The document discusses the impacts of climatic change on Pakistan's freshwater resources. It notes that global warming is causing glaciers in Pakistan to melt faster, initially increasing river flows but eventually leading to a 30-40% reduction. This threatens Pakistan's water security as the population and agriculture sector depend heavily on irrigation. Other issues discussed include more frequent floods from increased glacier melt and monsoon rains, as well as droughts. Glacial lake outburst floods also pose risks. Adaptation is needed like improved water storage and early warning systems.
Glaciers are melting rapidly due to climate change, threatening water supplies. The Himalayas contain the largest store of glacial ice outside the poles and supply water to over 2 billion people. As glaciers melt, initial floods will be followed by water shortages. Regions heavily dependent on glacial meltwater for agriculture, like parts of South America, are particularly at risk. Wildlife is also threatened by habitat loss as glaciers recede. Water harvesting techniques are helping high-altitude communities adapt to less predictable water availability.
Melting of himalayan glaciers, causes, factors and strategiesMUHAMMAD HUSSAIN
Effects of the Climate Change on melting of Himalayan Glaciers in Pakistan, India, China, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and countries of Mekong sub region, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
The Mahanadi River originates in Chhattisgarh and flows east through Orissa before entering the Bay of Bengal. It is one of the longest rivers in India, covering 860 km. The Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi is a major landmark and the world's longest dam when constructed. The river irrigates fertile lands used to cultivate crops like rice, oilseeds, and sugarcane.
(1) The Indian Sundarbans Delta spans over 9,630 square kilometers between West Bengal and Bangladesh. It contains extensive forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries that are home to diverse flora and fauna.
(2) The Sundarbans mangrove forest contains over 60 genera of plants including Sundari and Gewa trees. It supports many threatened animal species such as the royal Bengal tiger, fishing cat, and Gangetic dolphin.
(3) The region faces threats from human encroachment, pollution, and natural disasters exacerbated by climate change. Conservation efforts aim to restore the ecosystem, support sustainable local development, and facilitate research and education.
Ocean sediments originate from various sources and accumulate on the ocean floor. The main sources are weathering of continental rocks, volcanic eruptions, biological activity, chemical processes within the ocean crust and seawater, and impacts from extraterrestrial objects. Sediments are classified based on their origin, size, and composition. The most abundant sediment types are terrigenous sediments derived from weathering of land areas, and biogenous sediments composed of the remains of marine organisms.
Status and strategies for wetland management in Bangladesh- Arifuzzaman arifMd. Arifuzzaman Arif
Wetlands cover about 50% of Bangladesh's landmass but recent estimates show they make up around 11% of the total area. Wetlands are important for ecological functions like water purification, flood control, and providing habitat. However, wetlands face threats from degradation, overharvesting, and mismanagement. The government of Bangladesh has taken several initiatives to protect wetlands, including forming a Ministry of Environment and Forest, joining the Ramsar Convention, and implementing community-based management projects. Successful strategies involve mapping wetlands, protecting critical areas, addressing issues through participatory planning, promoting conservation and development, and passing supporting legislation.
Glaciers are melting rapidly due to climate change, threatening water supplies. The Himalayas contain the largest store of glacial ice outside the poles and supply water to over 2 billion people. As glaciers melt, initial floods will be followed by water shortages. Regions heavily dependent on glacial meltwater for agriculture, like parts of South America, are particularly at risk. Wildlife is also threatened by habitat loss as glaciers recede. Water harvesting techniques are helping high-altitude communities adapt to less predictable water availability.
Melting of himalayan glaciers, causes, factors and strategiesMUHAMMAD HUSSAIN
Effects of the Climate Change on melting of Himalayan Glaciers in Pakistan, India, China, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and countries of Mekong sub region, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
The Mahanadi River originates in Chhattisgarh and flows east through Orissa before entering the Bay of Bengal. It is one of the longest rivers in India, covering 860 km. The Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi is a major landmark and the world's longest dam when constructed. The river irrigates fertile lands used to cultivate crops like rice, oilseeds, and sugarcane.
(1) The Indian Sundarbans Delta spans over 9,630 square kilometers between West Bengal and Bangladesh. It contains extensive forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries that are home to diverse flora and fauna.
(2) The Sundarbans mangrove forest contains over 60 genera of plants including Sundari and Gewa trees. It supports many threatened animal species such as the royal Bengal tiger, fishing cat, and Gangetic dolphin.
(3) The region faces threats from human encroachment, pollution, and natural disasters exacerbated by climate change. Conservation efforts aim to restore the ecosystem, support sustainable local development, and facilitate research and education.
Ocean sediments originate from various sources and accumulate on the ocean floor. The main sources are weathering of continental rocks, volcanic eruptions, biological activity, chemical processes within the ocean crust and seawater, and impacts from extraterrestrial objects. Sediments are classified based on their origin, size, and composition. The most abundant sediment types are terrigenous sediments derived from weathering of land areas, and biogenous sediments composed of the remains of marine organisms.
Status and strategies for wetland management in Bangladesh- Arifuzzaman arifMd. Arifuzzaman Arif
Wetlands cover about 50% of Bangladesh's landmass but recent estimates show they make up around 11% of the total area. Wetlands are important for ecological functions like water purification, flood control, and providing habitat. However, wetlands face threats from degradation, overharvesting, and mismanagement. The government of Bangladesh has taken several initiatives to protect wetlands, including forming a Ministry of Environment and Forest, joining the Ramsar Convention, and implementing community-based management projects. Successful strategies involve mapping wetlands, protecting critical areas, addressing issues through participatory planning, promoting conservation and development, and passing supporting legislation.
This document summarizes Bangladesh's biodiversity and efforts to conserve it. Bangladesh has rich biodiversity due to its diverse ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and agricultural areas. However, biodiversity faces many threats like habitat loss and pollution. To address this, Bangladesh developed a Biodiversity Action Plan and protects important areas. The government also strengthened laws and policies around biodiversity conservation and monitors progress through committees.
IMPACT OF SILTATION AND RECLAMATION ON AQUATIC HABITAT.pptxSakshi Patil
Silt is a granular material between sand and clay that can exist as soil or sediment suspended in water. High levels of silt in rivers, known as siltation, is caused by erosion and human activities like agriculture, mining, and construction. Siltation decreases light penetration in water and inhibits photosynthesis, reducing primary productivity and harming aquatic plants and algae. It can also damage gills of fish and kill them. Siltation ultimately harms aquatic ecosystems by reducing food sources and degrading habitat for fish and invertebrates.
This document discusses coastal zone management and regulation in India. It provides background on the diversity of India's coastal ecosystems and hazards. It describes the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) framework and its evolution over time. The CRZ established development restrictions within 500 meters of the coast. However, committees identified failures of the top-down CRZ approach and lack of participation. The Swaminathan and MSS committees recommended shifting to an integrated coastal zone management approach led by local communities from the territorial waters limit inland. This would better address livelihoods, development pressures, and environmental conservation in a sustainable manner.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change on Bangladesh's coastal zone. It notes that 20% of Bangladesh's land and 30% of its cultivable land is located in coastal zones, which are home to 35 million people. Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of cyclones, floods, erosion, and salinity intrusion. The government has implemented policies like coastal zone management plans and funding mechanisms to build infrastructure and resilience. However, challenges remain around declining ecosystems, pollution, and adapting to issues like sea level rise and changing rainfall patterns.
Fluvial Morphology handbook for students.
Contents are: definition, scope, importance of Fluvial Morphology, sediment load, channel pattern and process, role sediment to build delta, Reynolds number, Froude Number, channel pattern of Tista and Jamuna River, causes and consequences of flood, benefit of flood, flood and floodplain, hydraulic geometry, water resource management (in Bangladesh), hydrograph, origin and development of river, tributary and distributary and many more.
The coastal zone of Bangladesh extends over 47,150 square kilometers and includes 147 sub-districts across 19 districts, accounting for 32% of the country's total area and home to 26% of its population. The coastal zone is divided into four main morphological zones: 1) the Ganges Tidal Floodplain west, 2) the Ganges Tidal Floodplain east, 3) the Meghna Deltaic Zone, and 4) the Eastern Hill Region. The coastal zone faces numerous vulnerabilities like sea level rise, coastal erosion, cyclones, pollution, salinity intrusion, flooding, and diseases. Integrated coastal zone management and other measures are needed to address these challenges.
Sea levels are rising due to climate change caused by increased greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This is resulting from thermal expansion of oceans as well as melting of large ice masses like glaciers and ice sheets. The IPCC estimated in 2006 that sea levels could rise 40 cm by 2100 due to various contributions. However, more recent data shows Arctic and Greenland ice melting faster than predicted, indicating sea level rise may be closer to the higher end of IPCC estimates or even higher. Rising seas pose serious threats such as coastal flooding and erosion, wetland loss, and damage to coastal infrastructure and habitats. Low-lying coastal areas are especially at risk.
Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet earth.
Oceans are vast body of saline water occupying the great depressions on the earth. The surface beneath the oceanic waters is characterized by a lot of relief features.
The structure, configuration and relief features of the oceans also vary from each other.On the basis of Bathymetry and other studies, the morphology of Ocean basins contains a lot of relief features. This module highlights many of those features.
1. The geographical cycle of erosion recognizes that landscapes undergo planation over time through erosion processes, eventually reducing relief to a minimum.
2. William Davis defined the cycle as having three stages - youth, maturity, and old age - based on changes in erosion rates and landscape morphology.
3. Walther Penck modified Davis' model by proposing that erosion and uplift occur continuously in interaction, and that landscape evolution depends on their relative rates.
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the displacement of the shoreline caused by natural forces like waves, winds, and tides. It can also be exacerbated by human activities. The document outlines various natural causes of coastal erosion like wave action, winds, tides, storms, and sea level rise, as well as human causes like construction and dredging. Factors that influence erosion rates include sediment sources and sinks, changes in sea level, and coastal geomorphology. Coastal erosion shapes coastlines slowly over time but can also occur catastrophically during storms or tsunamis.
Coastlines are formed through erosion and sediment deposition processes. They are shaped by sea level changes and the interaction between land and ocean. A coastline includes beaches, cliffs, and other landforms at the boundary between land and sea. Coastal zones experience continuous change from tidal movements and ocean interactions with the shore. Erosional landforms like sea cliffs and arches form through destructive wave energy, while depositional landforms like beaches and barrier islands are built up from sediment deposition.
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON MELTING GLACIERS USING RS & GISAbhiram Kanigolla
Remote sensing and GIS techniques are effective methods for mapping and monitoring glaciers and the impacts of climate change. Two case studies are summarized in the document. The first case study monitors the Gangotri glacier in India using satellite imagery and finds a 6% reduction in glacier area between 1962 and 2006. The second case study analyzes satellite images of Mount Suphan glacier in Turkey and determines that the glacier area decreased from 1.2 km2 to 0.33 km2 between 1977 and 2000, with climatic factors like increasing minimum temperatures contributing to the recession.
This document defines and classifies different types of landslides. It discusses landslides as earth movements that can be earth flows, debris slides, rock falls, etc. depending on speed and material. The document outlines various causes of landslides including weathering, erosion, earthquakes, construction and explains signs of landslide occurrence. Prevention methods are discussed including drainage control, vegetation planting, and engineering structures.
Impact of climate change on glaciers_Dr. S.S.Randhawa,State Centre on Climate...India Water Portal
What is climate change and will be its effect the Himalayan glaciers? A look at what are the reasons for concerns, will it lead to more extreme weather events and what the future climate will be like.
Climate change ,adaptation and mitigation in fisheriesSWAGATIKA SAHOO
The document discusses climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. It notes that climate change affects these industries through ocean acidification, changes in sea temperatures and currents, and more extreme weather events. These changes impact fish populations and habitats, causing shifts in distribution and productivity. They also affect fishing and aquaculture operations through changes in costs, productivity and safety. The impacts vary regionally, with tropical areas expected to see larger declines in fish catch potential than temperate regions. Adaptation strategies are needed to help these industries adjust to the changes.
Bangladesh , the largest delta on earth, is situated
in South Asia. It is located between 20°
34′ and
26°
38′ north latitude and 88°
01′ and 92°
41′ east
longitude. It is bordered by India on the west,
north, and east, by Myanmar on the southeast, and
by the Bay of Bengal on the south. The area of the
country is 147,570 km2
. Most of the country is
low-lying comprising mainly the delta of the
Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. A total of 80% of
the country is floodplain . The environment of the
country is under severe pressure due to changing
climate and destructive anthropogenic activities.
Environmental degradation is directly and
indirectly affecting human health, ecosystems
, and economic growth of the country. Demographic pressure, poverty,lack of proper
awareness on environmental issues, and lack of implementation and monitoring of
environmental rules are the main causes for existing environmental condition of
Bangladesh. The climatic condition of Bangladesh is tropical monsoon. The country
currently faces several environmental issues which threaten these resources, including
groundwater metal contamination, increased groundwater salinity, cyclones and flooding, and
sedimentation and changing patterns of stream flow due to watershed mismanagement. Some
of these, such as the changing patterns of stream flow and presence of lead in groundwater,
can be directly correlated with human activity and industrial processes, while others, such as
cyclones and flooding are naturally occurring issues.
Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater ResourcesC. P. Kumar
This document summarizes the impact of climate change on groundwater resources. It discusses how climate change can affect factors like precipitation, temperature, and evapotranspiration, which then impact groundwater recharge and levels. Higher temperatures and variability in rainfall from climate change could mean more fluctuations in groundwater levels and potential saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. Quantifying the full impact on groundwater requires downscaling climate models and coupling them with hydrological models to estimate changes in groundwater recharge over time. Key concerns are potential decreases in groundwater supplies and quality issues, as groundwater serves as a major global source of potable water.
This document discusses different types of erosional and depositional landforms created by river processes. It describes landforms such as V-shaped valleys and waterfalls that are created by erosion, and floodplains and deltas that are formed by deposition. It also explains the factors that influence fluvial erosion and the formation of various erosional features like interlocking spurs, rapids, and potholes.
Climate change is negatively impacting Pakistan's water resources, forests, and energy sector. Rising temperatures are causing glaciers and snowpack to melt faster, reducing water availability. This threatens agriculture and energy production. Deforestation, which is increasing due to population growth and wood demand, is exacerbating climate change and reducing biodiversity. More floods and droughts from climate change further stress these vulnerable sectors. Urgent action is needed to address the causes and impacts of climate change in Pakistan to ensure environmental, economic, and social sustainability.
This document summarizes Bangladesh's biodiversity and efforts to conserve it. Bangladesh has rich biodiversity due to its diverse ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and agricultural areas. However, biodiversity faces many threats like habitat loss and pollution. To address this, Bangladesh developed a Biodiversity Action Plan and protects important areas. The government also strengthened laws and policies around biodiversity conservation and monitors progress through committees.
IMPACT OF SILTATION AND RECLAMATION ON AQUATIC HABITAT.pptxSakshi Patil
Silt is a granular material between sand and clay that can exist as soil or sediment suspended in water. High levels of silt in rivers, known as siltation, is caused by erosion and human activities like agriculture, mining, and construction. Siltation decreases light penetration in water and inhibits photosynthesis, reducing primary productivity and harming aquatic plants and algae. It can also damage gills of fish and kill them. Siltation ultimately harms aquatic ecosystems by reducing food sources and degrading habitat for fish and invertebrates.
This document discusses coastal zone management and regulation in India. It provides background on the diversity of India's coastal ecosystems and hazards. It describes the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) framework and its evolution over time. The CRZ established development restrictions within 500 meters of the coast. However, committees identified failures of the top-down CRZ approach and lack of participation. The Swaminathan and MSS committees recommended shifting to an integrated coastal zone management approach led by local communities from the territorial waters limit inland. This would better address livelihoods, development pressures, and environmental conservation in a sustainable manner.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change on Bangladesh's coastal zone. It notes that 20% of Bangladesh's land and 30% of its cultivable land is located in coastal zones, which are home to 35 million people. Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of cyclones, floods, erosion, and salinity intrusion. The government has implemented policies like coastal zone management plans and funding mechanisms to build infrastructure and resilience. However, challenges remain around declining ecosystems, pollution, and adapting to issues like sea level rise and changing rainfall patterns.
Fluvial Morphology handbook for students.
Contents are: definition, scope, importance of Fluvial Morphology, sediment load, channel pattern and process, role sediment to build delta, Reynolds number, Froude Number, channel pattern of Tista and Jamuna River, causes and consequences of flood, benefit of flood, flood and floodplain, hydraulic geometry, water resource management (in Bangladesh), hydrograph, origin and development of river, tributary and distributary and many more.
The coastal zone of Bangladesh extends over 47,150 square kilometers and includes 147 sub-districts across 19 districts, accounting for 32% of the country's total area and home to 26% of its population. The coastal zone is divided into four main morphological zones: 1) the Ganges Tidal Floodplain west, 2) the Ganges Tidal Floodplain east, 3) the Meghna Deltaic Zone, and 4) the Eastern Hill Region. The coastal zone faces numerous vulnerabilities like sea level rise, coastal erosion, cyclones, pollution, salinity intrusion, flooding, and diseases. Integrated coastal zone management and other measures are needed to address these challenges.
Sea levels are rising due to climate change caused by increased greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This is resulting from thermal expansion of oceans as well as melting of large ice masses like glaciers and ice sheets. The IPCC estimated in 2006 that sea levels could rise 40 cm by 2100 due to various contributions. However, more recent data shows Arctic and Greenland ice melting faster than predicted, indicating sea level rise may be closer to the higher end of IPCC estimates or even higher. Rising seas pose serious threats such as coastal flooding and erosion, wetland loss, and damage to coastal infrastructure and habitats. Low-lying coastal areas are especially at risk.
Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet earth.
Oceans are vast body of saline water occupying the great depressions on the earth. The surface beneath the oceanic waters is characterized by a lot of relief features.
The structure, configuration and relief features of the oceans also vary from each other.On the basis of Bathymetry and other studies, the morphology of Ocean basins contains a lot of relief features. This module highlights many of those features.
1. The geographical cycle of erosion recognizes that landscapes undergo planation over time through erosion processes, eventually reducing relief to a minimum.
2. William Davis defined the cycle as having three stages - youth, maturity, and old age - based on changes in erosion rates and landscape morphology.
3. Walther Penck modified Davis' model by proposing that erosion and uplift occur continuously in interaction, and that landscape evolution depends on their relative rates.
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the displacement of the shoreline caused by natural forces like waves, winds, and tides. It can also be exacerbated by human activities. The document outlines various natural causes of coastal erosion like wave action, winds, tides, storms, and sea level rise, as well as human causes like construction and dredging. Factors that influence erosion rates include sediment sources and sinks, changes in sea level, and coastal geomorphology. Coastal erosion shapes coastlines slowly over time but can also occur catastrophically during storms or tsunamis.
Coastlines are formed through erosion and sediment deposition processes. They are shaped by sea level changes and the interaction between land and ocean. A coastline includes beaches, cliffs, and other landforms at the boundary between land and sea. Coastal zones experience continuous change from tidal movements and ocean interactions with the shore. Erosional landforms like sea cliffs and arches form through destructive wave energy, while depositional landforms like beaches and barrier islands are built up from sediment deposition.
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON MELTING GLACIERS USING RS & GISAbhiram Kanigolla
Remote sensing and GIS techniques are effective methods for mapping and monitoring glaciers and the impacts of climate change. Two case studies are summarized in the document. The first case study monitors the Gangotri glacier in India using satellite imagery and finds a 6% reduction in glacier area between 1962 and 2006. The second case study analyzes satellite images of Mount Suphan glacier in Turkey and determines that the glacier area decreased from 1.2 km2 to 0.33 km2 between 1977 and 2000, with climatic factors like increasing minimum temperatures contributing to the recession.
This document defines and classifies different types of landslides. It discusses landslides as earth movements that can be earth flows, debris slides, rock falls, etc. depending on speed and material. The document outlines various causes of landslides including weathering, erosion, earthquakes, construction and explains signs of landslide occurrence. Prevention methods are discussed including drainage control, vegetation planting, and engineering structures.
Impact of climate change on glaciers_Dr. S.S.Randhawa,State Centre on Climate...India Water Portal
What is climate change and will be its effect the Himalayan glaciers? A look at what are the reasons for concerns, will it lead to more extreme weather events and what the future climate will be like.
Climate change ,adaptation and mitigation in fisheriesSWAGATIKA SAHOO
The document discusses climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. It notes that climate change affects these industries through ocean acidification, changes in sea temperatures and currents, and more extreme weather events. These changes impact fish populations and habitats, causing shifts in distribution and productivity. They also affect fishing and aquaculture operations through changes in costs, productivity and safety. The impacts vary regionally, with tropical areas expected to see larger declines in fish catch potential than temperate regions. Adaptation strategies are needed to help these industries adjust to the changes.
Bangladesh , the largest delta on earth, is situated
in South Asia. It is located between 20°
34′ and
26°
38′ north latitude and 88°
01′ and 92°
41′ east
longitude. It is bordered by India on the west,
north, and east, by Myanmar on the southeast, and
by the Bay of Bengal on the south. The area of the
country is 147,570 km2
. Most of the country is
low-lying comprising mainly the delta of the
Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. A total of 80% of
the country is floodplain . The environment of the
country is under severe pressure due to changing
climate and destructive anthropogenic activities.
Environmental degradation is directly and
indirectly affecting human health, ecosystems
, and economic growth of the country. Demographic pressure, poverty,lack of proper
awareness on environmental issues, and lack of implementation and monitoring of
environmental rules are the main causes for existing environmental condition of
Bangladesh. The climatic condition of Bangladesh is tropical monsoon. The country
currently faces several environmental issues which threaten these resources, including
groundwater metal contamination, increased groundwater salinity, cyclones and flooding, and
sedimentation and changing patterns of stream flow due to watershed mismanagement. Some
of these, such as the changing patterns of stream flow and presence of lead in groundwater,
can be directly correlated with human activity and industrial processes, while others, such as
cyclones and flooding are naturally occurring issues.
Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater ResourcesC. P. Kumar
This document summarizes the impact of climate change on groundwater resources. It discusses how climate change can affect factors like precipitation, temperature, and evapotranspiration, which then impact groundwater recharge and levels. Higher temperatures and variability in rainfall from climate change could mean more fluctuations in groundwater levels and potential saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. Quantifying the full impact on groundwater requires downscaling climate models and coupling them with hydrological models to estimate changes in groundwater recharge over time. Key concerns are potential decreases in groundwater supplies and quality issues, as groundwater serves as a major global source of potable water.
This document discusses different types of erosional and depositional landforms created by river processes. It describes landforms such as V-shaped valleys and waterfalls that are created by erosion, and floodplains and deltas that are formed by deposition. It also explains the factors that influence fluvial erosion and the formation of various erosional features like interlocking spurs, rapids, and potholes.
Climate change is negatively impacting Pakistan's water resources, forests, and energy sector. Rising temperatures are causing glaciers and snowpack to melt faster, reducing water availability. This threatens agriculture and energy production. Deforestation, which is increasing due to population growth and wood demand, is exacerbating climate change and reducing biodiversity. More floods and droughts from climate change further stress these vulnerable sectors. Urgent action is needed to address the causes and impacts of climate change in Pakistan to ensure environmental, economic, and social sustainability.
The document discusses the effects of climate change on water resources and management in the Potohar region of Pakistan. It finds that glaciers in Pakistan's mountains, which provide over 60% of river flows, are retreating at a concerning rate due to rising temperatures. The Potohar region in particular has experienced increases in temperature that have slowed water treatment processes and impacted water quality, quantity, and groundwater levels. The study aims to assess climate change impacts on water resources and management in Potohar to inform mitigation strategies.
Climate change is having significant impacts in Nepal. Temperatures have risen by 0.06°C from 1977-2000, with greater increases at higher altitudes and in winter. Projections estimate rises of 1.4°C by 2030, 2.8°C by 2060, and 4.7°C by 2090. Precipitation trends are less certain but include more intense rainfall and variable river flows. Glaciers are retreating rapidly, increasing glacial lake outburst flood risks. Agriculture, water resources, forests, biodiversity, livestock, and health are all being affected. Nepal has developed the National Adaptation Programme of Action and Local Adaptation Plans of Action framework to help communities assess vulnerabilities
Climate change; its effects on pakistanShahid Khan
The climate system is a complex, interactive system consisting of the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans and other bodies of water, and living things.
Climate change is causing various impacts in Pakistan such as increased temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and more frequent extreme weather events. This is affecting many sectors of Pakistan's economy and environment such as agriculture, water resources, forestry, fisheries, coastal areas, and human health and livelihoods. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to these impacts due to its heavy reliance on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture and geography with mountains, plains, and coastal areas facing different climate-related hazards. Adaptation and mitigation actions are needed to address climate change risks and reduce emissions.
Pakistani and world glacier a review Akbar HussainAkbar84
Glaciers around the world and in Pakistan are melting at an accelerated rate due to global warming. In Pakistan, glaciers are a major source of water and are critical for agriculture, yet they are receding rapidly which will lead to water shortages in the coming decades. The document discusses evidence of melting glaciers in different regions of the world as well as key glaciers in Pakistan's Himalayan and Karakoram ranges that feed major rivers and are vital for irrigation and fresh water supplies.
The document analyzes the impact of climate change on water resources in Pakistan. It examines increasing temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns that are contributing to more frequent and severe flooding in the country. The analysis focuses on three regions: along the Indus River, in northern and central Pakistan, and in southern Pakistan. It finds that while temperature and precipitation are normally distributed in the first two regions from 1960-2014, precipitation in southern Pakistan is not normally distributed, indicating climate change is altering rainfall. The study predicts heavier monsoon rains in southern Pakistan in the future based on observed trends.
This document discusses the effects of climate change on agriculture in Pakistan. It begins by defining key terms like weather, climate, and climate change. It then discusses how Pakistan's climate has warmed in recent decades and the human activities that are contributing to increased greenhouse gases and global warming. The text outlines several impacts climate change may have on agriculture, including changing crop yields and water availability. It concludes by suggesting some steps that can be taken to help agriculture adapt to climate change impacts, such as developing new crop varieties and improving water management.
Climate Change & Anthropogenic Impact On Water ResourcesVempi Satriya
Human activities are clearly influencing the climate system and causing changes that are affecting water resources in several ways. According to the IPCC, over half of the increase in surface temperatures since the 1950s is due to human greenhouse gas emissions. As the climate continues to warm, precipitation patterns are projected to change in ways that will impact water availability and quality. Infrastructure like dams and reservoirs has altered water flows, and building more could help address issues like declining storage capacity but also risks impacts on environmental flows. Managing these tradeoffs between human and environmental water needs is an ongoing challenge.
The document summarizes key findings from the IPCC's Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. It finds that glaciers and snow cover are declining rapidly around the world, including in regions like Europe, Africa, South America and Asia. This is increasing hazards like floods and landslides. Peak water levels in glacier-fed rivers have already passed or will pass by mid-century in many areas. This will significantly impact downstream water supply for billions of people. Adaptation measures are needed to help communities adjust and ensure sustainable water resources in a warming world. Limiting warming to 1.5C compared to 2C could help reduce these risks.
The presentation analyses the causative factors, phenomenon and effects of global warming and tries to find answers to this perplexing problem facing mankind
IMPACTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ON AQUATIC BIOTAAlbert Wandera
the Presentation discuss the relevant mitigation and adaptation measures which should be employed to address the impacts of Global climatic changes on marine and fresh water habitats and Biota
Final presentation of climate change in pakistan.pptxMujahidAli782669
This document summarizes the impacts of climate change on Pakistan. It discusses how climate change is caused by human activities like burning fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases. It then outlines several ways climate change affects Pakistan, including impacts on agriculture, water scarcity, ecological fragility, and health. For agriculture, it notes increasing temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more extreme weather events will threaten crops and small landholders. Water scarcity will increase due to changes in river flows from glacial melt and more variable rainfall. Coastal areas, mountains, and arid regions are ecologically fragile and vulnerable to climate impacts. Rising temperatures could also increase vector-borne diseases. The document concludes by suggesting some solutions like discussing climate change, volunteering
Is Climate Change, a modern tragedy of the commons?GIOCONTE23
This document discusses climate change and the need for a low carbon society. It addresses whether climate change represents a tragedy of the commons and examines the impacts of climate change around the world. The document also discusses climate change mitigation efforts through renewable energy and energy efficiency.
Impact of Climate Change on Mountain Ecosystems.pptxLalitaChoudhary39
Climate change is having significant impacts on mountain ecosystems. Average temperatures in mountains worldwide have risen 0.54 degrees Fahrenheit per decade, leading to melting glaciers and changes in river flows. This disrupts plants and wildlife and increases risks of floods and rockslides. As glaciers continue to melt with rising CO2 and greenhouse gas levels, snow accumulation zones will shrink and new lakes will form, altering water availability for agriculture and hydropower. Premature snowmelt in Rocky Mountain National Park has already caused water supply difficulties for species that rely on snowmelt, threatening to disrupt the park's ecosystem.
Global warming is causing rapid climate change through rising CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases from factors like deforestation, energy use, and industrialization. This is raising global temperatures and melting ice caps, glaciers, and permafrost. Consequences include rising sea levels that could flood coastal cities, stronger storms, droughts, and species extinction as animals' habitats change. Immediate action is urgently needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change.
Glacier recession is being observed around the world, including in many Himalayan glaciers like the Gangotri Glacier. The Gangotri Glacier has shown considerable recession in recent times, retreating at an average of 20-22 meters per year. Satellite data shows the glacier is retreating over three times faster in the last three decades than the previous 200 years. Increased global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions is a major cause of accelerated glacier melt and recession worldwide.
Another high-quality presentation about climate change in Houston, by the venerable Dr. Ronald L. Sass, Professor Emeritus Rice University. Like most academic treatments of the topics covered, only that known with high certainty is reported. There are far more uncertainties that science has not yet pinned down, but that empirical investigations of the past have shown to be worrisome, potentially catastrophic for coastal civilization within a human lifetime. The reader is left to other sources and to their own developing understanding of the immense complexities of rapid climate feedback interactions to imagine the meaning to Houston of the topic covered by Dr. Sass at the conference. Still, an excellent and authoritative place for Houston to begin!
The document summarizes information about the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan. It describes GB's geography, biodiversity, mountain ranges including the Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindukush ranges. It discusses GB's glaciers, which are receding due to climate change. It also mentions the impacts of climate change like accelerated glacial melting leading to floods and landslides. GB's forests and endangered species like the snow leopard are discussed. The livelihoods of GB residents are sensitive to climate change impacts on agriculture. Recommendations focus on community-based disaster risk reduction and international agreements to limit global warming.
Similar to climatic impact on freshwater resources of pakistan (20)
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
climatic impact on freshwater resources of pakistan
1. IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON FRESHWATER
RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
BY KIRAN AFTAB KHOKHAR
SUBMITTED TO: DR. AMINA ZUBERI
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE LAB
2. INTRODUCTION
Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse affect - a natural process that
warms the Earth’s surface.
When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back
to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
3. The continuous increase in emission of greenhouse gasses has resulted in global
warming, and substantial changes in the future climate are expected by the end of the
current century.
Global average temperatures have been rising, and human activities have changed the
composition of the atmosphere significantly enough that we can now confidently say
that the climate will continue to change.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average
temperature of the earth increased by 0.6 ° C over the last century and it is expected
to further increase by 1.4 to 5.8 º C by the end of the current century.
In Pakistan ,a rise in mean temperature of 0.6-1°C in the coastal areas along with a
0.5 to 0.7% increase in solar radiation over southern half of country has been
observed.
4. In the year 2010, Mohenjo-Daro, a city in Sindh faced the temperature of 53.5 °C ,the
hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever
recorded in the world.
Along with global warming, there will also be changes in:
1. atmospheric and oceanic circulation,
2. and in the hydrologic cycle, leading to large increases in frequency and intensity of
extreme climate events such as:
floods, droughts and cyclones;
rapid melting of world’s glaciers and ice sheets including the polar ice;
rise in average sea level causing submersion of small islands and other low lying
coastal areas etc.
5. Particularly there will be great adverse impacts of climate change on
developing countries like Pakistan whose water and food security could be
threatened by the climate change.
It is important to note that some levels of GHGs are necessary to maintain
temperatures needed to sustain human and animal life.
The average mean temperature of the earth is 15°C, without greenhouse
gases it would be at -18 º C, a temperature which is unsuitable for overall
life.
On a global scale Pakistan ranks 135th in per capita GHG emissions i.e.
0.8-1% , not yet considered alarming.
6. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GLOBAL
WARMING IN PAKISTAN
The human activities like burning of fossil
fuels, excessive smoke discharges from
factories and Deforestation (produces about
24% of global greenhouse gas emissions) have
led to an increase in the concentration of the
greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide, in the earth’s outer
atmosphere.
In 2008 Pakistan’s total GHG emissions were
310 million tons of CO2 equivalent.
CO2
54%
CH4
36%
N2O
9%
CO
0.9%
NON-
METHANE
0.3%
7. 1. The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in
Pakistan, it accounts for nearly 51% of these emissions
2. the agriculture sector (39%)
3. industrial processes (6%)
4. forestry (3%) emissions
5. waste (1%)
(Source: National GHG inventory 2008).
8. WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
The surface water hydrology of Pakistan is dominated by the Indus River and its
five major tributaries; Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.
The Indus River system resembles a funnel with a number of water resources at the
top converging into a single river that flows into the Arabian Sea.
Under the 1960 Indus Basin Treaty between India and Pakistan, Pakistan is entitled
to the flow of three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum and Chenab) with occasional
spills from the eastern rivers Sutlej and Ravi diverted up stream by India.
The flow of rivers under Pakistan control mainly depends upon snow and glacier
melt except Jhelum River, which also receives rainwater under monsoon system
during summer.
9. The rainfall in Pakistan is low as half of the country receives less than 200 mm of
annual rainfall.
The groundwater aquifers of the Indus Plains are the second major source of
freshwater and mainly recharge by the precipitation, the river flows, and the
seepage from different watercourses.
Pakistan is basically an agrarian country with a population of 160 million
dependent upon the irrigated agriculture in the Indus Plains.
This is served through the world’s largest contiguous irrigation system in the
Indus Basin developed over the last 150 years or so.
The Indus Basin provides habitat to 25 amphibians and 147 fish species, and 22
species are endemic to this particular region.
11. KEY VULNERABILITIES OF PAKISTAN’S WATER
RESOURCES
According to the IPCC Paper on Climate Change and Water, Asia is the region where
water distribution is uneven and large areas are under water stress.
Decreasing trends in annual mean rainfall were observed in Russia, North China etc.
along with arid plains in Pakistan.
In addition, inter– seasonal, inter-annual and spatial variability in rainfall has also
observed during the past few decades across Asia.
Similarly, water shortages in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh have attributed to
issues such as rapid urbanization and industrialization, population growth and
inefficient water use that are aggravated by changing climate.
12. Pakistan is extremely short of freshwater resources.
With a continuously increasing population and CC, the water availability
that was about 5,650 meters/per person/year in 1951, has decreased to as
low as 1,100 cubic meters/per person/year in 2010 (World Bank, 2006).
This has placed the country in the comity of nations which are identified as
being ‘water scarce’.
Projections say that under the existing circumstances it will further be
lowered to 800 cubic meters / per person / year by 2026.
13. Pakistan is included among those countries where significant reduction of annual
fish catch has occurred as a result of climate and pollution .
In particular, frequent floods in lower riparian areas (A riparian zone or riparian
area is the interface between land and a river or stream) deteriorates the fisheries
resources and economy of the fishing community.
The northern and northwestern areas of Pakistan are more vulnerable to climate
change, having fragile ecosystems and delicate food web linkages.
The Indus Blind Dolphin, migratory birds, freshwater turtles, Palla, Masher and
mangrove forests have been already affected.
The habitat destruction due to climatic change is another threat to biodiversity.
14. Temperature has direct effects on the physiology of organisms. e.g. the sex
of developing embryo of turtle and alligator depends on environmental
temperature.
Temperature and rainfall play major roles in determining where individual
species of plants and animals can live, grow and reproduce.
Already, reduced discharge of Indus River has significantly reduced
mangrove forest and its associated wildlife.
CHANGES EXPECTED DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE INCLUDE:
1. Changes in forest cover
2. shifts of vegetation zones or biomes.
15. 4. shifts in ranges of species and species composition
5. shift of species towards higher altitude
6. changes in geographic distributions of plant and animal species
7. changes in reproduction timings and the length of growing seasons for
plant
8. Precipitation also has direct effect on species abundance and distribution.
9. shift in habitat from monsoon forest to savannah grass land .
10.This situation will create the extinction of many endemic plant and animal
species.
11. The process of desertification may further extend towards croplands.
17. 1. DEGLACIATION
The 20th century has witnessed glacial fluctuations on a global scale.
This has been a period of dramatic glacier retreat in almost all alpine
regions of the globe.
Himalayan glaciers are retreating at a faster rate in contrast to the
glaciers from other mountain regions affecting the flows of rivers of the
Indus Basin.
ADVERSE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
18. HIMALAYAN GLACIERS’ RETREAT
International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) reported in 1999 that: “Glaciers
in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the
present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 is very
high.”
HIMALAYAN GLACIERS SHRINKING
19. According to the assessment in 2006, 67% of glaciers were found retreating
at a starling rate in the Himalayas and the major causal factor was identified
as climate change.
A remarkably rapid recession has been reported in the case of 30 kilometer
long Gangotri glacier in the Eastern Himalayas. It is reported to have
retreated by about 2 km over the last 200 years, of which about 850 meters
has been in recent 20 years.
Studies have shown that between 1970 and 1989, most glaciers in the
Everest region of the Himalaya had retreated 30-60m.
20. IMPACTS OF DEGLACIATION ON
HIMALAYAN REGION
Pakistan’s Northern Areas are home to 5,218 glaciers and 2,420 glacial lakes, of which,
more than 50 glaciers have potentially been categorized as dangerous.
Glacier melt in the Himalayas is projected to increase flooding and affect water resources
within next two to three decades.
This will be followed by decreased river flows as the glaciers recede.
According to the World Bank Report, 2005, “Pakistan’s Water Economy: Running Dry”.
Western Himalayan glaciers will retreat for next 50 years causing increase in Indus River
flows.
21. Then the glacier reservoirs will be empty, resulting in terrifying decrease of 30%
to 40% in flow of Indus River over the century.
As a result of glacier melting, Upper Indus will show initial increase between
+14% and +90% in mean flows over the first few decades of the next 100 years,
to be followed by flows decreasing between -30% and -90% of the baseline by
the end of this century.
The amount of water in Indus River has decreased from 185,000 million m3 per
year to 12300 million m3 per year in 1990 (Iftikhar, 2002).
Food and crop production in Pakistan depends up to 90 % on irrigation and water
resources.
22. RECENT CONFLICTING REPORTS ABOUT RECESSION OF
KARAKORAM GLACIERS
In ƒ2005, Hewitt reported widespread evidence of glacier expansion in the late
1990s in the Central Karakoram, in contrast to a worldwide decline of
mountain glaciers.
Based on surveys between 1997 and 2002, he reported that some of the large
Karakoram glaciers - 40 to 70 km in length - exhibited 5 to 15 m of thickening
over substantial ablation zone areas, locally more than 20 m.
These conflicting findings make the impact of climate change on Karakoram
glaciers and Indus River flows very uncertain.
23. 2. FLOODS
Floods are one of the major natural calamities in Pakistan. These are mainly
caused by heavy concentrated rainfall over the upper catchments of the main
rivers.
Monsoon currents originating in the Bay of Bengal and resultant depressions
often cause heavy downpour in the Himalayan foothills.
These are additionally affected by weather systems from the Arabian Sea (by
seasonal lows) and from the Mediterranean Sea (through westerly waves) which
occasionally produce destructive floods in one or more of the main rivers of the
Indus River System.
24.
25. Analysis of past 50 years flood data for Pakistan shows that the number of
events has considerably increased during the last three decades.
During the last 60 years, Pakistan has suffered a cumulative financial loss of
more than Rs.385 billion and the loss of more than 7,800 people as a result of
16 major floods.
Now there is a growing consensus that the impacts of climate change may
well lead to an increase in both the frequency and magnitude of floods.
This requires careful policy planning and formulation of strategies to combat
and minimize the destruction which they cause.
27. ADAPTIVE MEASURES
Increased water storage capacity will be required to store water during the high flood
periods so that the same could be used during low flow periods or during drought
years.
Currently, Pakistan has very little storage capacity i.e. only 150 cubic meters per
capita as compared to 2200, 5000 and 6000 cubic meter per capita in China, Australia
and United States respectively.
The reservoir capacity in Pakistan is also very low, it corresponds to only 9% of such
flows, as compared to 30% of the average annual rivers flow in the neighboring
country, India (State Bank of Pakistan, 2003-04).
28. 3. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)
Glaciers movement is the major cause of abrading bedrock and valley sites.
Advancing glaciers take lot of debris with them.
They leave all their debris on retreat forming lakes surrounded by the moraines
banks (a mass of rocks and sediment carried down and deposited by a glacier).
Such lakes start filling with the melting ice as long as the moraine walls can hold
the water pressure.
With rapid melting of glaciers, glacier lakes level can rise over the banks formed of
moraines can give way, leading to the catastrophic events known as Glacier Lake
Outburst Flood (GLOF).
29. In Pakistan, 2420 glacial lakes are identified in the HKH (Hindukush- Karakoram–
Himalaya) region covering a total area of almost 126 Sq. Km.
Among these identified glacial lakes 52 are declared as potentially dangerous
glacial lakes.
These potentially dangerous lakes can burst anytime and cause flash floods and are
continuous risk to the downstream livelihood as well as hydro-power generation
plants.
Recently glacier ‘Azghor’ had burst in Chitral district’s Golain region.
The outburst was followed by a huge flood hitting the adjacent villages.
30. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Country Manager
Mahmood Akhtar Cheema said that the situation is quite alarming, as the
temperatures of most of the mountainous regions cross 40 degrees Celsius
in the summer season.
ADAPTIVE MEASURES
There does not appear any specific coping mechanism against GLOF
except the development of an effective monitoring and early warning
system to forewarn the downstream dwellers of any imminent dangers of
GLOFs.
32. 4. DROUGHTS
When there is marked depletion of surface water causing very low stream
flow and drying of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, it is called a hydrological
drought.
This occurs on the local, regional or subcontinental scale which spreads in
horizontal direction. In this spatial distribution, drought can last from a few
weeks during a season with intermediate breaks of spells of good rains, to
several years in succession.
Droughts are due to the low precipitation over a specified period.
Concurrently, groundwater and river discharges slow down.
33. Semi-Arid areas having less than 500mm of annual rainfall host droughts as
permanent climatic condition.
Droughts also occur even in high rainfall condition. For example, in South Asia
many rivers, lakes and underground aquifers are fed by monsoon precipitation
which follows non-uniform spatial and temporal distribution pattern over the
region.
Pakistan is an arid country receiving low rainfall and higher solar radiation over
most parts of the country.
Total land area of Pakistan is 88 million hectares. About 59 % of the total area is
classified as rangelands.
Most of this area receives less than 200mm rainfall annually.
34. Pakistan experienced the serious drought situations from 1998-2002 facing
adverse freshwater dearth.
Droughts severely affected the parts within and outside Indus Basin making
the provinces of Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan most vulnerable.
Out of sixteen districts in the Sindh Province, eight were affected by drought
during the period with four districts being severely affected.
ADAPTIVE MEASURES
The frequency and intensity of droughts are expected to increase with
increase in global warming.
In order to cope with this situation a two pronged approach is required.
35. 1. The reservoir capacity needs to be
increased considerably in order to store
water during high flow periods and use this
water during the drought periods within the
same year or in subsequent drought year.
2. Equally important for an arid country like
Pakistan, is to reduce its water losses
through seepages from canals and water
channels etc. and to use the limited
available water in a highly efficient
manner.
DROUGHT AREAS IN SINDH, BALOCHISTAN
36. 5. INCREASING FREQUENCY OF CYCLONES
In meteorology, a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center
of low atmospheric pressure.
Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low
pressure
Tropical cyclones are also a dreaded characteristic of the climate in various parts of
Pakistan.
As a result of global warming, the frequency of Cyclones has increased over the
Arabian Sea during the last 50 years.
Moreover, the intensity of these cyclones has also increased during the last quarter
of the 20th century.
38. Strong tropical activity in the Arabian sea in 2001, 2004, 2007,
2010 and 2011 shows an increasing trend towards more cyclones,
indicating that there are bright chances that future cyclones can
directly strike mega metropolis cities like Karachi and kill
thousands of people and may change the way these cities used to
live.
39. 6. SEA WATER INTRUSION
According to IPCC Report, 2007, the greatest increase in vulnerability is
expected to lie on the coastal strips of South and South East Asia.
In Pakistan there is 1050 km long coastline spread along the provinces of
Sindh and Balochistan.
In Sindh province mangroves are found in the Indus Delta and have an area of
about 600,000 ha.
In Balochistan province, the mangroves’ total area is estimated to be 7,340 ha.
These mangroves provide food and shelter during larval stage of the life cycle
for some 80% of the commercial species caught from water and provide
growing places for shrimps.
40. Nearly 95% of the mangroves located in the Indus River Delta are of the
species Avicennia marina.
Indus Delta surrounds 17 major creeks, many minor creeks (minor tributary) and
mudflats (mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form in
intertidal areas where sediments have been deposited by tides or rivers).
Indus delta mangroves (a tree or shrub which grows in tidal, chiefly tropical, coastal
swamps, having numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and form dense
thickets) are the largest arid climate mangroves in the world.
Sindh Forest Department has under its control an area of 345,000 ha of the Indus
Delta as a protected forest.
However, recent studies show that the area has shrunk to 160,000 from 205,000
hectares (www.wwfpak.org).
41. The survival of these mangroves is highly dependent on perpetual freshwater from the
River Indus.
Currently, the Indus Delta faces major threats due to inadequate fresh water flows.
Another major threat is the sea level rise, which could significantly contribute to losses
of coastal wetlands and mangroves.
Other natural resources degradation is evident in downstream Kotri Barrage especially in
the Deltaic Region.
Due to the low flows of freshwater downstream Kotri the seawater intrudes, finding no
resistance, deteriorating the agriculture belts and coastal wetlands.
This seawater intrusion is also caused by sea level rise, a worldwide Climate Change
related phenomenon.
42. According to Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan, the sea level at Pakistan’s
coastline shows an increasing trend of 1.1 mm/year, i.e. within global average
range of 1.7±0.5 mm/year for the 20th century.
The Indus delta also runs dry for several months in the Rabi season (October –
March) each year.
The surplus water is available only between 70-100 days during the flood season
(June-September).
ADAPTIVE MEASURES
There is a pressing need for building additional reservoirs for 25 million acre feet
per year of surplus water going to the sea which could be partly used to regulate
the release of 10 MAF/year of water downstream Kotri.
44. 7. SEDIMENTATION AND LOSS OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY
Glaciers and snow melting are associated with the soil erosion and sediment
transport.
This erosion is rapid in the areas where the ice flows at high velocity.
Sediments are eroded and join glaciers by several processes.
Pakistan, situated in arid and semi-arid zone, is suffering the soil erosion
problems.
This erosion, caused by ice melt and decrease in natural vegetation due to
deforestation, deposits heavy sediments in the dams and reservoirs downstream.
Indus river catchment above Tarbela reservoir is particularly subject to heavy
weathering under severe climatic conditions resulting in sediment deposition.
45. Indus river overall carries about 0.35 MAF of sediment load annually, almost
60% of which deposits in the reservoirs, canals, and irrigation fields.
Sedimentation reduces storage capacity of reservoir.
46. ADAPTIVE MEASURES
The most economical method is construction of a series of dams on the river
to trap the sediment in upstream reservoirs.
An extensive watershed management program had been undertaken by
WAPDA in the catchments of Mangla and Tarbela Dams, which encompassed
forestation and sediment traps construction to reduce the silt deposition in
these reservoirs.
There are also some other proposed/under construction dams that will
improve the storage capacity of the country.
48. 8. SHRINKING WETLANDS
In Pakistan, 19 sites are declared as of international importance called Ramsar
sites covering an area of almost 1,343,627 hectares and are under threat due to
the projected changes in climate.
Predictions of a warmer climate and changes in precipitation patterns would
strongly affect wetland ecological functions through changes in hydrology,
biogeochemistry and biomass accumulation.
According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Species ranges are likely to
shrink by 2050.
About one fifth to one third of the species may be committed to extinction by
that time with those risks increasing for the second half of the century.
49. In Pakistan, from the high Himalayas to the Indus delta, all wetlands are badly
affected by the climate change (floods, drought, unusual rains) and human
management.
These wetlands are highly productive ecosystems and life lines in the economy of
local people.
Natural threats to wetlands include droughts and floods.
Even though wetlands are sponge-like and can hold water in reserve for a long
time, but they cannot do it everlastingly.
50. Some wetlands will eventually dry out if they are not replenished.
Human activity is probably the most prevalent cause of wetland land
destruction or degradation.
ADAPTIVE MEASURES
Pakistan had produced a Wetlands Action Plan in 2000, the lack of a
comprehensive Wetlands Management Strategy hindered policy formation,
coordination and management of wetlands at a national scale.
51.
52. 9. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION
After the surface water the groundwater is the major source of freshwater in
Pakistan.
The vast aquifer of freshwater underlying the Indus Plains, mainly recharge by:
1. the precipitation,
2. the river flows,
3. the seepage from the canal systems,
4. distributaries,
5. Watercourses.
The total potential recharge in the useable groundwater areas in the Canal
Commands and the riverine areas is estimated as 66.8 MAF.
53. Orange and yellow
indicates areas
where groundwater
might be depleted,
while blue and
green highlights
areas where
groundwater is
being replenished.
54. Groundwater in the Indus Basin aquifer is neither unlimited nor permanent and
has to be recharged.
This aquifer with a potential of about 50 MAF is being exploited to an extent
of about 40 MAF by over 562,000 private and about 16,000 public tube wells .
According to IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water
“Groundwater levels of many aquifers around the world show a decreasing
trend during the last few decades, but this is due to excessive groundwater
pumping and not to climate-related decrease in groundwater recharge”.
55. ADAPTIVE MEASURES
The most widely used method to recharge groundwater reservoir is
delay action dams, percolation basins, modified streambeds,
diversion structures, ditches, furrows, and recharge through injection
wells.
However, application of these methods is subject to the local
condition and topographic characteristics.
56. 10. WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY
Several areas of Pakistan in particular, Punjab and Sindh suffer from water
logging and salinity because of poor drainage system in the country.
Salts carried in surface water and mobilized through unregulated ground water
pumping accumulate in the root zone, adversely affecting crops and agriculture
productivity.
According to the Drainage Master Plan (DMP), 39% of gross commanded area in
the country is water logged and is affected by salinity.
12% has a water table depth up to 150 cm (5 ft) while other 27% of surface soil is
saline.
57. The experts are of the opinion that due to salinity problem 25% agriculture
productivity is reduced in Punjab only.
This salinity problem may be increased due to increased evaporation under higher
projected temperature and needs to be addressed by adapting appropriate
measures.
53% OF SINDH SUFFERS FROM WATER LOGGING & SALINITY
58. The salinity of the groundwater generally
increases away from the rivers and also
with depth. In Punjab, 23% of the area has
hazardous groundwater quality, whereas
this figure is 78% in Sindh (Haider 2000).
59. 11. INCREASED WATER DEMAND
Evaporation from open water, soil, shallow groundwater, and water stored on
vegetation, along with transpiration through plants commonly referred to as
evapo-transpiration.
Many scientists have studied the response and controls of evapo-transpiration
under current and future climate conditions and one thing is very certain that
evaporation potential will increase with warming.
In this way arid and semi arid plains of Indus Basin may be affected severally
and need supplementary freshwater supply to maintain the ecosystem.
This in turn suggests for the increased water storage capacity to meet the water
loss due to the increased evaporation under higher temperatures.
60. CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE STUDIES IN
PAKISTAN
Climate Change research remained essentially neglected in Pakistan until recently.
MAY 2002: Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC) established with seed
money provided by Ministry of Sc & Tech; GCISC now being supported by
Planning Commission.
JANUARY 2005: Prime Minister’s Committee on Climate Change established,
with GCISC as its Secretariat.
DECEMBER 2006: GCISC attached to National Centre for Physics as an
autonomous organization.
61. GCISC OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the Centre are:
to keep a track of the current and likely future trends of Climate
Change;
to develop a national capacity for Climate Change research;
to analyze and evaluate the impacts of Climate Change on key sectors
e.g. Food and Water security;
to raise public awareness of Climate Change related issues
62. RECOMMENDATIONS
Efficient use of water in all sectors particularly agriculture where more than 90%
water is being consumed.
Encourage and support research to assess the impacts of climate change on
available water resources and account for these impacts in future resource
development strategies.
Develop additional freshwater storage capacity to address the existing water
related stresses as well as the challenges emerging from climate change:
63. 1. to compensate the storage capacity already lost due to sedimentation.
2. to ensure adequate supply of water round the year for all sectors.
3. to safeguard against increased variability of water supply due to increased
frequency and intensity of floods and droughts under changing climate.
4. to provide regulated flow of necessary water downstream Kotri in order to
prevent excessive intrusion of seawater into the Indus deltaic regions;
Programme should be initiated for awareness of general public and users for
water conservation and management.