This document discusses the cumulative health impacts faced by climate migrants. It begins by defining climate migrants and explaining that they often do not receive the same protections as political refugees. It then outlines regions that are major sources of climate migration, such as low-lying island nations, Bangladesh, Egypt, China, and India. The document discusses health determinants climate migrants face post-migration, such as poor living conditions, lack of social support, and health inequities. Case studies on legislation in Canada, Australia and a court case in New Zealand are presented. The focus is then on how cumulative health impacts experienced before and after migration can negatively impact climate migrant health long-term if not addressed.
Environmental refugees: Searching for the hauntIARI, NEW DELHI
Environmental refugees are the people,
who can no longer access a secure
livelihood in their motherlands because of
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c a l a m i t i e s l i k e
d e s e r t i c a t i o n , c l o u d b u r s t i n g ,
deforestation, ooding, tsunami,
e r o s i o n , l a n d s l i d i n g a n d o t h e r
environmental problems, together with
the associated problems of population
pressures and prevalent poverty.
The document summarizes environmental migration in Darfur, Sudan. It describes how drought and decreasing rainfall have led to degradation of natural resources and conflict between farmers and herders. Climate change is projected to further reduce the growing season. This has displaced millions within Sudan, including over 272,000 in Darfur as of 2019. The conflict in Darfur began in 2003 when rebels protested the government's disregard for the region. In response, government-backed militias terrorized civilians and prevented aid, leading to further displacement. Environmental issues like water scarcity, degradation, and climate change have exacerbated the conflict by increasing competition over scarce resources.
The adverse impact of ecosystem degradation and poor governance on marginaliz...NAAR Journal
This document summarizes a research article that investigates how ecosystem degradation and poor governance negatively impact marginalized people in Bangladesh. It finds that households have lost on average 0.2636 hectares of cropland and 2.59 local fish species have disappeared from local water bodies. Over three-fourths of respondents also perceive that access to local ecosystem services is decreasing. However, over half of respondents pay bribes of $6.82 on average to access ecosystem services. The combination of ecosystem degradation and corruption negatively influences the income, employment, and spending of marginalized communities, making them even more vulnerable while wealthier groups benefit. The study aims to help identify more sustainable economic development approaches in coastal areas that reduce ecosystem impacts and
1) The document discusses how climate change could displace millions of people globally and strain existing refugee protection frameworks. It focuses on Russia's experience with migration and climate policies.
2) Russia established agencies like the Federal Migration Service after the Soviet Union's collapse to manage large influxes of ethnic Russian migrants from neighboring states. However, inconsistent regional policies undermined these efforts.
3) Russia is vulnerable to climate change impacts like permafrost thaw and flooding due to its geography and emissions. A 2009 climate doctrine committed to mitigation and recognized growing public concern about climate threats.
International Environmental Sustainability Laws With Focus On Environmental S...IJSRED
This document provides an overview of international environmental sustainability laws with a focus on Nigeria. It discusses how increased human activity has negatively impacted the environment. It also outlines key international agreements and policies around sustainable development, including the Brundtland Report and Agenda 21. While sustainable development aims to balance environmental protection, economic growth, and social welfare, there is some controversy around developing countries viewing sustainability standards as limiting their growth. The document argues that countries should have autonomy in choosing their own path to development.
Climate Refugees: Uncertainty and InsecurityJosh Gellers
This lecture presents the precarious state of climate refugees, whose status is not defined under current international law. It examines several case studies (Syria, Tuvalu, and Kivalina) in which populations are on the move or are under imminent danger as a result, directly or indirectly, of climate change. The presentation also evaluates several possible solutions devised by legal scholars and political scientists to address to what many regard as an impending crisis.
1. Environmental degradation and climate change are causing increasing displacement both within and across borders. Millions have been temporarily or permanently displaced by sudden disasters, drought, and rising sea levels.
2. Most displacement currently occurs within countries, but some cross borders, such as Bangladeshis migrating to India or Central Americans to Mexico. Small island nations facing total submersion may require population resettlement.
3. Existing organizations are assisting displaced populations, but greater international cooperation will be needed to address the growing challenges of environmental migration in the future.
Environmental refugees: Searching for the hauntIARI, NEW DELHI
Environmental refugees are the people,
who can no longer access a secure
livelihood in their motherlands because of
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c a l a m i t i e s l i k e
d e s e r t i c a t i o n , c l o u d b u r s t i n g ,
deforestation, ooding, tsunami,
e r o s i o n , l a n d s l i d i n g a n d o t h e r
environmental problems, together with
the associated problems of population
pressures and prevalent poverty.
The document summarizes environmental migration in Darfur, Sudan. It describes how drought and decreasing rainfall have led to degradation of natural resources and conflict between farmers and herders. Climate change is projected to further reduce the growing season. This has displaced millions within Sudan, including over 272,000 in Darfur as of 2019. The conflict in Darfur began in 2003 when rebels protested the government's disregard for the region. In response, government-backed militias terrorized civilians and prevented aid, leading to further displacement. Environmental issues like water scarcity, degradation, and climate change have exacerbated the conflict by increasing competition over scarce resources.
The adverse impact of ecosystem degradation and poor governance on marginaliz...NAAR Journal
This document summarizes a research article that investigates how ecosystem degradation and poor governance negatively impact marginalized people in Bangladesh. It finds that households have lost on average 0.2636 hectares of cropland and 2.59 local fish species have disappeared from local water bodies. Over three-fourths of respondents also perceive that access to local ecosystem services is decreasing. However, over half of respondents pay bribes of $6.82 on average to access ecosystem services. The combination of ecosystem degradation and corruption negatively influences the income, employment, and spending of marginalized communities, making them even more vulnerable while wealthier groups benefit. The study aims to help identify more sustainable economic development approaches in coastal areas that reduce ecosystem impacts and
1) The document discusses how climate change could displace millions of people globally and strain existing refugee protection frameworks. It focuses on Russia's experience with migration and climate policies.
2) Russia established agencies like the Federal Migration Service after the Soviet Union's collapse to manage large influxes of ethnic Russian migrants from neighboring states. However, inconsistent regional policies undermined these efforts.
3) Russia is vulnerable to climate change impacts like permafrost thaw and flooding due to its geography and emissions. A 2009 climate doctrine committed to mitigation and recognized growing public concern about climate threats.
International Environmental Sustainability Laws With Focus On Environmental S...IJSRED
This document provides an overview of international environmental sustainability laws with a focus on Nigeria. It discusses how increased human activity has negatively impacted the environment. It also outlines key international agreements and policies around sustainable development, including the Brundtland Report and Agenda 21. While sustainable development aims to balance environmental protection, economic growth, and social welfare, there is some controversy around developing countries viewing sustainability standards as limiting their growth. The document argues that countries should have autonomy in choosing their own path to development.
Climate Refugees: Uncertainty and InsecurityJosh Gellers
This lecture presents the precarious state of climate refugees, whose status is not defined under current international law. It examines several case studies (Syria, Tuvalu, and Kivalina) in which populations are on the move or are under imminent danger as a result, directly or indirectly, of climate change. The presentation also evaluates several possible solutions devised by legal scholars and political scientists to address to what many regard as an impending crisis.
1. Environmental degradation and climate change are causing increasing displacement both within and across borders. Millions have been temporarily or permanently displaced by sudden disasters, drought, and rising sea levels.
2. Most displacement currently occurs within countries, but some cross borders, such as Bangladeshis migrating to India or Central Americans to Mexico. Small island nations facing total submersion may require population resettlement.
3. Existing organizations are assisting displaced populations, but greater international cooperation will be needed to address the growing challenges of environmental migration in the future.
Sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. It requires balancing social progress, environmental protection, prudent resource use, and economic growth. However, continued economic growth risks depleting natural capital like forests, fisheries, water, and causing environmental degradation like climate change. Measuring wealth in terms of inclusive capital, including natural capital, shows lower growth rates than GDP in many countries due to resource depletion and pollution. Urgent action is needed to transition to more sustainable and equitable models of development and green growth.
1. The document discusses the water-energy-food nexus (WEF-N), which recognizes the interconnectedness between water, energy, and food resources and policies. Managing these resources requires cooperation across government, private sector, and civil society stakeholders.
2. Population growth, economic development, and climate change are increasing demands for water, energy, and food globally. Coordinated policies and stakeholder participation are needed to develop solutions that balance these growing needs with environmental sustainability.
3. Media and communication play an important role in raising awareness of issues, facilitating stakeholder participation in decision-making, and promoting cooperation around managing the WEF nexus.
This document discusses the relationship between climate change, deforestation, and global public health. It summarizes that climate change and deforestation can impact health through changes in weather patterns, spread of diseases, and loss of forest resources. Physicians often lack training in environmental health, while forests provide nutrition, income and traditional medicines important for communities. International organizations are working to address these issues, but more coordinated efforts are still needed to understand and mitigate the public health effects of climate change and deforestation.
This document discusses the links between climate change and conflict based on a report by the Environmental Justice Foundation. It finds that climate change will be an increasingly important factor contributing to conflicts, acting as a threat multiplier in situations with existing stressors. Climate change impacts resource scarcity, human migration patterns, and state fragility. One of the most pronounced links is between climate change and access to natural resources, which may exacerbate tensions. Freshwater scarcity is also a significant factor driving political tensions between states. Climate change also presents challenges related to human migration and displacement. Fragile and post-conflict states are particularly susceptible to impacts of climate change. Urgent global action is needed to address climate change and prevent related conflicts.
Another catastrophic earthquake in haiti tropical grace Nancytaban
1) On August 14, 2021, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake struck southwestern Haiti, killing over 2,000 people, injuring thousands more, and damaging or destroying over 130,000 homes.
2) The earthquake exacerbated Haiti's humanitarian crisis, as the country had not yet recovered from the 2010 earthquake and subsequent disasters. Infrastructure was destroyed, limiting access to healthcare and aid.
3) International organizations deployed search and rescue teams, aircraft, and over 1,700 tons of food and relief supplies. Medical evacuations transported over 380 injured people to hospitals. However, increased gang violence since the president's assassination has threatened humanitarian access.
Extraordinary Conditions a Statutory Analysis of Haiti's Qualification for TPSStanleylucas
Since the U.S. government designated Haiti for Temporary Protected Status (TPS) in January 2010 after one of the world’s worst natural disas- ters, the country has undergone two additional catastrophies: the outbreak of cholera, intro- duced into Haiti’s waterways through reckless sanitation at a United Nations military base, and Hurricane Matthew, the strongest hurricane to hit Haiti in more than half a century. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) designates countries for TPS in cases of ongoing armed conflict, natu- ral disaster, or other extraordinary and temporary conditions that prevent the nationals of those countries who have emigrated from safely return- ing to their home country. The DHS redesignated Haiti for TPS in 2011, emphasizing the gravity of the damage that the earthquake had caused and the severity of one of the world’s worst cholera outbreaks. TPS has been extended for Haiti four times since redesignation.1
This document discusses the urgent need to prepare for climate displacement in Myanmar through establishing a Myanmar National Climate Land Bank (MNCLB). It summarizes field missions to communities in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Mon State that are vulnerable to climate impacts like sea level rise and erosion. The missions found that communities are concerned about effects on their livelihoods and lack preparedness. A MNCLB could help mitigate risks of conflict by identifying state land for planned relocation of displaced communities to ensure their rights are protected. The document concludes more action is needed to address climate displacement challenges in Myanmar.
The document discusses the impacts of extreme flooding in South Sudan. Faith Kasina, a spokesperson for UNHCR, states that the flooding is the worst South Sudan has seen in 60 years and is being intensified by climate change. Over 700,000 people have been affected since May by floods, drought, and other crises. Many families have fled to refugee camps in Juba, South Sudan or across the border in Uganda. The ongoing floods are exacerbating problems caused by South Sudan's ongoing civil war, including displacement and lack of access to food and aid.
Herrmann, Victoria. (2017). The United States Climate Change Relocation PlanELEEP Network
The reality of internally displaced communities due to sea level rise, flooding, and extreme storm events in the United States has arrived, and is poised to get worse. However, the US federal government remains ill-prepared to deal with the immense and undeniable human security challenge at hand. At present, there is no dedicated funding, dedicated lead agency, or dedicated policy framework to guide communities in need of relocation. In "The United States’ Climate Change Relocation Plan," Victoria Hermann looks at private, philanthropic, and nonprofit sector engagement in the relocation of American communities displaced by climate change. She proposes a foundation-led effort to coordinate a program providing resources, expertise, support, and guidance to towns in need of managed retreat.
This document summarizes a study on the effects of environmental degradation in Rajshahi City and surrounding areas in Bangladesh. It finds that the Faraqqa Barrage built by India has altered the natural flow of the Padma River, silting it up and reducing water resources. This has damaged biodiversity and people's livelihoods. Migration to urban slums has increased vulnerability to issues like crime, disease, abuse and trafficking. Environmental changes like floods and riverbank erosion linked to the silted river force further migration and spread HIV/AIDS. The degraded environment and poor conditions in slums harm migrants' health and increase vulnerabilities, especially for women and children.
Research Handbook on Climate Change, Migration and the Law - IntroductionGraciela Mariani
Synopsis
This comprehensive Research Handbook provides an overview of the debates on how the law does, and could, relate to migration exacerbated by climate change. It contains conceptual chapters on the relationship between climate change, migration and the law, as well as doctrinal and prospective discussions regarding legal developments in different domestic contexts and in international governance.
This document discusses the impact of climate change on fundamental human rights like the right to life. It argues that the right to life guaranteed by the Indian constitution includes the right to a clean environment. However, India lacks clear laws and policies recognizing climate change and a right to a clean environment. While India has environmental laws and climate policies like the National Action Plan on Climate Change, they are not sufficiently ambitious or effective. Recognizing environmental rights as basic human rights is crucial for protecting populations from the health and environmental impacts of climate change.
Human Mobility, Natural Disasters and Climate Change in the PacificDr Lendy Spires
This document provides background information on a regional consultation regarding human mobility, natural disasters, and climate change in the Pacific. It discusses the complex issues facing Pacific Island countries from increased natural disasters and climate change impacts. While most current displacement in the region is internal and temporary, international migration is common and increasingly linked to environmental factors. The consultation will examine challenges like cross-border displacement, planned relocation of at-risk populations, and developing protections for environmentally-motivated migrants. Representatives from Pacific nations will discuss these issues and their country-specific challenges to inform policy discussions on assisting populations impacted by climate change.
Sustainable development brundtland report, ppp, equityMegha Majoe
A Brief idea on "Our Common Future" - Brundtland report - Sustainable development and different Principles adopted in the conference. i.e Precautionary Principle, polluter pays principle, Inter and intragenerational equity, Public Trust Doctrine etc.
A presentation given to the Conference of INGOs committee for Democracy, Social Cohesion and Global Challenges on the significance of climate change as one of the complex factors affecting migration.
The conclusion suggests that climat change is a critical factor in all aspects of the work that the Council of Europe is involved in and that environmental issues - especially sustainable development - should be a top priority for its future work
O documento discute as principais infecções hospitalares, incluindo infecções do trato respiratório, infecção do trato urinário e infecção de sítio cirúrgico. Ele fornece definições, fatores de risco, medidas preventivas e referências bibliográficas sobre esses tipos de infecção adquirida no hospital.
Este documento presenta una revisión del tratamiento de aguas residuales en Colombia. Describe los sistemas de tratamiento e implementados en países como Israel y las directrices de la Unión Europea. Analiza las razones por las cuales Colombia se ha atrasado en este tema, incluyendo falencias en la legislación y falta de planeación. Explica los diferentes métodos de tratamiento como sedimentación, filtración y procesos biológicos, y cómo estos se usan para remover diferentes tipos de contaminantes.
Sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. It requires balancing social progress, environmental protection, prudent resource use, and economic growth. However, continued economic growth risks depleting natural capital like forests, fisheries, water, and causing environmental degradation like climate change. Measuring wealth in terms of inclusive capital, including natural capital, shows lower growth rates than GDP in many countries due to resource depletion and pollution. Urgent action is needed to transition to more sustainable and equitable models of development and green growth.
1. The document discusses the water-energy-food nexus (WEF-N), which recognizes the interconnectedness between water, energy, and food resources and policies. Managing these resources requires cooperation across government, private sector, and civil society stakeholders.
2. Population growth, economic development, and climate change are increasing demands for water, energy, and food globally. Coordinated policies and stakeholder participation are needed to develop solutions that balance these growing needs with environmental sustainability.
3. Media and communication play an important role in raising awareness of issues, facilitating stakeholder participation in decision-making, and promoting cooperation around managing the WEF nexus.
This document discusses the relationship between climate change, deforestation, and global public health. It summarizes that climate change and deforestation can impact health through changes in weather patterns, spread of diseases, and loss of forest resources. Physicians often lack training in environmental health, while forests provide nutrition, income and traditional medicines important for communities. International organizations are working to address these issues, but more coordinated efforts are still needed to understand and mitigate the public health effects of climate change and deforestation.
This document discusses the links between climate change and conflict based on a report by the Environmental Justice Foundation. It finds that climate change will be an increasingly important factor contributing to conflicts, acting as a threat multiplier in situations with existing stressors. Climate change impacts resource scarcity, human migration patterns, and state fragility. One of the most pronounced links is between climate change and access to natural resources, which may exacerbate tensions. Freshwater scarcity is also a significant factor driving political tensions between states. Climate change also presents challenges related to human migration and displacement. Fragile and post-conflict states are particularly susceptible to impacts of climate change. Urgent global action is needed to address climate change and prevent related conflicts.
Another catastrophic earthquake in haiti tropical grace Nancytaban
1) On August 14, 2021, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake struck southwestern Haiti, killing over 2,000 people, injuring thousands more, and damaging or destroying over 130,000 homes.
2) The earthquake exacerbated Haiti's humanitarian crisis, as the country had not yet recovered from the 2010 earthquake and subsequent disasters. Infrastructure was destroyed, limiting access to healthcare and aid.
3) International organizations deployed search and rescue teams, aircraft, and over 1,700 tons of food and relief supplies. Medical evacuations transported over 380 injured people to hospitals. However, increased gang violence since the president's assassination has threatened humanitarian access.
Extraordinary Conditions a Statutory Analysis of Haiti's Qualification for TPSStanleylucas
Since the U.S. government designated Haiti for Temporary Protected Status (TPS) in January 2010 after one of the world’s worst natural disas- ters, the country has undergone two additional catastrophies: the outbreak of cholera, intro- duced into Haiti’s waterways through reckless sanitation at a United Nations military base, and Hurricane Matthew, the strongest hurricane to hit Haiti in more than half a century. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) designates countries for TPS in cases of ongoing armed conflict, natu- ral disaster, or other extraordinary and temporary conditions that prevent the nationals of those countries who have emigrated from safely return- ing to their home country. The DHS redesignated Haiti for TPS in 2011, emphasizing the gravity of the damage that the earthquake had caused and the severity of one of the world’s worst cholera outbreaks. TPS has been extended for Haiti four times since redesignation.1
This document discusses the urgent need to prepare for climate displacement in Myanmar through establishing a Myanmar National Climate Land Bank (MNCLB). It summarizes field missions to communities in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Mon State that are vulnerable to climate impacts like sea level rise and erosion. The missions found that communities are concerned about effects on their livelihoods and lack preparedness. A MNCLB could help mitigate risks of conflict by identifying state land for planned relocation of displaced communities to ensure their rights are protected. The document concludes more action is needed to address climate displacement challenges in Myanmar.
The document discusses the impacts of extreme flooding in South Sudan. Faith Kasina, a spokesperson for UNHCR, states that the flooding is the worst South Sudan has seen in 60 years and is being intensified by climate change. Over 700,000 people have been affected since May by floods, drought, and other crises. Many families have fled to refugee camps in Juba, South Sudan or across the border in Uganda. The ongoing floods are exacerbating problems caused by South Sudan's ongoing civil war, including displacement and lack of access to food and aid.
Herrmann, Victoria. (2017). The United States Climate Change Relocation PlanELEEP Network
The reality of internally displaced communities due to sea level rise, flooding, and extreme storm events in the United States has arrived, and is poised to get worse. However, the US federal government remains ill-prepared to deal with the immense and undeniable human security challenge at hand. At present, there is no dedicated funding, dedicated lead agency, or dedicated policy framework to guide communities in need of relocation. In "The United States’ Climate Change Relocation Plan," Victoria Hermann looks at private, philanthropic, and nonprofit sector engagement in the relocation of American communities displaced by climate change. She proposes a foundation-led effort to coordinate a program providing resources, expertise, support, and guidance to towns in need of managed retreat.
This document summarizes a study on the effects of environmental degradation in Rajshahi City and surrounding areas in Bangladesh. It finds that the Faraqqa Barrage built by India has altered the natural flow of the Padma River, silting it up and reducing water resources. This has damaged biodiversity and people's livelihoods. Migration to urban slums has increased vulnerability to issues like crime, disease, abuse and trafficking. Environmental changes like floods and riverbank erosion linked to the silted river force further migration and spread HIV/AIDS. The degraded environment and poor conditions in slums harm migrants' health and increase vulnerabilities, especially for women and children.
Research Handbook on Climate Change, Migration and the Law - IntroductionGraciela Mariani
Synopsis
This comprehensive Research Handbook provides an overview of the debates on how the law does, and could, relate to migration exacerbated by climate change. It contains conceptual chapters on the relationship between climate change, migration and the law, as well as doctrinal and prospective discussions regarding legal developments in different domestic contexts and in international governance.
This document discusses the impact of climate change on fundamental human rights like the right to life. It argues that the right to life guaranteed by the Indian constitution includes the right to a clean environment. However, India lacks clear laws and policies recognizing climate change and a right to a clean environment. While India has environmental laws and climate policies like the National Action Plan on Climate Change, they are not sufficiently ambitious or effective. Recognizing environmental rights as basic human rights is crucial for protecting populations from the health and environmental impacts of climate change.
Human Mobility, Natural Disasters and Climate Change in the PacificDr Lendy Spires
This document provides background information on a regional consultation regarding human mobility, natural disasters, and climate change in the Pacific. It discusses the complex issues facing Pacific Island countries from increased natural disasters and climate change impacts. While most current displacement in the region is internal and temporary, international migration is common and increasingly linked to environmental factors. The consultation will examine challenges like cross-border displacement, planned relocation of at-risk populations, and developing protections for environmentally-motivated migrants. Representatives from Pacific nations will discuss these issues and their country-specific challenges to inform policy discussions on assisting populations impacted by climate change.
Sustainable development brundtland report, ppp, equityMegha Majoe
A Brief idea on "Our Common Future" - Brundtland report - Sustainable development and different Principles adopted in the conference. i.e Precautionary Principle, polluter pays principle, Inter and intragenerational equity, Public Trust Doctrine etc.
A presentation given to the Conference of INGOs committee for Democracy, Social Cohesion and Global Challenges on the significance of climate change as one of the complex factors affecting migration.
The conclusion suggests that climat change is a critical factor in all aspects of the work that the Council of Europe is involved in and that environmental issues - especially sustainable development - should be a top priority for its future work
O documento discute as principais infecções hospitalares, incluindo infecções do trato respiratório, infecção do trato urinário e infecção de sítio cirúrgico. Ele fornece definições, fatores de risco, medidas preventivas e referências bibliográficas sobre esses tipos de infecção adquirida no hospital.
Este documento presenta una revisión del tratamiento de aguas residuales en Colombia. Describe los sistemas de tratamiento e implementados en países como Israel y las directrices de la Unión Europea. Analiza las razones por las cuales Colombia se ha atrasado en este tema, incluyendo falencias en la legislación y falta de planeación. Explica los diferentes métodos de tratamiento como sedimentación, filtración y procesos biológicos, y cómo estos se usan para remover diferentes tipos de contaminantes.
This document proposes using sentiment analysis of social media data as an alternative to polls for assessing the performance and determining the winner of political debates. It details a plan to have volunteers score the sentiment of tweets related to presidential debates in the Philippines as positive, negative, or neutral. This scored data would then be used to train machine learning models to automatically classify the sentiment of new tweets and compare sentiment before and after debates to determine who helped their position the most and thereby won the debate.
This document summarizes various fungal eye diseases including blepharitis, keratitis, panophthalmitis, endophthalmitis, and orbital disease. It describes the most common fungal causes such as Fusarium, Candida, Aspergillus, and Mucor. Symptoms and signs vary depending on location and type of fungus. Management involves identifying the causative fungus through cultures or biopsies and using antifungal medications topically or systemically in combination with procedures like debridement, vitrectomy, or surgery as needed. Visual outcomes depend on factors like type of fungus, location, and how quickly treatment is initiated.
Strategies employed by teachers in the management of dyslexia in primary scho...CHIBUIKE CHINE
This document provides an overview of a research study on dyslexia in primary school pupils. It includes an introduction that discusses the background, purpose and significance of studying dyslexia. Chapter 1 introduces the problem, questions and objectives of the study. Chapter 2 reviews literature on the concept, characteristics, types and causes of dyslexia. The study aims to examine the causes and effects of dyslexia in primary schools and develop management strategies. It will use a questionnaire to collect data from a sample of pupils which will then be analyzed and discussed in subsequent chapters.
This document discusses art sponsorship opportunities in Poland in 2016 for the National Theatre in London, National Theatre Warsaw, and Teatr Polonia in Warsaw. It provides information on current sponsorship offers and achievements for each theatre, noting that the offers for National Theatre Warsaw and Teatr Polonia are currently "empty" with no achievements listed.
Your body is communicating with you all the time. Are you listening? See what changes for you when you start paying attention - and use the wisdom of the body to assist you in making choices!
Este documento describe el tratamiento del agua para consumo humano en Colombia. Explica que garantizar el acceso al agua potable es un indicador clave de desarrollo y un objetivo de desarrollo sostenible. Señala que a pesar de la abundancia de recursos hídricos en el país, la gestión inadecuada del agua ha llevado a una disminución en la disponibilidad de agua per cápita. Resalta la importancia de implementar un manejo integral del recurso hídrico para satisfacer las necesidades de agua de
El documento describe los métodos y tecnologías utilizados para optimizar las aguas residuales y darles un segundo uso, como en la agricultura e industria. Se requieren procesos de tratamiento adecuados y estudios previos detallados para poder reutilizar este recurso de manera segura, considerando también los aspectos ambientales y sociales.
Environmental and natural resources economicsMWAIZAVUZYA
This document discusses the relationship between population, poverty, and the environment. It defines key terms like poverty, environment, and population. It then discusses environmental degradation, noting it affects developing countries more and can be caused by both natural disasters and human activities. The document argues there is a two-way relationship between poverty and environmental degradation, where each can cause or exacerbate the other through mechanisms like poor farming practices, overgrazing, deforestation, and more.
ASPHER's ambition in climate change and health educationJohn Middleton
A presentation for the launch of the ASPHER Climate change and health education EU Health Policy Platform network 202207 ASPHER middletonj climate change and health long version.pptx
Tony McMichael public health, ecology & environment award, 2018, lecture delivered in Cairns, Australia September 2018. Public Health Association of Australia
Climate change is unequivocal and largely due to human activities like greenhouse gas emissions. Effects include increased temperatures, sea level rise, and more extreme weather. Family planning can help adaptation by slowing population growth and reducing stress on resources. Many National Adaptation Programs of Action recognize population growth as exacerbating climate impacts but few include family planning in projects. Integrating family planning into community-based adaptation could help address unmet need and strengthen resilience.
Running head THREATS TO THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT COUNTERARGUMENT .docxtodd521
Running head: THREATS TO THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT COUNTERARGUMENT 1
THREATS TO THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT COUNTERARGUMENT 2
Assignment 2: Threats to the Global Environment Counterargument
Karla Davis-Sanchez
SOC450
Dr. John Cronin
June 15, 2020
Threats to the Global Environment Counterargument
The world is facing a series of threats, and the United Nations and other organizations must respond to these threats in order to save the world from deterioration. The severity and impact of these threats is different. The threats discussed earlier are lack of educational opportunities, energy sources, climate change, and poor health of entire populations. Other threats that the world faces, but which must be given priority, are globalization and cultural taboos.
Cultural taboos are another global threat that receives less attention. Although third world countries are still active, the entire population still adheres to cultural prohibitions. Such acts must be seriously condemned, as they will delay the progress of the population concerned. However, since cultural taboos do not have a significant impact overall world-wide, the threat is not given priority as the first four threats. Typical examples of the impact of this threat are the effects of sports, cultural practices, abortion, and circumcision on a person’s model. For example, abortion is a taboo in some cultures, but, logically, in some extreme situations, abortion may be required to save a mother’s life (1, Kugel). Regarding circumcision, scientists have proven that this can reduce the likelihood of contracting HIV / AIDS, but some communities do not practice on culturally unacceptable grounds. The impact of most cultural taboos revolves around people's health, so it can be addressed together, not under a healthy umbrella.
The negative perception of Western culture has shown that the problem of cultural taboos is becoming increasingly serious and long-lasting because no one wants to abandon their culture (2, Williams). As the population still lives racially, it still has a long way to go before it becomes a racist. In a certain part of the population, it is still not believed that blacks and whites can equally share resources and their activities within a single platform (3, Cui). Cases of tribalism, communism and racism impede the creation of a coexisting society, all of which stem from cultural prohibitions.
Globalization is another issue that poses a threat to the global state of the environment. Threats to the health of the world's population limit human progress. However, globalization seeks to improve humanity by reducing poverty and social inequality. According to the United Nations Human Development Indicators (HDI), globalization has increased life expectancy in developing countries due to advances in medical practice and higher living standards because of higher incomes (4, Prados de la Escosura). In addition, globalization has reduced income ineq.
Critical Analysis Of Sustainability PrinciplesTracy Berry
- The SDGs aim to build upon the Millennium Development Goals by setting new global development objectives for 2030.
- Goal 15 focuses on protecting terrestrial ecosystems and halting biodiversity loss. Specifically, targets 15.2 through 15.5 and 15.8 aim to promote sustainable forest management, combat desertification and land degradation, and protect biodiversity.
- However, some of the targets lack clear measurability, which could hinder assessing effectiveness. The success of Goal 15 will depend on establishing quantifiable indicators to monitor progress on these important environmental objectives over the next decade.
ICC Human_Health_v3 on global pollution.pptxRanganathSri1
Climate change is expected to negatively impact human health in Southeast Asia in several key ways:
1) It will exacerbate existing health issues like malaria, dengue, and diarrheal diseases by expanding the range and season of disease vectors. Rising temperatures allow pathogens to spread into new areas and transmit more quickly within vectors.
2) Extreme weather events like cyclones, flooding, and heat waves will increase injuries, deaths and diseases from events like drowning, heat stroke and stress on water and sanitation systems. The poor and vulnerable populations are most at risk.
3) Food insecurity may worsen as crop yields decline from rising temperatures and altered rainfall, increasing malnutrition rates especially in children under five.
The document discusses responses to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the 2010 Haiti earthquake and cholera outbreak. It summarizes that Hurricane Katrina revealed issues with coordination between different levels of government and emergency response organizations. This led to reforms, including clearer definitions of roles and a focus on including all relevant departments. The response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake showed improved organization and deployment of aid. However, the subsequent cholera outbreak highlighted Haiti's vulnerable infrastructure and populations, especially regarding access to clean water. Public health efforts have focused on these issues and supporting vulnerable groups.
Climate change as a high risk factor for health John Middleton
Presentation for the World Committee for lifelong learning (CMA) 4th conference debate at the Cite Des Metiers, Paris, June 22nd 2022
20220622 CMA middletonj climate change and health long version.pptx
This document discusses climate change and migration. It defines key terms like climate, climate change, and environmental migrants. It explores the nexus between climate change and migration and identifies three types: labor migration, distress migration, and managed retreat. It discusses climate event hotspots and the associated types of migration. The document also outlines relevant global policies from the UN including sustainable development goals focused on climate change adaptation and migration. Finally, it proposes a 5-step approach to managing climate-induced migration through prevention, preparation, assistance, mitigation of impacts, and addressing long-term challenges.
POWER OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND POTENTIAL CONFLICTS IN GLOBALIZED WORLDPrashant Mehta
Climate change poses a threat to humanity and has the potential to increase conflicts globally. While some international cooperation on climate change exists, efforts at summits like Copenhagen in 2009 have proven divisive. Scientific research shows that greenhouse gas levels are rising to unprecedented and potentially irreversible levels, increasing global temperatures and fatal consequences. As developing countries like India and China industrialize, maintaining economic growth while addressing climate change will be challenging. Climate change impacts like food and water insecurity could exacerbate environmental stresses and contribute to migration, natural disasters, domestic instability, and conflicts between states if left unaddressed. Large-scale mitigation and adaptation efforts are needed to reduce environmental stresses and prevent future climate-related conflicts.
- Tornadoes in the US have not increased in frequency, intensity or damage since 1950, and may have declined slightly. Floods and hurricanes also show no increasing trends in frequency or intensity over similar periods. Globally, weather-related economic losses have decreased as a proportion of GDP since 1990 despite greater development in vulnerable areas. While human-caused climate change poses risks, the data do not support claims of increasing trends in extreme weather events attributed to climate change. Projections suggest extremes may increase in the future, but detection of impacts on weather events will be difficult for many decades.
Climate change is any change in climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity and that alters the composition of the global atmosphere (United Nations 1992). Climate change is caused by the increment of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels and land use (United Nations 1992). This causes increased radiation of infrared rays back to the earth hence temperature increases through the greenhouse gas effect.
Climate change worldwide is affecting biophysical and social systems (Maitima. J. et al 2009). The spatial extent and intensity of these effects vary geographically from one place to another depending on the location in the global atmospheric systems, regional settings, land cover, land use patterns, topography and weather patterns (Maitima. J. et al 2009). These effects have become a major concern for most countries of the world due to their longterm implications and adverse effects on development activities with developing and underdeveloped nations being the most affected (ECOLAO 2012) Indigenous people are most vulnerable to impacts of climate change due to their high reliance on climate sensitive natural resources, inhabitation of fragile ecosystems and social, economic plus political marginalization (ECOLAO 2012).
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty (also known as a multilateral environmental agreement) that was opened for signature at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and came into force in 1994.
The ultimate objective of the Convention is to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.“ 194 countries signed the UNFCCC showing near universal agreement that there is a problem and that action is required against climate change.
This document discusses the complex relationships between climate change, migration, and conflict. It makes three key points:
1) Most migration occurs within countries rather than across borders, and environmental factors are rarely the sole cause of migration. Climate change is often intertwined with political, economic, and social factors.
2) Migration can increase resilience and be a form of adaptation to environmental and social pressures if enabled by the right policies. It provides benefits through remittances that support communities of origin.
3) Labels like "climate refugees" are problematic as they do not account for the multiple causes of migration and lack of formal legal protections. Understanding local contexts is essential to address challenges of climate-related human mobility.
An introduction to some of the health risks associated with climate change. This presentation was part of the provincial researcher workshops conducted as part of the Adapting to Climate Change in China II project.
Multidisciplinary Journal Supported by TETFund. The journals would publish papers covering a wide range of subjects in journal science, management science, educational, agricultural, architectural, accounting and finance, business administration, entrepreneurship, business education, all journals
Chapter 1
Introduction:
The Environment at Risk
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to:Describe how environmental health problems influence our livesDescribe the potential impacts of population growth upon the environmentState a definition of the term environmental healthList at least five major events in the history of environmental healthIdentify current issues in the environmental health fieldDescribe employment opportunities in the environmental health field
Environmental Quality
Maintaining environmental quality is a pressing task for the 21st century.
Healthy People 2010 GoalsGoal Number 8, Environmental Health: “Promote health for all through a healthy environment.”
Healthy People 2010 Goals (continued)Goal Number 8 Objectives include:Outdoor Air QualityWater QualityToxics and WastesHealthy Homes & Healthy CommunitiesInfrastructure and SurveillanceGlobal Environmental Health
Environmental Health ThreatsTrash that fouls our beachesHazardous wastes (including radioactive wastes) leaching from disposal sites Continuing episodes of air pollution in some areasExposures to toxic chemicalsDestruction of the land through deforestation
Population and Environment: The Three P’s
Pollution Principal DeterminantsPopulation of Health WorldwidePoverty
Pollution
Combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., petroleum and coal) that disperse greenhouse gases into atmosphere may cause
Global warming
Change in distribution of insect vectors
Population
Overpopulation in developing nations is leading to the human population exceeding the carrying capacity of the planet.World population of 10-12 billion during 21st century?Related to urban crowding
Infectious disease epidemics: A consequence of crowding?Avian influenza A (H5N1) virus: outbreaks on poultry farms in Asia
-Health officials were concerned that the virus might mutate, enabling human-to-human transmission and a resulting pandemicSwine flu (H1N1 influenza): spread through North America to other parts of the globe.
-The WHO declared a pandemic.
Swine Flu (H1N1 2009 Virus)Concern that a large proportion of the population might be susceptible to infection with the virusSeasonal influenza vaccine H1N1 strain might not provide protection. During the summer and fall months of 2009, influenza activity peaked.Week ending October 24, 2009—49 of 50 states reported geographically widespread disease.Worldwide (as of 31 January 2010) more than 209 countries and overseas territories or communities reported laboratory confirmed cases of pandemic influenza H1N1 2009, including at least 15174 deaths.
PovertyLinked to population growthOne of the well-recognized determinants of adverse health outcomes
Significance of the Environment for Human HealthExposure to potentially hazardous agents accounts for many of the forms of environmentally associated morbidity and mortality.Examples of hazardous agents are:MicrobesToxic chemicals and m ...
This document summarizes several international frameworks related to climate-induced displacement and identifies gaps. It finds that existing frameworks do not adequately address the needs of climate refugees. Specifically:
1) Frameworks on asylum, displacement, statelessness, environmental change, and human rights were reviewed but found to have limitations when applied to climate-induced displacement.
2) There are gaps in providing protection, adaptation assistance, disaster risk reduction, humanitarian aid, and legal protections for climate refugees.
3) A new overarching framework is needed to holistically address the issues faced by climate refugees and other populations affected by environmental changes.
Managing the Health Effects of Global Warming
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Similar to Climate Migrant Paper_Submission_Final (20)
1. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
CLIMATE MIGRANTS:
EXAMINING CUMULATIVE
HEALTH IMPACTS
Geography 491: Health and Place
Professor: Dr. Denise Cloutier
Nalin Dhillon
V00772301
2. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
1
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Contextualizing Climate Migrants 2
3.0 Where are they coming from? 3
4.0 Determinants of Health Post-Migration 8
4.1 General health determinants for climate migrants 8
4.2 How climate migrants are vulnerable to health
inequities, which as act as determinants to health 9
5.0 Case Studies: Legislation Surrounding 10
Migrant Health Around the World
6.0 A Focus on Cumulative Health Impacts 13
7.0 Discussions and Conclusions 15
3. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
P a g e 1 | 22
1.0 Introduction
Climate migrants are consistently underrepresented on the international stage, receiving limited
attention, governmental support, and resources to help meet their varied health needs following
resettlement. In this paper, climate migrants are conceptualized as individuals who are compelled to
leave their homes and often their communities because of environmental factors, such as climate
change induced events. This neglect in international attention results in a plethora of negative health
consequences for these individuals both prior to and following displacement. The purpose of this paper
is to recognize and understand the cumulative health impacts climate migrants face, and to recognize
that by addressing these cumulative health impacts early on, the overall health and well-being of climate
migrants will improve. The paper will first contextualize climate migrants by explaining their status on
an international scale. Next, it will highlight the regions and nations which are currently the main points
of origin for climate migrants, as well as areas which are anticipated to yield high numbers of climate
migrants in future decades. Third, the social determinants of health which climate migrants are
vulnerable to following resettlement are examined. Case studies examining legislation pertaining to
migrant and refugee health in Canada and Australia, and a major court decision in New Zealand
involving climate migrants are presented next. Finally, the role that cumulative health impacts play in
governing the health of climate migrants will be discussed. Prior to the section focused on cumulative
health impacts, the paper will establish linkages and relationships between the subject matter in
question, and its contributing factors relative to cumulative health impacts. The paper will close with
practical recommendations and conclusions to ensure climate migrants maintain an optimal level of
health following resettlement.
4. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
2
Contextualizing Climate Migrants
Several sources of literature identify climate migrants as individuals who are compelled to relocate due
to significant changes in their surrounding environment which have rendered their place of residence
inhabitable (Biermann & Boas, 2008; McMichael & Barnett, 2012; Warner, 2010). An increase in
extreme weather events exacerbated by climate change, including floods, droughts, and storm surges
are all identified by several sources as key drivers which force people to move, thus rendering them
‘climate migrants’ (Laczko & Aghazarm, 2009; International Organization for Migration, 2014;
McMichael, Barnett, & McMichael, 2012). An all-encompassing, international, legal framework defining
climate migrants has yet to be developed, and this has several implications regarding the health of
climate migrants (Spector, 2015).
The 1951 United Nations (UN) Convention on the Status of Refugees outlines that refugees are
individuals who are forced to permanently flee their homeland due to a “well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political
opinion” (p. 14). Environmental factors are not listed in this original convention, nor has it been
amended to include them. This limiting definition is a key element of this paper, which will be referred
to in subsequent sections. Currently, climate migrants are not guaranteed the same level of support
that political refugees receive from host countries or the international community, which is largely a
function of the incomplete and inadequate definition provided by the UN Convention of the Status of
Refugees (Warner, 2010). These differences are in spite of the fact that 2008 yielded 20 million
environmentally displaced persons as opposed to 4.6 million political refugees (Laczko & Aghazarm,
2009). It was not until 2010 that the United Nations Framework on the Convention of Climate Change
(UNFCC) even recognized that the topic of climate migrants needed to be included in future discussions
regarding climate change, thus exemplifying the lack of international urgency given to forming a
5. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
3
dialogue and conventions to help address the issue (McMichael et al., 2012; Biermann & Boas, 2008).
The definition must be expanded in the future to include climate migrants.
Biermann and Boas (2008) and McMichael et al. (2012) highlight that “climate refugees” is a misleading
and incorrect term, due to the fact that climate migrants are not considered legal refugees on the
international stage. Figure 1 conveys the four primary and appropriate terminologies utilized within
current academia when discussing environmental displacement of refugees.
Figure 1. Where climate migrants fall within environmental displacement: Sources: McMichael et al. (2012) &
Warner (2010)
3.0 Where are climate migrants coming from?
Estimates suggest that 200 million people will be forced to evacuate their homes by 2050 as a direct
result of climate change (Biermann & Boas, 2008). The majority of people expected to be displaced are
residents of the Global South—Asia, Africa, and Latin America—where the risks of climate change
induced events such as flooding and droughts are most pronounced (Biermann & Boas, 2008; Dow &
Downing, 2011).
Environmentally displaced persons: A generalized term
to describe individuals compelled to move because
changing environmental conditions have rendered their
current home and/or living conditions unlivable
Climate migration:
Movement of
environmentally displaced
persons who cross
international borders in
order to relocate
Forced displacement:
Domestic relocation of
environmentally displaced
persons, typically without
external assistance or
resources
Planned resettlement:
Domestic relocation of
environmentally displaced
persons—often
involuntary—by
organizations/government
6. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
4
Marshall Islands and Kiribati have identified themselves and other low-lying island nations in the Pacific,
including the Maldives and Tuvalu, as permanently losing valuable land to sea level rise as a result of
climate change (Pashley, 2015). This is a notion further supported by Biermann and Boas (2008), who
specifically consider these islands to be eventually uninhabitable following a projected 1m rise in sea
level, after which the only alternative for citizens of these island nations will be migration. Figure 2
displays a global map that details the number of people who will be affected from sea level rise by 2011
(Dow & Downing, 2011).
Figure 2. Effect of Sea-Level rise due to Climate Change
Source: The Atlas of Climate Change¸ by Dow & Downing, 2011, Berkley, California: California Press, p. 68.
Figure 2 indicates that up to 17 million people in each Southeast Asian nation of India, China,
Bangladesh, and Vietnam will be impacted by sea level rise alone (Dow & Downing, 2011). Changes in
global rainfall patterns are also anticipated to have a significant impact on the same regions and
consequently on climate migration (Dow & Downing, 2011).
The environmental factors influencing health which drive climate migration are varied and complex; in
addition to immediate threats of rising sea levels and the increased occurrence of extreme weather
7. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
5
events, heat stress and drinking water shortages are also expected to drive migration (Biermann & Boas,
2008; McMichael et al., 2012; Huynen, Martens, & Akin, 2013). Water-borne diseases are also likely to
grow more prevalent, due to storm surges and floods, thus potentially resulting in increased migration
(Boomgard, 2007; McMichael et al., 2012; Warner, 2010). Further, altered weather patterns have been
observed to negatively impact crop yields and therefore food security for individuals of the Global South
(Dow & Downing, 2011; Djoghlaf & Dodds; Warner, 2010). This loss in agricultural productivity not only
holds negative implications for physical health because of malnutrition, but also worsens families’
mental states due to loss of financial independence and livelihood (Warner, 2010). An overview of
decreased global crop outputs is shown in Figure 3; these impacts are most significant in West Africa,
Central Africa, Brazil, and South Asia, exemplifying points of origin for future climate migration (Dow &
Downing, 2011).
Figure 3. Impact of Climate Change on Crop Production.
Source: The Atlas of Climate Change¸ by Dow & Downing, 2011, Berkley, California: California Press, p. 65.
8. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
6
Climate migrants fleeing to urban areas are most vulnerable to chronic diseases such as hypertension,
diabetes, obesity, kidney disease, and cardiovascular illnesses; therefore, preventive measures should
be implemented as soon as possible to mitigate the risk of these diseases (Amara & Aljunid, 2014). The
International Organization for Migration (2014) further states that while migration to urban centers can
offer better health support and access to health services, it can also pose new environmental health
risks, such as the development of respiratory conditions due to air pollution. Housing, employment, ESL
programs, and mental health support are all important determinants of health and must be taken into
account for any regions receiving immigrants (Dickson, Weber, & Takaro, 2014). Several specific nations
have been highlighted as being sources for the greatest number of current and projected climate
migrants, due to the compounding effects of climate change. Within the field of health geography, it is
important to recognize where individuals are emigrating from since each nation and region may present
different health risks that the migrants were previously exposed to; being wary of the varied health risks
associated with climate migration will foster the creation of better health policies for climate migrants
post-migration.
The Nile river floodplain is Egypt’s most populated area. In 1993, its population density was1,600
people per square kilometre (Myers, 1993). As a result of changing agricultural conditions, food
insecurity along the floodplain will drive displacement. Additionally, coastal regions of Egypt will likely
experience a 1m sea level rise by 2050, thus compelling 14 million people to relocate (Myers, 1993). The
1m sea level rise scenario in China will result in the flooding of Shanghai, and an ensuing 26.8 million
people will be displaced by 2030 (Myers, 1993). India, home to several river deltas and high numbers of
coastal residents, will likely see 30 million people displaced by 2030 because of sea level rise and
consistent river flooding (Myers, 1993). While the source of these statistics dates back to 1993, few
recent studies have compiled similar estimates predicting the number of climate migrants to be
displaced in coming decades. Based on additional research between 1993 and 2016 regarding an
9. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
7
unprecedented growth in greenhouse gas emissions and change in global climatic conditions, it is
reasonable to assume that the above statistics are conservative estimates.
Bangladesh is considered one of the most vulnerable nations to climate change and its resulting health,
environmental, physical, and economical implications (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012; Myers,
1993). The key factors resulting in Bangladesh’s high vulnerability include: extreme poverty, coastal
adjacency, and frequent occurrences of natural disasters (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012). As
the world’s densest nation in terms of population, and being situated a mere 5 metres above sea level, it
is also unequipped to appropriately protect its citizens from drought, sea level increase, and increased
floods and storm surges (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012; Myers, 1993). Sea level rise and
flooding within Bangladesh are also responsible for growing salinization of drinking water via ponds and
wells (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012). Current data estimates that 11% of Bangladesh will be
flooded by 2030, thus affecting upwards of 15 million people (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012).
Internal displacement due to climate change currently occurs more often than broader scale climate
migration; it provides fewer legal obstacles, is closer in proximity, and allows individuals to remain
within their cultural environment (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012; McMichael et al., 2012).
However, internal displacement can only perpetuate itself for a limited time; eventually, nations such as
Bangladesh will no longer offer enough physical space to allow for incoming displaced persons, who at
that point, will be faced with migration as their only option (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012).
4.0 Determinants of Health Post-Migration
4.1 Experiences taking place prior to migration, acting as health determinants
In order to better comprehend the cumulative health impacts climate migrants face, it is important to
be cognizant of the climate migrants’ experiences prior to arriving in the destination country, and how
10. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
8
those experiences (both pre and post) may act as health determinants. Internal displacement, which
may occur before migration, often results in higher incidence of mental health illnesses including post-
traumatic stress disorder and depression (Siriwardhana & Stewart, 2012). The health conditions
contracted as a result of internal displacement often follow climate migrants to their destination
countries, and have the potential to exacerbate future health issues if not immediately addressed. For
example, World War II survivors who were subjected to forced displacement displayed signs of lower life
satisfaction six decades later (Siriwardhana & Stewart, 2012). Migration across the Mediterranean Sea
in winter is perilous, yet is a reality for many migrants from Pakistan, Syria, Somalia, Iran, and
Bangladesh (Brod & Brod, 2015). Once arriving at their destination, climate migrants often experience
domestic displacement camps, which are home to poor living conditions, including poor sanitation and
limited access to food and water (McMichael et al., 2012). Moreover, these camps present heightened
risks of violence and sexual abuse to the internally displaced women (Brod & Brod, 2015; McMichael et
al., 2012). Close living conditions result in greater risks of being exposed to infectious diseases such as
measles, hepatitis, and cholera which may amplify other health issues post-migration (McMichael et al.,
2012).
Degraded mental health post-migration is another prominent concern surrounding refugees and climate
migrants alike. Being forced to leave one’s homeland, where they have built a livelihood and fostered
community ties can often be detrimental to their social and mental well-being (McMichael et al., 2012).
Examples of the most important social determinants of health as identified in a British report included
community resilience, safe and appropriate labour environments, healthy surrounding environments,
and adequate income to support oneself (Marmot & Allen, 2014). The displacement experienced by
climate migrants disrupts all of the above factors, as the individuals are no longer able to support
themselves financially, and have likely retreated to an unknown environment which no longer provides
strong social networks.
11. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
9
4.2 How climate migrants are vulnerable to health inequities, which act as determinants to health
Immigrant status, unemployment, types of employment, and low quality housing are all identified as
sources of health inequities within Britain and other developed nations (Dahlgren & Whitehead, 2007;
Kulkarni & Subramanian, 2009; Working Group on Inequalities, 1980). Health inequities are the
resulting disparities in health between groups of individuals in society, typically due to the avoidable
societal factors listed above (Kulkarni & Subramanian, 2009). Health inequities are major health
determinants, as they have implications for individuals regarding healthcare access and healthy
lifestyles. The Black Report was a groundbreaking British report in 1980, authored by the Working
Group on Inequalities in Health. Amongst its various findings, it determined that workers in lower
employment classes had limited access to healthcare services, likely because of decreased means,
access, and income. This notion supports arguments made by Dahlgren & Whitehead (2007) and
Kulkarni & Subramanian (2009) that working conditions are important determinants of health. The BC
Healthy Living Alliance (2009) outlines the various demographics and societal groups who experience
health inequities, and includes new immigrants (2009). In addition, it is reasonable to assume that many
immigrants and refugees, including climate migrants, face employment challenges upon relocation,
which as evidenced above, act as barriers to attaining optimal health.
After identifying and recognizing the social factors causing health disparities and negative health
conditions, the same factors must also be analyzed to determine how they have resulted in health
inequities amongst disadvantaged populations, such as climate migrants (Kulkarni & Subramanian,
2009). A key point is that negative health issues do not have a uniform distribution spatially, ethnically,
or across income levels (Kulkarni & Subramanian, 2009). Advancements in health research,
technologies, and medical procedures may adequately address diseases and health conditions, but will
not inherently eliminate inequities (Kulkarni & Subramanian, 2009).
12. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
10
The BC Healthy Living Alliance (2009) provides local examples of the health challenges faced by new
immigrants who arrive in British Columbia. Migrant status as a social determinant of health is also
supported by the International Organization for Migration (2014), which states that migrants experience
greater barriers to receiving proper treatment, as well as having an increased risk of contracting
diseases. Research has confirmed that immigrants who were in relatively good health prior to arriving in
their host country often experience declines in health, mainly attributed to added stressors, adjustment
difficulties, and a loss of social networks (BC Healthy Living Alliance, 2009; Ng, 2015). This conclusion
illustrates that migration to a new country with a more stable government, fewer climate change
induced disasters, and improved standards of living does not automatically guarantee optimal health for
immigrants.
5.0 Case Studies: Legislation Surrounding
Migrant Health Around the World
The lack of recognition on an international scale regarding climate migrants as refugees presents
significant health implications, both cumulative and acute. In particular, Canada and Australia are
highlighted as obstructing the health of migrants and refugees post-movement; specific pieces of
Canadian legislation which have prevented immigrants and refugees from attaining optimal health are
presented first.
Canada’s Bill C-31, which was implemented under the Conservative government in 2012, drastically
reduced access to healthcare for refugees and recent immigrants (Eggertson, 2015; Payton, 2014;
Taylor, 2015). These cuts were vast, including a loss of counselling, vision, and dental services
(Eggertson, 2015). Further, this piece of legislation cancelled additional coverage, including prenatal
coverage as well as coverage for privately sponsored refugees fleeing from more stable nations. The
result created classes of refugees and immigrants with different levels of healthcare coverage
13. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
11
(Eggertson, 2015). Based on previous discussions regarding the international definitions of refugees,
and the fact that climate migrants are often not fleeing politically unstable nations, any climate migrants
arriving in Canada after 2012 would have likely been receiving extremely limited healthcare coverage, if
any at all. The government’s rationale was based on preventing illegal immigrants from gouging the
Canadian healthcare system; however, legitimate, privately sponsored refugees were also barred from
accessing needed services (Webster, 2015). The 2014 Federal Court ruling cited these cutbacks as
‘unconstitutional,’ as they clearly violated basic human rights of refugees and immigrants by placing
their health at risk, however, the federal government failed to reverse the legislation (Payton, 2014;
Webster, 2015). Further, the decision highlighted Bill C-31 as being especially damaging to child
refugees, who at a critical growth and development period in their lives, cannot afford to be deprived of
basic healthcare services (Payton, 2014).
Bill C-49, also legislated by the Conservative government, removed time limits on refugee deportation:
such that refugees could be deported at any time, regardless of a pending application, the amount of
time they have spent in Canada, or their employment status (Burr, 2011). Together, Bills C-49 and C-31
pose significant risks to the mental and psychological health of refugees, by creating further legal
obstacles hindering their ability to remain within the country (Burr, 2011; Taylor, 2015). Bills C-49 and
C-31 have allowed the federal government to easily and immediately imprison refugees arriving on
human smuggling ships, and reserve the right to refuse recognition of refugee status; due to the lack of
international support directed at climate migrants, they often must resort to illegal entry via ships when
forced to migrate (Burr, 2011; Taylor, 2015). Heightening the difficulties already involved with applying
for permanent residency, Canadian physicians agree that both bills impose unnecessary psychological
stress on refugees, worsening their mental health and infringing upon their personal security (Burr,
2011; Taylor, 2015). A case study of 43 walk-in clinics in Ottawa, following the enactment of Bill C-31,
found that only 14 of the clinics treated refugees without requiring upfront payment; four of them did
14. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
12
not treat the refugees at all, and 25 demanded payment before treatment (Eggertson, 2015). The
physician consensus was similar, noting that refugees should not be compelled to provide payment
initially, then attempt to be reimbursed at a later date (Eggertson, 2015). Doing so invokes excess stress
on refugees. Both bills and their resulting implications are examples of how stress accumulates and
affects the health of climate migrants.
Laws promoting poorer health for refugees are also in effect in Australia, with many parallels to the
Canadian legislations previously described. Australia has been found to regularly detain refugees upon
entry, which has been linked to self-harm, suicides, and overall poor mental health for adults and
children alike (Taylor, 2015). To counteract the poor treatment of refugees, the province of Western
Australia has enacted a successful program involving comprehensive screening for paediatric refugees,
followed by referring the children to paediatric specialists to address their specific health needs (Francis,
Mutch, Rutherford, & Cherian, 2012). However, a universal program as such is lacking throughout all of
Australia, and Francis et al. (2012) call upon the federal government to enact universal health coverage
targeted at paediatric refugees. Paediatric refugees are susceptible to vitamin and mineral deficiencies,
as well as various infections including schistosomiasis, tuberculosis, malaria, and Hepatitis B (Francis et
al., 2012). Further, separation from close family and friends and living in refugee camps combined with
their young age has been proven to exacerbate issues of post-traumatic stress disorder (Francis et al.,
2012).
A 2015 New Zealand court case denying a family status as climate refugees is a further example of the
lack of international compassion and support provided for climate migrants. The couple in question
arrived in New Zealand in 2007, and felt compelled to remain in the country past their permit expiration
in 2010 because of rising sea levels and fears of drinking water contamination in their home nation of
Kiribati (Dastgheib, 2015). When it was eventually brought to the attention of police that the couple
15. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
13
and their three children had overstayed their permit; they were then sentenced to deportation
(Dastgheib, 2015). The family’s lawyer argued that their basic civil rights stipulated that they should be
granted refugee status. The safety and security of their children was threatened due to fear of storm
surges, losing their home to rising sea levels, and health risks associated with water contamination
(Dastgheib, 2015). However, the judge denied the request because the family was not considered legal
refugees under the UN Convention on the Status of Refugees: they would not be exposed to political
turmoil or immediate government harm upon return to Kiribati (Dastgheib, 2015). After being denied
refugee status, the family was forced to return to Kiribati (Dastgheib, 2015).
6.0 A Focus on Cumulative Health Impacts
Combined and compounded health risks, also known as cumulative health impacts, are frequently
experienced by climate migrants, and are hypothesized to have significant effects on their post-
migration health (Alexeeff, Faustk, August, Milanes, Randles, Zeise, & Denton, 2012). Cumulative health
impacts can be described as health issues which manifest and persist over an extended period of time
(Morello-Frosch, Zuk, Jerrett, Shamasunder, & Kyle, 2011). They can also be considered as positive
feedback loops: continual, compounding effects resulting in new negative health conditions, of which
each are more severe than the previous (Dahlgren & Whitehead, 2007). Cumulative health impacts are
not often taken into account when designing health prevention and remediation strategies; however,
they are key underpinnings to the overall health of climate migrants. They begin to take effect when
climate change induced events compel the migrants in question to relocate, whether internally or in the
form of cross-border migration. The simple notion of losing all community ties and independence
because of climate change induced events, followed by a state of limbo and loss of identity due to not
being legally recognized as climate refugees, acts as the base from which many future health issues
stem.
16. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
14
A preferred technique for addressing issues caused by cumulative health impacts involves addressing
the health concerns from all four levels of health determinants as identified by Dahlgren & Whitehead:
socio-economic, cultural, and environmental conditions; living and working conditions; social and
community networks; and individual lifestyle factors (2007). Doing so avoids a reductionist approach, in
which each cumulative impact is viewed as separate and non-related from other observed health
impacts (Dahlgren & Whitehead, 2007). A key identifier of cumulative health impacts is that it is a
product of several different sources. Therefore, comprehensive solutions are the most conducive, such
as the solution presented above, in which multiple factors are taken into account to devise an
appropriate framework (Dahlgren & Whitehead, 2007). Removing legal barriers, such as Bill C-31, for
climate migrants when accessing healthcare; improving employment opportunities targeted at climate
migrants; and assisting climate migrants in establishing new social ties in the communities they have
resettled in are all viable methods for which the above model can be used to improve climate migrant
health.
Health inequities have also been determined to be functions of cumulative health impacts, and can be
transferred between generations if not appropriately addressed (Working Group on Inequalities in
Health, 1980). The Black Report study (1980) referenced by Dahlgren & Whitehead (2007), provided an
example of children whose guardians were either unemployed, part of lower occupational classes, or
driven to dwell in low-quality housing. The risks of morbidity and mortality these children faced in
comparison to their peers were significantly heightened because of the described cumulative health
impacts which acted as determinants to their health. The correlation between these examples and
children of climate migrants is high: allowing the cumulative health impacts of climate migrants to
develop and escalate will not only negatively impact their own health, but will likely be detrimental to
the health of their children as well.
17. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
15
While not having a specific focus on climate migrants, the California Environmental Protection Agency is
in the process of examining the cumulative, physiological effects of air pollution based on the rationale
that the negative health of vulnerable populations may be exacerbated by degraded air quality (Alexeeff
et al., 2012). The US Environmental Protection Agency’s 2003 Framework for Cumulative Risk
Assessment also argues that cumulative environmental effects should be taken into greater
consideration within the public health realm (Alexeef et al., 2012). In addition to the physical
environment, Morello-Frosch et al. (2011) support the view that cumulative health impacts also include
psychosocial factors. Morello-Frosch et al. (2011) further argue that cumulative impacts must be
included in scientific conclusions regarding health risks, as cumulative social health impacts play major
roles in amplifying health conditions which may have been initially caused by biological/environmental
stressors. Recognizing that the health inequities faced by of climate migrants are cumulative, and
products of past and present mental, social, physical, and environmental factors is an important step to
ensuring appropriate health prevention strategies are exercised.
7.0 Discussions and Conclusions
A stronger focus on the plight of climate migrants is needed to compassionately and adequately address
the health of climate migrants after they have resettled in their destination country. Mental and social
health issues should clearly be of primary concern; these issues can be addressed by helping them build
social networks and better their English language skills post-migration (Goodkind, Jess, Isakson, LaNoue,
Githinji, Roche, Vadnais, & Parker, 2014). In particular, facilitating social and community connections
between fellow migrants, and those of similar cultural and ethnic backgrounds are deemed the most
helpful interventions for improving social health (Goodkind et al., 2014). Migrant families often learn
cultural customs and language skills from their own children (Kopinak, 1999); therefore, it is essential for
young migrants not to be overlooked by health practitioners either, as argued by Francis et al. (2012).
18. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
16
Meanwhile, addressing the acute, physical health, and social needs of migrants and refugees often holds
a two-fold benefit: not only are the physical issues remedied, but the patients are then able to feel like
valued, independent, equal, and contributing members of society (Goodkind et al., 2014). The case of
providing reading glasses to refugees from Burundi, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo was
provided as an example (Goodkind et al., 2014). After receiving the prescription lenses, the refugees
were able to further their English literacy skills, search for employment, as well as gain additional
independence as part of their daily lifestyles (Goodkind et al., 2014).
Undoubtedly amendments to international legislation concerning refugees must be made to climate
migrants as refugees; however, Dickson, Webber, & Takaro (2014) further suggest that in order for the
health needs of climate migrants to be met following resettlement in Canada, it is necessary for “Climate
migrants to be granted permanent residency on humanitarian and compassionate grounds” (p.6). Doing
so would remove many of the barriers surrounding access to healthcare, as well as remove external
stressors imposed on climate migrants post-resettlement. Dickson et al. (2014) also highlight mental
health, employment, and English language courses as target areas for providing specific support
programs to climate migrants immediately following migration to their destination nation.
Rather than considering refugee populations to be deficient in some way to workplaces and employers,
they should be acknowledged as having a wide array of competencies and skillsets to contribute to the
workforce (Kopinak, 1999). They typically possess strong resiliency, determination, and problem-solving
skills that would be transferrable to many workplaces (Kopinak, 1999). Reducing barriers for climate
migrants regarding employment consequently ensures an adequate level of health is maintained
following migration.
Climate migration is an extremely complex issue which we as society have only recently begun to pay
heed to. It has already begun to affect the entire globe, and this issue will only increase in magnitude
19. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
17
and severity as climate change induced events grow more severe and frequent in the future. Twenty
million environmentally displaced persons were estimated in 2008, while sea level rise in Bangladesh
alone is expected to displace over 15 million people by 2030 (Environmental Justice Foundation, 2012;
Laczko & Aghazarm, 2009). The physical loss of significant portions of land to sea level rise, and
changing climatic conditions rendering other regions uninhabitable are major concerns which will drive
people to pursue cross border migration, simply to find available land to live on. Climate migrants can
no longer be ignored by the developed world; they are an inevitable outcome of climate change, and
developed nations must be prepared to accept increasing numbers of climate migrants in the coming
decades. Identifying climate migrants as distinct from political refugees and other types of immigrants is
key in developing appropriate healthcare policies targeting climate migrants.
Many of the primary health challenges climate migrants face stem from inadequate international
legislation which refuses to acknowledge climate migrants as refugees. The New Zealand court case in
which climate migrants were denied refugee status exemplifies the lack of support provided for
individuals displaced from their homes due to climate change induced events. This paper also
highlighted Canadian legislation, specifically Bills C-31 and C-49 that have been criticized by healthcare
professionals as hindering the progression of refugee and migrant health status following resettlement
in Canada. These acts must be amended in order to better meet the health needs of migrants.
However, in many instances, they would be considered irrelevant without creating a separate,
internationally recognized class of refugees consisting of persons forced to relocate because of climate
change induced events.
It is important to consider the long-term cumulative health impacts on climate migrants’ experiences
within their destination country post-migration. Immigrants, and particularly climate migrants, are not
guaranteed better health post-migration simply because they have arrived in a nation which is not
20. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
18
plagued by the problems experienced in their home country. Instead, barriers to receiving healthcare, a
lack of social networks, social isolation, lack of language skills and barriers to employment, and urban
environmental health risks are examples of factors contributing to cumulative health impacts. Health
inequities also influence cumulative health impacts, and are often experienced by climate migrants,
acting as obstacles to attaining an optimal state of overall health and well-being. Recognizing the
geographical areas where climate migrants are currently being displaced from, and expected to be
displaced from in future decades, provides better insight into the primary health concerns the migrants
have faced prior to leaving their home nation.
Cumulative health impacts are important factors to consider when designing health prevention
strategies. In regards to best meeting the health needs of climate migrants post-migration, recognizing
the types of the cumulative impacts which climate migrants experience should be considered the initial
stage in planning health policies. Examples of these cumulative health impacts range from not being
recognized as legal refugees, to being deprived of basic healthcare access, to losing important social and
community ties, to contracting diseases and health conditions as a direct result of climate change
induced events. Recognizing and addressing these challenges will ideally result in the existing health
conditions of climate migrants being mitigated, as well as helping to prevent new health issues from
emerging.
.
21. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
19
References
Alexeeff, G. V., Faustk J. B., August, L. M., Milanes, C., Randles, K., Zeise, L., & Denton, J. (2012). A
Screening Method for Assessing Cumulative Impacts. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 9(2), 648-659. Doi: 10.3390/ijerph9020648
Amara, A. H., & Aljunid, S. M. (2014). Noncommunicable diseases among urban refugees and asylym-
seekers in developing countries: a neglected health care need. Globalization and Health, 10 (24).
Doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-10-24
BC Healthy Living Alliance. Healthy Futures for BC Families: Policy Recommendations for Improving the
Health of British Columbians. Vancouver, BC, CAN: BC Healthy Living Alliance, 2009. ProQuest
ebrary. Web. 31 January 2016.
Biermann, F., & Boas, I. (2008). Protecting Climate Refugees: The Case for a Global Protocol.
Environment, 50(6), 8-17. Retrieved from EBSCOhostCurtis, (2010). Space, Place, and Mental
Health. Retrieved from
http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9780754690405_sample_947373.pdf
Boomgaard, P. (Ed.). (2007). World of Water: Rain, rivers, and seas in Southeast Asian histories.
Netherlands: KITLV Press.
Brod, L. & Brod, S. (2015, November). Icy reception. The Economist, 49.
Burr, W. (2011). Refugee health. CMAJ, 183(1), E49-E52. Doi: 10.1503/cmaj.109-3753
Dahlgren, G. & Whitehead, M. (2007). Policies and strategies to promote social equity in health,
Institute for Future Studies, 2007:14. Retrieved from:
http://s2.medicina.uady.mx/observatorio/docs/eq/li/Eq_2007_Li_Dahlgren.pdf
Dastgheib, S. (2015, September 22). Kiribati climate change refugee told he must leave New Zealand.
The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/22/kiribati-
climate-change-refugee-told-he-must-leave-new-zealand
Dickson, S., Webber, S., & Takaro, T. K. (2014). Preparing BC for Climate Migration. Climate Justice
Project. Retrieved February 29, 2016, from
https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/BC%20Office/2014/11/c
cpa-bc_ClimateMigration_web.pdf
Djoghlaf, A. & Dodds, F. (Eds.). (2011). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Insecurity. London, England:
Earthscan.
Dow, K., & Downing, T. E. (2011). The Atlas of Climate Change. Berkley California: University of
California Press.
Eggertson, L. (2015). Optimism for restoration of refugee health care. CMAJ, 188(1), E1-E2. Doi:
10.1503/cmaj.109-5196
22. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
20
Environmental Justice Foundation. (2012). A nation under threat: The impacts of climate change on
human rights and forced migration in Bangladesh. Retrieved Mar 6, 2015, from
http://ejfoundation.org/sites/default/files/public/A_Nation_Under_Threat.pdf
Francis, J., Mutch, R. C., Rutherford, D. M., & Cherian, S. (2012). Universal Paediatric Refugee Health
Screening. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 48, 1048-1049. Doi: 10.1111/j.1440-
1754.2012.02598.x
Goodkind, J. R., Jess, J. M., Isakson, B., LaNoue, M., Githinji, A., Roche, M., Vadnais, K., & Parker, D. P.
(2014). Reducing refugee mental health disparities: A community-based intervention to address
postmigration stressors with African adults. Psychological Services, 11(3). 333-346. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/10.1037/a0035081
Huynen, M., Martens, P., & Akin, S. (2013). Climate change : an amplifier of existing health risks in
developing countries. Environment, Development, and Sustainability, 15(6), 1425-1442. Doi:
10.1007/s10668-013-9450-4
International Organization for Migration. (2014). Retrieved February 8, 2016, from
http://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_outlook.pdf
Kopinak, J. K. (1999). The Health of Bosnian Refugees in Canada. Ethnicity & Health, 4(1-2), 65-82. Doi:
10.1080/13557859998209
Kulkarni, V. S & Subramanian, S. V. (2009). Social Perspectives on Health Inequalities. A Companion to
Health and Medical Geography, 20, 375-398. Doi: 10.1002/9781444314762.ch20
Laczko, F. & Aghazarm, C. (Eds.) (2009). Migration, Environment and Climate Change: Assessing the
Evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration.
Marmot, M. & Allen, J. J. (2014). Social Determinants of Health Equity. American Journal of Public
Health, 104(S4), S517-S519.
McMichael, C., Barnett, J., & McMichael, A. J. (2012). An Ill Wind? Climate Change, Migration, and
Health. Environmental Health Perspectives, 120(5), 646-654, doi: 10.1289/ehp.1104375
Morello-Frosch, R., Zuk, M., Jerrett, M., Shamasunder, B., & Kyle, A. D. (2011). Understanding The
Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy. Health Affairs,
30(5), doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153
Myers, N. (1993). Environmental Refugees in a Globally Warmed World. American Institute of Biological
Sciences, 43(11), 752-761. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1312319
Ng, E. (2015). The healthy immigrant effect and mortality rates. Retrieved March 13, 2016, from
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2011004/article/11588-eng.htm
Pashley, A. (2015, October 6). Climate change migrations is “genocide,” says Marshall Islands minister.
Climate Home. Retrieved from http://www.climatechangenews.com/2015/10/05/climate-change-
migration-is-genocide-says-marshall-islands-minister/
23. DHILLON, NALIN Climate Migrant Health Impacts
21
Payton, L. (2014, July 4). Federal government to appeal ruling reversing “cruel” cuts to refugee health.
CBC News. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/federal-government-to-appeal-ruling-
reversing-cruel-cuts-to-refugee-health-1.2696311
Siriwardhana, C. & Stewart, R. (2012). Forced migration and mental health: prolonged internal
displacement, return migration and resilience. International Health, 5(1), 19-23. Doi:
10.1093/inthealth/ihs014
Spector, J. (December 7, 2015). The Paris agreement won’t do anything to protect climate refugees.
Grist Magazine. Retrieved from, http://grist.org/climate-energy/the-paris-agreement-wont-do-
anything-to-protect-climate-
refugees/?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=tweet&utm_campaign=socialflow
Taylor, L. (2015). Designated inhospitality: the treatment of asylum seekers who arrive by boat in
Canada and Australia. McGill Law Journal, 60(2), 333. Retrieved from
http://www.journal.law.mcgill.ca
Warner, K. (2010). Global environmental change and migration: Governance challenges. Global
Environmental Change, 20(3), 402-413. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.12.001
Webster, P. C. (2015). Canada criticised over refugee health-care restrictions. The Lancet, 386(10002),
1436. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00457-2
Working Group on Inequalities in Health. (1980). Black Report. London: England. U.K. Government
Social Services