1. Environmental Degradation Affecting Community and Increasing Social Vulnerability: A Study on
Rajshahi City and Its nearby areas, north-western part of Bangladesh
Ch. Md. Khalid Hussain Ershad
ABSTRACT
Human migration and socio-economic challenges are particularly affected by environmental
degradation. While Migration is regarded as a coping strategy in search of a better livelihood option
or to escape from discrimination and oppression, environmental causes are emerged as issues of
forced migration and increasing the vulnerability in both origins and destination. This study
contributes to understand the link between migration and environment affected vulnerable factors
with risk situations in Rajshahi, the north-western part of Bangladesh also the issues. It is revealed
that Faraqqa Barrage of India curved a devastating geo-environmental and biodiversity change of
the region affect natural water flow of river named Padma (Ganges) and people’s dependency on
water of the rivers, canal and ponds damaging water resources. It has silted up the river. In the
process of urbanization, the slum has been developed at the bank of Padma demonstrating
vulnerability to crime, smuggling, physical insecurity, skewed distribution of basic services, health
problems, sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking. In modern-day slavery of trafficked victims and
forced labor of women and child, migrants face hazards that testify to inadequate opportunities to
migrate safely and legally which is caused by a mixture of legal institutional, political-economic and
socio-cultural factors. Silted up river bank has caused of flood and river bank erosion in the region
during the rainy season and created easy access of cross border undocumented and irregular
migration devastating the vulnerability of trafficking of women and children and HIV/AIDS. Migrants
who are predominantly young girls and children from low income families, affecting river bank
erosion and flood are victimized to commercial sexual exploitation/prostitution and cross border
trafficking. Poor provisions in urban slum has created health hazardous for migrants debilitated by
illness, pain, discomfort and influenced young women and children’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and
forced labor.
Key Words: Environmental Degradation, Migration, Urbanization, Water Resources,
Social Vulnerability
1. INTRODUCTION
Migration is an old phenomenon of human movement across the world. Migration, environmental change,
urbanization and development are complexly dynamics and are socially embedded having many
interlocked dimensions. These concepts imply to the much broader, diverse and multidimensional ideas.
Migration contributes itself to development by creating job opportunities and inflow and use of migrant
remittances. Human movement is characterized as a mean of livelihood strategy for surviving but affected
by social vulnerability, health hazards, abuse, exploitation and trafficking. In the 21st century, the human
mobility has been fostered with raising hopes and expectations of better surviving rather adding to
frustrations and agonies in most cases. It has been the most discussed issues over the past decades in
the South Asian region which is environmental issues such as soil erosion, deforestation, decertification,
atmospheric change, toxic waste and development issues such as poverty, consumption patterns, habitat
and health is also important in areas of environment and over all development. On the other hand, as two
distinct but interrelated phenomena, migration and trafficking have been devastatingly discussed as social
and political issues in national and international agendas. Report of Trafficking in Person (TIP) and
intervention strategies in developing countries like Bangladesh, national and international agencies gave
their concentrations on the two issues. Beyond addressing the roots of migration affecting environmental
change, the intervention strategies mainly emphasised on migration related vulnerability like sexual
abuse, exploitation, human trafficking, STDs/HIV/AIDS. There has been little examined between
migration and environmental change fostering the vulnerability to human beings disclosing the persistent
biodiversity and geo-environmental change. In this study, it is aimed to look for the environment creating
risks and vulnerabilities affecting human beings due to environmental change, environmental degradation
and its contributing factors adversely affects the lives of people.
2. SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

2. The paper explores the risk situation and vulnerability due to environmental causes (degradation), which
affects the human beings. It also spells out particular factors affecting women and children’s human rights
exploring some specific natures of vulnerability in the migration and urbanization process interrelated to
environmental change. The paper has explored that the environmental change has devastating effects on
enforcing both push and pull factors of people’s mobility to survive enduring health hazardous, abuse,
exploitation and risky situation in human lives. So, it has a specific importance to deal with the issues of
environmental change and migration, where the environmental change is severely affecting the poverty
situation to be increased, which is ultimately propelling the people in hazardous and risk like situation.
The study will contribute to knowledge development to address the roots in policy making concentrating
on migration and vulnerability affected by environmental change.
3. CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS
The term ‘environment’ is usually defined as the system of biological and physical resources, and their
process of interaction that affect life and livelihood. However, these biophysical systems are in constant
interaction with human/social systems that live in them (Ahmad 1995: 17). Migration is the movement of
people from one place to another (in case of international migration one country to another) in order to
take up an employment or establish residence, or to seek refuge from persecution. It applies to various
types of movements guided by diverse causes (Gupta 2004: 71). Bangladesh is called a land made for
natural disaster which in rising by environmental change. As Bangladesh is situated at the downstream of
Nepal and less than 10 meters above the sea level, it remains a permanent victim of floods which stem
the deforestation at the upstream in the Himalayas. UNEP estimated that the rise in the sea surface will
bring most parts of the River Ganges basin under water, resulting in more than 30 million “environmental
refugees” a majority of whom will be women and children (Khan 1995: 63). Vulnerability is a set of
conditions resulting from physical, social, economic, and environmental factors that increase the
susceptibility of a community to the effects of hazards.
Urbanization is another of the most dramatic global social transformations of the present century. While
the process of concentration of people in cities has stabilized throughout most of the developed world, the
developing countries are undergoing a great urban explosion (Afsar 1993: 23). Environmental
degradation resulting from poverty, population growth, unplanned industrial development, deforestation,
pressure on land, and air and water pollution, affect both men and women in Bangladesh (Khan 1995:
66). Continuous forest depletion, particularly along the coastal and the Barind regions has made the
situation almost irreversible. Gradual extinction of genetic resources (biodiversity) are now will recognized
ecological crisis. Urban environment is also under threat due to population pressure, inadequate civic
facilities and poor drainages and waste management system etc. (Hassan 1995: 5). Thereby, migration
is affected by socio-economic and environmental factors, which is being intensified by environmental
change and utmost affecting human’s vulnerability in surviving and mobility. The vulnerability of the study
includes health hazardous, discrimination, abuse, exploitation, and human trafficking, where the social
security is largely kept in unsolved. Environmental change itself is creating vulnerability and enforcing
vulnerability in the processes of migration and urbanization.
Figure- 1: Diagram of Vulnerability affected by Environmental Change
3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
It is a social research on the Rajshahi city and its adjacent areas. The study is based on field experience
and observation as primary source of data and different published study and reports as secondary
Environmental
Dradation
Social
Vulnerability
Forced Migration &
Urbanization

3. source. Both primary and secondary sources of data are anthropological revealing the impact of geo-
environmental change of Padma creating vulnerability on human’s mobility and lives. Short list personal
interview is conducted with 52 women and 52 men to assess the particular vulnerability of the migrants,
who are surviving at the bank of river. The field based experience and participatory observation are used
as primary source, which has revealed the reality of the impact of Padma River. The secondary sources
of data are applied to reveal the trends of geo-environmental change disclosing the link of environmental
change affecting people’s surviving and mobility in relation to migration and urbanization.
4. LOCATION OF STUDY AREAS
Bangladesh is composed of recent alluvial deposits laid down by three mighty rivers, the Padma, the
Jumuna and the Meghna and their tributaries and distributaries. Rajshahi is the headquarter of both
district and division of the same name. The Rajshahi city is divisional city located in North-west part of
Bangladesh, one of the four largest cities of Bangladesh. It lies between 24º21′ and 24º26′ north latitudes
and between 88º28′ and 88º28′ longitudes. The city stands on a gigantic but magnificent curve of the
northern bank of the famous river Padma containing. The shape of the city is as like an inverted “T” with
an area of about 47.78 sq. km. The maximum length along east-west direction is about 13 km and along
north-south is 8 km (Rahman 2005: 16). According to census data, the population in the Rajshahi city has
grown at about 6.4% per year over the past decade. According to the estimation, the city population is
1,192,000 in 2007, where 24,947.68 people are living in per sq. km. India is just adjacent of Padma,
opposite site of Rajshahi city.
Study Areas
Rajshahi City
River Padma
Bangladesh
Rajshahi Located
Figure- 2: Map of Study Location
5. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND MIGRATION
Environmental change is both a cause and effect of migration in a complex relationship which exists
between the two elements. In essence, migration is affected by: (a) differences in economic opportunities
and living conditions between places (and countries, for international migration); (b) people’s awareness
of those differences and desire to improve their lives by moving; and (c) their ability to act upon those
desires. The factors that affect migration have been categorized (Lee, 1966) as “push” factors (in the
place of origin) and “pull” factors (in the place of destination). Environmental variables are an element in
both (Bilsborrow 2002: 77). Environmental push-pull factors are either natural or man-made disasters
propelling or heaving people to displace and affect their lives. Environment has been a substantial factor
in shaping the contemporary patterns of population distribution. Myers sees the causes of environmental
displacement in such factors as desertification, deforestation, lack of water, salinisation of irrigated lands,
and bio-diversity depletion. All of these are linked to rapid growth of population in less-developed
INDIA

4. countries as well as to global climate change. Myers believes that environmental changes and the natural
and man-made disasters associated with them are forcing millions of people to flee their homes. This
does not imply that environmental factors always lead directly to displacement. Rather, environmental
pressure leads to land competition, impoverishment, encroachment on ecologically fragile areas and
impoverishment. The macro-level changes lead to pressure on land and other resources. They also
exacerbate the effects of extreme weather events, natural disasters and man-made disasters (like Bhopal
or Chernobyl) (Myers and Kent, 1995 in Castles 2002: 2). In Bangladesh, the environmental major push
factors causing human migration include riverbank shifting, floods, cyclone, droughts, climate change,
desertification, change of current flowing, seasonal crisis, silting up river etc.
6. MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION
Bangladesh is the most densely populated country in the world, excluding city-states such as Hong Kong
and Singapore. The country has a population of about 140 million, with a corresponding population
density of more than 900 per square kilometre (National Institute of Population Research and Training
2005: 2). The density of population is higher in its four largest metropolitan cities. Urbanization in
Bangladesh takes the form of rapid growth of urban population, largely due to natural growth and rural –
urban migration. Large numbers of spontaneous centres grow due to rapid population growth as well as
growing importance of certain local resource that induces economic growth. Both the process of
urbanization and the dynamics of growth of urban centres in Bangladesh are quite different from other
developing countries in South and Southeast Asia (Rahman 2004: 31 – 34). Through the urbanization
and migration process, the trend of population change is increasing the number of floating population by
the side of the roads, rail lines, embankment of the Padma River, etc. According to census data, the
population in the Rajshahi city has grown at about 6.4% per annum over the past decade. At present, the
estimates of population projection for Rajshahi city was around 0.9 million in the year 2000 and over 1
million in the year of 2004. According to the estimation, the city population is 1,192,000 in 2007. The
density of population in Rajshahi city is about 24,948 per square kilometer. About 40% of its population is
living in the slum or sub-slum adjacent Padma.
Population Change
2000 2004 2008
900,000
1,000,000
1,192,000
Year
Populatiom
Figure-3: Population Change by year in Rajshahi City
7. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE LEADING VULNERABILITY
Analyzing the linkages among population, migration and the rural environment is complex because
population pressure and environmental deterioration may both induce out-migration from areas of origin
and be consequences thereof in areas of destination ( UN 2001: 29). For many years, population
geography has, of course, acknowledged the role played by environmental factors in explaining the
history of population and the emergence of cities (Piguet 2008:2). The factors that propel people to leave
their place of origin referred to as “push” factors include both natural disasters and gradual environmental
degradation resulting from human activity. The factors that heave the people (referred to as “pull” factors)
to be concentrated in hopes and expectation of better opportunities for lives and livelihoods rather the
consequences of frustration and agony are observed in most cases in the city slums and other

5. destination. Both sudden natural disasters and gradual human-induced environmental degradation
reduce the productivity of resources and therefore the incomes of those dependent on them. Hence, it
induces out-migration in hopes and better expectation in both origin and destination. Thus, the river
Padma is fostering vulnerability in three ways - firstly, it has made an opportunity for migrants (who are
propelled to migration) to be inhabited; secondly, the silted up river has lost its natural resources and
biodiversity reducing the productive capacities of surface and ground water resources and thirdly, the
silted up river has fostered a migratory space of human, goods smuggling, crime, and flood sifting the
riverbank during rainy season. Thus, the environmental change in the region is fostering multi-
vulnerabilities those are interrelated with each other.
The shifting of major rivers in Bangladesh has long been a dominant environmental problem affecting a
sizeable population. The Padma is one of the major rivers of Bangladesh, flowing from north-west join
with the other big river Jamuna, about middle of the country. The Rajshahi Metropolitan City has been
developed on the basis of potentiality of the river. The most important environmental change in the study
areas is the dramatic change of river named Padam (Ganges). It is the change of natural flow of its
currents because of made of Faraqqa barrage by India. India has made the barrage to shift its water in its
other regions for cultivation. So, the natural flow of water is changed by the controlling system of its
current and it has decreased the natural mobility of water, which ultimately results to silt up the river.
Especially, the controlling system of the river is severe in dry season and causes impoverished shortage
of water in the season. As a result, it causes of geo-environment and biodiversity change of the river
which affects the water resources and human lives and livelihoods. The results of silted up river causes of
riverbank shifting in rainy season because of switch gates of the barrage are made open to out the water
in the rainy season. Our perception is that it is the main of causes of ecological and environmental
problems in the Barind Track.
8. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND DEGRADATION
It is observed that environmental problems augmented by environmental change which includes air and
water quality, pollution and toxicity, etc. have historically strongly been linked with health issues. In the
study areas, the effect of environmental change and degradation entails a number of perceptions such as
lowering of water level increasing ground and surface water contamination, loss of biological diversity
decreasing people’s dependence on water resources, silted up river fostering cross border migratory
space of people and smuggling goods, flood shifting riverbank in rainy season etc. In the Rajshahi city,
the level of urbanization is low, but the high rate of urban population growth around the cities affects all
people through its impact on economical, environmental, health and social safety. The evidence is strong
that current rates of urban population growth pose significant and interacting social and environmental
risks to human well being.
In broad sense of the study, vulnerability entails environment creating vulnerability hampering human
beings which broadens their social and economical vulnerability. With increasing degradation of
environment and riverbank erosion, the population mobility is increasing into urban setups. They are living
with low living standards rather the economic vulnerability is worsening with the rising price of daily used
goods, foods, and decreasing scope of income generation. Ultimately people are falling in health
hazardous, sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking in the process of migration affecting environmental
disappear created whiter man made or natural. The Padma has lost its natural flow and currents heavily
affecting its resources and dramatically rising vulnerable situations in the northern region of Bangladesh.
It has caused the natural environmental change fostering the vulnerability. In the process of migration and
urbanization, the people affected by environmental hazardous are concentrated in the city for lives and
livelihood. In addition, the region is particular vulnerable to cross border illegal/irregular migration and
trafficking of women and children, crime, drug addition, drug and good smuggling.
Table -1: Comparison of Vulnerability of the Study area with National
Vulnerability in Country Vulnerability in Study Areas
Environmental Environmental

6.  Flood
 Char land habitat
 Riverbank Erosion
 Cyclone and Tidal Surge
 Arsenic poisoning
 Earthquake
 Global Warming
 Tornado
 Drought
 Water logging
 Environmental pollution
 Cold wave
 Salinity
 Fire Hazard
 Traffic Jam
 Dengue
 Accidents
 Diarrhoea
 Clinical Wastes and health Hazard
 Environmental pollution
 Scarcity of water
 Garbage
 Flood
 Char land (island) habitat
 Riverbank Erosion
 Cyclone and Tidal Surge
 Arsenic poisoning
 Earthquake
 Global Warming
 Tornado
 Drought
 Water logging
 Environmental pollution
 Cold wave
 Fire Hazard
 Dengue
 Accidents
 Diarrhoea
 Clinical Wastes and health Hazard
 Environmental pollution
 Scarcity of water
 Garbage
Social Social
 Slum Eviction
 Sexual abuse & exploitation
 Irregular migration (internal and Cross
border)
 Illegal Cross Border Migration
 Trafficking in persons (In and Out)
 Crime & smuggling
 Drug addition
 Poor basic needs
 STD/HIV/AIDS
 Slum Eviction
 Sexual abuse & exploitation
 Irregular migration (Internal and Cross
border)
 Illegal Cross Border Migration
 Trafficking in persons (In and Out)
 Crime & smuggling
 Drug addition
 Poor basic needs
 STD/HIV/AIDS
8.1 Lowering of water level and increasing vulnerability
There are two layers of ground water flow in Bangladesh – a shallow layer and deep layer. Most of the
wells are drilled in the shallow layer where the concentration is more. Since present ground water flow in
Bangladesh is very slow due to extremely low hydraulic gradients in the delta region, high concentration
of arsenic along the major riverbank is common (Geeti and Huq 2003: 57 - 59). Rapid urbanization,
population growth, productive and development activities have sharply increased the demand of
consumption of water, and groundwater has become the major source of water. Since the distribution of
water bodies are unequal in time and space, the lack of effective means of regulating water resources
contribute to the difficulties managing water resources in a basin. This leads to excessive dependence on
groundwater in the dry season or in drought years, and serious environmental problems have occurred of
the excessive use of ground water (Zhang, 1998 in Hasan, et. al. 2001: 43-44). The study region is in
Barind track, which has an undulatory geomorphic feature where the central, eastern and western parts
slope to the valleys of the rivers Padma (Ganges), Mahananda, Artai etc. streams and low lying
depressed areas and the groundwater flow direction in pre and post – monsoon follows the surface
gradient. Exploitation or over withdrawal of groundwater resources imposes stress on groundwater
regime distorting the aquifer recharge withdrawal equilibrium and as a result, a continuous decline in
water level may occur causing many adverse surface and subsurface environmental effects (Jahan 2004:
55). Our perception is that because of breaking of natural flow of currents of Padma occurring causes of
silting up, the aquifer recharge is declined and hazarded the groundwater levels and surface water
pollution.
8.2 Hazarding Normal Life

7. Urban slum dwellers are exposed to poor environmental conditions such as overcrowding, poor quality
drinking water and sanitation, no removal of waste. Ignorance and difficult conditions of life in the slums
are likely to result in low health care use and hygiene awareness, lack of knowledge of the origin of
sickness and proper measures for cure, improper food habits and breast feeding practice and low
acceptance of vaccination. In the rainy season, the normal life is disrupted due to flood, water logging and
uplifting the water level of Padma in rainy season. No matter whether drainage system exists or poor,
migrants and urban poor in the slum are especially health hazarded by pollution of water supplies and
aquatic environment increasing water born diseases. Urban runoff mixes with sewage from overflowing
latrines and sewers, causing pollution and a wide range of problems associated with waterborne
diseases. The poor people had to rely on surface or shallow groundwater sources that are polluted, as
they don’t have access to portable water during the period of monsoon. Malaria, dhong fever, respiratory
problems, eye and skin disease are the worst impacts. Poor provisions in urban slum has created health
hazardous for migrants debilitated by illness, pain, discomfort and influenced young women and
children’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and forced labor. Moreover, contamination of ground water also leads
to such adverse health impacts. Dirty and polluted water causes skin diseases, rashes and sometimes
can disrupt blood transmission within the body. The migrants who are living at the bank of river are
suffering from diseased in various types. Health status of both men and women are worsening.
Table – 2: Health Status
Sex
Health Status
Normal Undernourished Ill Disabled
Female 7 33 11 1
Male 11 30 10 1
Total 18 63 21 2
Table – 3: Sufferings from Diseases
Diseases faced by Male
(52)
Freq. Freq.
Diseases faced by
Female (52)
Typhoid 6 7 Typhoid
Dysentery 8 15 Dysentery
Chronic dysentery 4 9 Chronic dysentery
Regular fever 3 4 Regular fever
Dhong fever 1 - Dhong fever
Skin disease 16 21 Skill disease
Eye problem 4 3 Eye problem
Urinary Tract infection 2 11 Urinary Tract infection
Peptic ulcer 19 3 Peptic ulcer
Headache 21 16 Headache
Respiratory Tract Infection 5 6 Respiratory Tract Infection
Joint pain 2 3 Joint pain
Insomnia 6 8 Insomnia
Tastelessness 4 16 Menstrual pain
Anaemia 3 5 Anaemia
Bodily pain and weakness 6 21 Bodily pain & weakness
Asthma 5 2 Asthma
Jaundice 2 2 Jaundice
Bone fracture 1 0 Bone fracture
Diarrhoea 9 6 Diarrhoea
Tuberculosis - 1 Tuberculosis

8. 8.3 Disruption of Ware Resources and Vulnerability
The terrestrial and aquatic areas of the country support a large number of diverse biological populations,
both plant and animal. Notwithstanding insufficient baseline information on biological resources, it is
believed that development practices have caused a significant depletion of terrestrial and aquatic species
diversity (Ministry of Environment and Forest Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
2005:5). The discussion on disruption of biodiversity due to silting up of river is overlooked in the country.
But the silted up river Padma may disrupt many species of fish rather it is the matter that it has declined
people’s dependency on water resources. Once a time, the people inhabited at riverbank are fully
dependent on fishing. But the disruption of river has declined water resources and propelled the people to
migrate elsewhere for lives and livelihoods or to be engaged in crime, goods and drug smuggling. It is out
migration in country rather the cross border migration in hopes and expectation with better jobs in
neighboring country of Bangladesh, India.
8.4 Social Vulnerability raised by Environmental Change
The rising social vulnerability includes a rage of social problems such as sexual abuse & exploitation,
irregular migration (internal and cross border), illegal cross border migration, trafficking in persons (in and
out), crime & smuggling of goods and drug and skewing basic needs for surviving. Political violence due
to land graving and slum eviction propelled the poor migrants sheltered at the slums to evict. As a result
the contiguous land mass and long porous land borders have created a ‘migratory space’ fostering
mobility of the victimized as a natural phenomenon but victimizing to abuse, exploitation and trafficking. In
modern-day slavery of trafficked victims and forced labour of women and children, migrants face hazards
that testify to inadequate opportunities to migrate safely and legally which is caused by a mixture of legal
institutional, political-economic and socio-cultural factors. It is the silted up river that has fostered the
migratory space for movement of the people. The so called development process could not induce any
protection to be reduced, where the social security is extremely hampered by government and dominant
political leaders and smugglers. Human trafficking as purposes of sex selling business, domestic works,
factory works, cheap and bonded labour etc. are observed through the routes in increasing manner. The
causes are parallel and cross connected to each others. It is the push factors, which include poverty in
general, lack of economic and productive job opportunities, forced marriage, forced migration, forced
labour, river bank erosion, droughts, seasonal employment crisis, imbalance market forces, conservative
social system, social dogma and fundamentalism are particular vulnerabilities affecting human. As pull
factors, it is identified – the lure of developed countries, desire to escape economic depravity, job
availability of destination country, no need dowry in marriage, require no expenditure in migration, money
paid by bridegroom in chance of hardship. Disparities of job opportunities and livelihood between two
distinct areas and adjacent countries influence the hopes and expectation rather increasing agony and
frustration of the expected. So, the vulnerabilities of the people are doubled which is caused by
environmental problems propelling vulnerability and migration. Migrants who are predominantly young
girls and children from low income families further affecting river bank erosion and flood are victimized to
commercial sexual exploitation/prostitution and cross border trafficking and its consequences to
STDs/HIV/AIDS. The women and children rescued from trafficking situations across the river of padma1
are as follows:

9. Table-3: Trafficking of Women and Children crossing the Padma
Trafficking
of
2008
Till March
2007 2006 2005 Total
Women 11 23 46 26 106
Children 11 37 21 17 86
Total 22 60 67 43 192
Information gathered from different News Paper, National and Local News Papers.
9. CONCLUSION AND MAJOR RECOMMENDATION
The social development process has given emphasis on raising awareness and social protection of
violence victims. The so called social protection becomes unable to right protection. The intervention
strategies abundantly lack to address the root causes of creating vulnerability, where the environmental
creating vulnerability is highly ignored in social perspective. It is noted that though the environmental
problems are global, the less developing countries are overlooked and discriminated accordingly by the
dominated developing and developed countries. In human rights perspectives, the environment creating
vulnerability and problems for the poor, especially for the women and children are human rights violation.
So, it should give emphasis as regional and international agenda to break the grim of environment induce
problems.
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