classroom, special education instructors will also need to have the skills to keep
up with these changes. There is a growing need for high-quality professional
development before, during, and after the introduction of new technologies and
resources to ensure that teachers are properly trained and supported. All teachers
must be confident facilitators of the digital world in order to provide effective
personalized learning, and this is especially true for teachers of students with
special needs. Technology in the classroom is understood as being just as necessary
as a chair or a desk, but its appropriate use is less clearly understood, and that is
the critical piece. It is not enough to simply have the furniture in the classroom; it
must be liked, thoughtfully arranged, and well used. Thus, professional development
on HOW to use digital resources, tools, and content is what is making the difference
in the effectiveness of technology. This know-how allows technology to be a tool
rather than a paperweight.
Teachers are finding that technology is altering the way they do their jobs. This
shift can be subtle or dramatic. It can be from the point of view of how they use

59. data or how they interact with their students on a daily basis. Sometimes, these
changes can be intimidating and challenging. However, with the right training and
correct use, technology truly can offer the ultimate leveling of the education playing
field, and that is a milestone everyone with a stake in special education wants to
meet.
Inclusion, Co-Teaching, and Common Classroom Scenarios in Special Education
When students are identified to receive special education services, they have the
same rights and deserve the same quality of education as general education
students—not just in theory but in daily action. Education has reached a point where
the line between special education teacher and general education teacher should be
completely blurred. Collaboration both kinds of instructors is integral in achieving
this.
Inclusive vs. Self-Contained Classrooms
To set the baseline, let’s introduce some common classroom scenarios. IDEA requires
that all students receiving special education services be placed in the least
restrictive environment (LRE). Inclusive (or inclusional) classrooms refer to settings
where students who receive special education services are taught alongside their
general education peers. Co-teaching strategies are employed, and these classrooms
typically have both a general ed and special ed teacher. Inclusive classrooms typically
integrate students who are classified as having mild to moderate disabilities. The
co-teaching approach is often referred to as collaborative team teaching (CTT) or
integrated co-teaching (ICT). Self-contained classrooms refer to settings where all
students in the classroom receive special education services. These classrooms
typically include students who have been identified as having more severe
disabilities. There are many applications of LRE, as dictated by a student’s IEP, but
for the sake of the conversation around co-teaching, let’s focus on these definitions.
The benefits of Co-Teaching and Common Co-Teaching Models
Whether in an inclusive or a self-contained classroom, students with disabilities still
fall under the canopy of receiving special services in their education. The needs of
individual students may vary widely, so it is important that you design your program

60. in a manner that allows you to focus on the unique needs of your population and
incorporate the most effective approaches for them. In an inclusive classroom
setting, co-teaching or team teaching is a key element.
In CTT or ICT, chemistry within the team is no longer enough. Obviously, it helps,
but it is not sufficient on its own. Specific, proven approaches for collaborative
teaching must be understood and used. To be successful, communication and
partnership are critical. Between co-teachers, mutual appreciation and respect for
each other’s teaching style and time starts the partnership off in the right direction.
After that, co-teachers must think about the most effective processes for teaching
and differentiating instruction for each child.
There are various approaches to co-teaching designed to achieve these goals and
serve different student needs. Think about your classroom situation, and consider
which approach or combination of approaches might be most effective for you and
your teaching partner. Keep in mind the content of your curriculum, the student
dynamics in your classroom, and the general personal approach you and your team
have. Of course, there are benefits and things to be mindful of with each process,
and this is by no means a exhaustive list.
One Teach, One Observe: Exactly as it sounds, one teacher observes specific
student characteristics while the other teaches. This strategy is less about
providing students with new instruction and more about monitoring student
interaction and maintaining data. This works well when a specific student(s) needs to
be identified or observed.
Supportive Co-Teaching: In this model, one teacher takes the primary role. The
other supports an individual or groups of students, helps students maintain focus,
gathers observational data, and provides classroom management. This method tends
to be especially successful when teaching new concepts or when one teacher is a
content area expert. Communication and planning are key to make sure that each
teacher is aware of his or her role in the lesson.
One consideration when using this strategy—be cautious of perception, as students
may start to see one teacher as more of an authority figure than the other. Make
sure that balance in the leading of instruction is maintained. Don’t let one teacher
become the classroom disciplinarian or minion. Rejoice in the opportunity to share
instruction, and take advantage of each teachers’ strengths.

61. Parallel Co-Teaching: In this model, the class is split into two groups. Each co-
teacher instructs one group of students, presenting the same material
simultaneously. This gives both teachers the opportunity to work with a small group
of students.
Communication is once again critical to this strategy, and co-teachers must plan as a
team to be sure that there is parallelism in the structure and quality of instruction
that they each provide. Coordinated tasks must be divided in a way that supports
the overall learning objective for the class. Using this model is not intended to
provide differentiated or individualized learning; rather, it gives students the
opportunity to see instructional concepts presented from different lenses and
experience multiple related instructional activities. Smaller groups also allow for
more student-to-teacher interaction and opportunities for student participation.
The caution with this model is to ensure that all students are given time in each
teacher’s group. This helps to maintain equal status between the teachers in
students’ eyes and best supports students’ varying learning styles.
Station Teaching: Here, the content is divided, and each teacher works with small
groups of students. The students rotate to each instructor through stations
featuring different content. The stations involve differing tasks and activities
relating to the same instructional content or objective. The work at the stations is
not hierarchical. The tasks should be able to be completed in any order. All students
participate in all stations.
Complementary Co-Teaching: In this model, one teacher provides primary
instruction, while the other offers supplemental or complementary instruction. This
might include modeling note-taking strategies, paraphrasing or simplifying the
primary instruction, or recording content. To be effective, both teachers must talk
to each other and be sure that they are supporting the general instruction.
With an eye to special education, pre-teaching is one example of applying this
strategy. One co-teacher may pre-teach specific study or social skills to special
education students in the classroom and then monitor students’ use of them.
Meanwhile, the other co-teacher teaches the academic content to the class as a
whole.

62. Team Teaching: Using this strategy, co-teachers collaborate and teach alongside
one another as a team. They share responsibility for planning, teaching, and assessi ng
the progress of all students in their class. In this model, both teachers "play off"
each other and share the instructional role.
Alternative Teaching: This is the last model we will take a look at (in this
conversation at least). In this model, one teacher instructs a large group while the
other teacher works with a smaller group on a completely different subject. Co-
teachers must work together to determine the large and small groups, as well as
their desired outcomes, lessons, appropriate activities, and any assessments to be
administered to either group.
This model works well for enrichment or remediation and can be a great strategy to
provide successful differentiated instruction. By dividing their class into targeted
groups, co teachers have the ability to expand and collapse instruction based on
students’ needs.
The instruction for students with disabilities in an inclusive environment embraces
collaborative teaching, no matter which model is employed, and it begins with
eliminating the stigma of special education. Co-teaching also provides opportunities
for general education student to receive appropriate interventions early in the
instructional process and benefit from a variety of educational approaches. Co-
teaching can offer flexibility and modifications to instruction that work to the
advantage of all students. Time spent in common preparation, professional
development, and debriefing on successes and challenges can also be hugely
rewarding to co-teachers themselves. Achieving the gains that can come from co-
teaching begins with school and district support of the initiative. With proper time,
planning, and teamwork, co-teaching can be a key element of a successful special
education program, as well as a rich and inclusive general education program.
Special education is a very personal experience for everyone involved—including
students, parents, and teachers. Identification at an early age puts into action legal
accountability under IDEA and provides a path for student achievement. However,
it can be an intimidating process for parents and students. The idea of labeling
students can be a difficult hurdle to overcome, but it’s a necessary step to ensure
the right supports are in place. Hopefully, sharing an understanding of the
foundational components of special education will arm you with tools you need to
carry out these critical conversations.