Remember me and also my parents in your pray friends

1. 1 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 1
Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

2. 2 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 2
Civil Engg Construction and Graphics
What is a Building ? | What is Building Construction?
Definition of Building: Any structure constructed of whatsoever materials used for
residential, commercial and other purposes is called Building.
What is Building Construction ?
The art of constructing permanent shelter of residential, commercial and for other
purposes systematically according to the planning is called building construction.
Any kind of building project is divided into three parts:
1. Architectural work
2. Design work
3. Construction work
Architectural work | Design Work | Construction Work
Definition of Architectural work: The art of planning and designing of building so as to
suit its purposes giving due consideration to site orientation, ventilation and appearance
is called architectural work.
Definition of Design work: The art of designing different parts of a building so as to suit
its purposes safely and economically is called design work. The person who deals with
this work is called designer.
Definition of Construction work: The art of doing construction of the building
systematically according to planning and design is called construction work or execution
work.
Substructure | Foundation and Basement
Substructure:
Substructure is that part of a building which is constructed below the ground level is known
as substructure.
Following are the examples of Substructure.
Foundation:

3. 3 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 3
The part of the building constructed below the ground level which transfer loads safely to
the soil. Foundation does not provide accommodation.
Basement:
The portion of a building which provides accommodation and is below ground level is
known as basement.
Super Structure | Floor | Roof | Walls | Doors | Windows | Veranda
Definition of Super Structure: That part of the building which is constructed above the
ground level is known as super structure. Walls, roof, floor, veranda , doors and windows
are examples of Super Structure.
Walls: The structure constructed to enclose an area of a building and is built for privacy
purposes, for safety purposes and to support doors and roof of the building is known as
wall.
Roof: It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the building
and its contents from the effects of weather.
Veranda: The covered outer portion adjacent to living rooms usually opened from two or
three sides is known as wall. It’s purpose is to protect the living rooms from sunlight and
heavy direct rain.
Doors: The arrangement made to provide free access to inside and outside of a building
and also to the rooms of the building are called doors.
Windows: The arrangement provided to allow entry of air and light inside the rooms of
the building are called windows.
Definition of Foundation | Purpose of Foundation
Definition of foundation: The bottom most part of the substructure which transmit load
of the structure along with its own weight into the soil underneath or surroundings
without carrying shear failure or bearing capacity failure and excessive settlement.
Foundations can be further classified as shallow and deep. This classification depends
on the depth of load transfer from structure to the ground. Different publications
define shallow foundation and its definition varies. According to BS 8004, foundations
of arbitrary embedment depth of 3 meter are considered as shallow foundations.

4. 4 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 4
According to Terzaghi, When the depth to the bottom of foundation is less than or equal
to its least dimension, then the foundation will be called as shallow foundation.
Deep foundation may be defined as the piles installed at depths. Piles may be pre
manufactured and driven into ground by jacking. Or these are cast in place in a shaft
formed in the ground by excavation or boring.
Purpose of Foundation:
The main purpose of the foundation is is to distribute the structural load over a large
bearing area without causing bearing capacity failure and excessive settlement to obtain
a level and hard strata or bed for building operations to increase the stability of the
structure as a whole.
Definition of Stair | Stair Case | Stringer
“A Stair is a series of steps with or without landings or platforms, which is installed
between two or more floors of a building to bridge a large vertical distance”.
Stair Case:
A part of a building having series of steps is called stair case.
OR
A part of the building accomodating the stair is known as stair case.
Stringer
The structural member that supports the treads and risers. It is the part of the stairs that
will hold all the weight.
Double L Stairs | U Stairs
Double L stairs require two 90 degree turns along the flight. They may be used when
space is not available for either the straight or L stairs. Double L stairs are not frequently
used in residential construction.
U Stairs (dog legged stairs/half turn)

5. 5 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 5
These stairs may be constructed may be either as wide U or narrow U stairs. Both have
two flights of steps parallel to each other with a landing between. The difference
between wide and narrow U stairs is the space between the two flights. Narrow U stairs
have little or no space between the flights while U stairs have a well hole between.
Winder Stairs | Spiral or Circular Stairs
Winder stairs have “pie-shaped” steps which are substituted for a landing. This type is
used when the space is not sufficient for the L stairs. If winder stairs are used, the width
of the triangular steps should be sufficient at midpoint to provide a tread width equal to
the regular steps.
Spiral or circular stairs
These stairs are gaining in popularity and the components are now manufactured by
several companies. They may be used where little space is available. Most spiral stairs
are made from steel and welded together, however, it is possible to construct them from
wood.
Elevators or Lifts | Purpose of Elevators | Elevators Capacity
“An elevator or lift is a transport device used to move goods or people vertically, from
one floor to another”.
In modern days lift consists of a cab, mounted on a platform within an enclosed space
called a shaft. Hydraulic lift use the principles of hydraulics pressurize on an above ground
or in-ground piston to raise and lower the weight. Roped Hydraulics use a combination of
both ropes & hydraulic power to raise & lower.
Purpose Of Elevators:
A lift or elevator is designed to move people or things between a multi-storey building’s
floors. It also provides us help to carry our heavy goods to our desired storey.
Elevators Capacity:
Elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger elevators
are available in capacities from 1,000 to 6,000 lbs with 500 lb (230 kg) increments.
Generally passenger elevators in buildings eight floors or less are hydraulic or electric.
Types of Elevators | Express Elevators | Freight Elevators

6. 6 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 6
Types of Elevators are
 Express Elevators
 Freight Elevators
 Vehicle Elevators
 Belt Elevators
 Hydraulic Elevators
Express Elevators:
An express elevator does not serve all floors. It moves between the ground floor and a
sky lobby, or it moves from the ground floor to a specific floors, skipping floors in between.
These are especially popular in eastern Asia.
Freight Elevators:
A freight elevator is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. Freight
elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger
elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Freight elevators may have manually operated
doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and
unloading.
Vehicle Elevators | Belt Elevators | Hydraulic Elevators
Vehicular elevators are used within buildings with limited space to move cars into the
parking garage. Geared hydraulic chain generate lift for the platform and there are no
counterweights.
To accommodate building designs and improve accessibility, the platform may rotate so
that the driver always drives forward instead of in reverse.
Belt Elevators:
A different kind of elevator is used to transport material. It generally consists of an inclined
plane on which a conveyor belt runs. These elevators are often used in industrial and
agricultural applications.
Below are different kinds of belt elevators.

7. 7 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 7
Hydraulic Elevators:
They are quite common for low and medium rise buildings (2-8 floors), and use a
hydraulically powered plunger to push the elevator upwards.
Escalators | Uses of Escalators
Escalators
An escalator is a moving staircase–a conveyor transport device for carrying people
between floors of a building. The device consists of a motor-driven chain of
individual,linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step treads to remain
horizontal.
Escalators, likemoving walkways, are powered by constant-speed alternating current
motors and move at approximately 1–2 feet (0.30–0.61 m) per second.
The maximum angle of inclination of an escalator to the horizontal floor level is 30
degrees with a standard rise up to about 60 feet (18 m).
Uses of Escalators
Escalators are used to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would be
impractical
They have the capacity to move large numbers of people,
They can be placed in the same physical space as one might install a staircase. They
have no waiting interval (except during very heavy traffic).
They can be used to guide people toward main exits or special exhibits,
They may be weatherproofed for outdoor use.
What is Brick | Nominal Size and Architecural Size | What is Brick
Masonry
Brick is the basic building unit which is in the form of rectangular block in which length to
breadth ratio is 2 but height can be different.
A standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm (9”×4½”
×3“) called nominal size and

8. 8 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 8
working dimensions (actual dimensions) of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm (8.5“ * 4 *2.5)
called architectural size.
Brick Masonry
The art of laying bricks in mortar in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass
which can withstand forces without disintegration, called brick masonry.
Terms Related to Brick
The surfaces of a brick have names:
Top and bottom surfaces are called beds.
Ends are headers or header faces.
Sides are stretcher or stretcher faces.
Definition of Concrete | Concrete History and Strength | Concrete
Popularity
Definition:Concrete is a mixture of portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures.
Concrete History:
Concrete is an ancient material of construction, first used during the Roman Empire.
Concrete today is a sophisticated material to which exotic (foreign) constituents can be
added and, with computer-controlled batching, can produce a product capable of
achieving 50,000 psi compressive strength.
Concrete Popularity as a Universal Building Construction Material
i.Concrete is the second most consumed substance in the world after water.
ii.All over the world, approximately for 80% of the construction concrete is required,.
iii. The cement and water form a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregates together.

9. 9 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 9
iv.Concrete is often looked upon as “man made rock”.
v.Concrete has strength, durability, and economy.
Terms Related to bricks | Frog | Why Frog should be laid Upwards |
Course | Mortar Joints
Frog of Bricks : The depression provided in the face of brick during its manufacturing is
known as frog of bricks.
Depth of a frog in a brick is 10mm to 20 mm.
If the bricks are laid according to British standards, the frog should be laid upward and
filled with mortar.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 5628-3 states. “Unless otherwise advised, lay
single frog bricks with frog uppermost and double frogged with deeper frog
uppermost. Fill all frogs with mortar…” This maximizes strength, stability and
general performance of the brickwork.
Why frog should be laid upwards:
When the frog is laid upwards, the load is evenly spread throughout the width of the brick
all the way down to the foundations. If the frog is laid down, the load is forced to the
outsides of the brick.
The figure shown below can tell how the load is evenly spread and how it is forced to the
outsides of brick.
Course:
Each horizontal layer of bricks laid in mortar in any brick work is called coarse.
The recommended maximum number of brickwork courses to lay in a day is 16.
Mortar Joints:
Mortar placed horizontally below or on the top of a brick is called a bed. Mortar placed
vertically between bricks is called a perpend.

10. 10 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 10
Joints in Building | Purpose of Providing Joints | Where They Should
be provided ?
Joints in Building:
The separation or planes of weakness introduced at different locations in a building are
known as joints in the building.
Purpose of providing Joints:
The purpose of providing joints at different locations is to accommodate large dimensional
changes occurring due to expansion and contraction of the building without structural
failure disfiguring cracks or penetration of moisture.
Where Joints Should be provided ?
Joints are usually provided in large or multi-storeyed buildings. But joint should not be
provided in shell structures* and certain other rigid structures where joints provided will
interfere with the rigidity of the structures.
*Shell structures predominantly resist loads on them by direct compression. That is
without bending or flexure. Since most materials are more effective in compression than
in bending, shell structures result in lesser thickness than flat structures.
Definition of Scaffolding | Why Scaffold is Constructed ?
Scaffolding: A temporary Structure made of wooden planks and metal poles, used while
building, repairing, or cleaning a building.
Or
The temporary structure constructed to support a safe working platform for workmen and
materials required during building operations is known as Scaffold, and the method of its
construction is called scaffolding.
Generally scaffold and scaffolding refers to the same meaning.
Why Scaffold is Constructed ?
Scaffold is constructed for the following reasons.

11. 11 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 11
1) Scaffold is constructed for masonry work of structures, walls, columns etc. above
ground level, generally above 1.5m.
2) For surface finishing such as plastering, painting, cleaning of a building etc. at higher
levels.
Bond In Brick | Why Brick Bonds are Provided ? | Closers | Bats
Bonds In Bricks:
The arrangement of bricks in brick work so that the vertical joints do not come over each
other is known as brick Bond.
Why Brick Bonds are Provided ?
 Bonds in brick work is provided to achieve a united mass as soon as practicable*
to suit the length, height and thickness of brick work and stresses to which it is
subjected.
 To break the continuity of vertical joints and to provide proper bond in brick
masonry portion of brick ( closers or bats) are provided in alternative courses.
Closers:
The portions made by cutting Brick across its length in such a manner that its one
stretcher face remains uncut or half cut.
Below is the Diagram of king closer.
The above diagram is showing the Quoin** Closer.
Bats:

12. 12 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 12
The portions mad by cutting standard bricks across their width are known as brick bats.
These are named according their fraction of full length of a standard brick.
Practicable*Able to be done Success fully.
Quoin**
1. An external angle of a wall or building.
2. a corner stone.
Definition and Concept of Foundation | Bearing or Ultimate Bearing
capacity of soil
Foundation: The lowest artificially build part of a structure which transmits the load of the
structure to the soil lying underneath is called foundation.
Explanation:
The structure such as walls, piers* are subjected to the loads of roof, floor or bridge etc.
The load which is acting on a wall or a pier is to be transferred to the soil lying
underneath. The load thus acting on the soil is to be distributed over a large area so that
the intensity of loading comes within the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil. For this
purpose a structure is provided with artificial arrangement in the form of concrete bed or
block etc. at the base below ground level which act as foundation of structure.
Foundation bed:
The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called the foundation bed.
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil :

13. 13 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 13
The maximum load which the soil can take per unit area without yielding or
displacement is called bearing capacity or ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
It is usually measures in terms of tonne per square meter.
pier* A pillar supporting an arch or bridge.
Types of Joints | Isolation Joints or Expansion Joints | Control Joints or
Contraction Joints
The various joints provided in the building are mainly classified into four main types.
1. Expansion Joints.
2. Contraction Joints.
3. Construction joints
4. Sliding Joints.
Isolation Joints :
The joints provided to accommodate the expansion of adjacent parts in a building are
known as expansion joints.
Isolation joints ( Expansion Joints) allow movement to occur between a concrete slab and
adjoining columns and walls of a building. Isolation joints are provided to separate new
concrete from existing or adjacent construction, which might expand and contract
differently or experience different soil settlement or other movement.
If the fresh concrete were not separated from these elements by an isolation joint, a crack
could form where the two meet.
Isolation joints should be 1/4 in. to 1/2 in. wide, and filled with a molded fiber, cork, or
rubber strip that is set 1/4 in. below the surface.
Contraction joints :
Contraction joints (also referred to as control joints) are the joints introduced in concrete
structures to minimize shrinkage to a particular place are known as contraction joints.
Contraction joints are in the form of separations or planes of weakness so that cracking
that may result from tensile stresses, occurs along predetermined locations.

14. 14 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 14
Without them, drying shrinkage would result in random cracking
Normally control joints are provided:
At 2 times the slab thickness( in feet) for a maximum aggregate size of less than ¾”.
For example for a 5” slab with a ¾” coarse aggregate the maximum joint spacing would
be 10′.
When the maximum coarse aggregate size is greater than ¾”, the spacing could be
increased to 2 ½” times the thickness.
For the prior example this would increase to 13’.
Whenever required to convert an irregular slab shape into rectangular or square.
Different Types of floors
Cement floors:
The type of floors which are made up of cement paste are known as cement floors. These
floors are commonly used for residential and other buildings.
Flag stone floors:
The type of floors which are made up of stones are known as stone floors. These are
commonly used in hilly areas.
Terrazzo floors:
The type of floors which are made up of cement and concrete mixture is known as
terrazzo floors.
Mosaic floors:
The type of floors which are made up of small pieces of marbles is known as mosaic
floors. These floors provide good appearance to floor.
Linoleum floors:

15. 15 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 15
The type of floors having its top surface made up of nylon type materials is known as
linoleum floors.
Rubber floors:
The type of floors which are constructed in such a way that its top surface is made up of
thin sheets of rubber is known as rubber floors.
Classification of buildings
Classification of buildings:
Residential building
The type of building which is used for the purpose of residence is known as residential
building.
Educational building
The type of building which is used for the purpose of education is known as educational
building. It is occupied by educational institutes.
Institutional buildings
The type of building which is used by medical centers is known as institutional building
Assembly buildings
The type of building used by museums is known as assembly buildings.
Business buildings
The class of buildings which are used for purpose of business is known as business
buildings.
Industrial buildings
The type of buildings which are used by industries is known as industrial buildings.
Storage buildings

16. 16 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 16
The type of building which is constructed for purpose of storing things is known as storage
building.
Hazardous buildings
The type of building which is used for purpose of making explosive materials is known as
hazardous building.
Classification of buildings on type of construction | Buildings with
type 1,2,3 and 4 Construction
Classification of building on type of construction:
 Building with type 1 construction
 Building with type 2 construction
 Building with type 3 construction
 Building with type 4 construction
Definitions:
Building with type 1 construction
The type of building having resistance of fire up to 4 hour is known as
Building with type 1 construction.
Building with type 2 construction
The type of building which has resistivity to fire up to 3 hour is known as
Building with type 2 construction.
Building with type 3 construction
The type of building which has fire resistance up to 2 hour is known as Building with type
3 construction.
Building with type 4 construction

17. 17 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 17
The type of building having fire resistance of 1 hour is known as Building with type 4
construction.
All the buildings are classified on the type of material of which they are made. Buildings
should be made of such material such that they have good fire resistance. It provides
safety in case of any fire damage. So building which is 4 hour fire resistant is best class.
Concrete | Properties of Concrete | Classification of Concrete
Concrete and its properties
It is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water.
Properties
 It should have good work-ability.
 It should be free from segregation which is separation of concrete ingredients.
 In concrete there should be no separation of water
 Compressive strength should be greater than 15.5n/mm sq.
 It must be durable
 It should not allow water to pass through it.
 Water cement ratio should be such that to avoid shrinkage
 Creep effect should be minimum
 It should be good fire resistant
Classification
It has following types :
Plain cement
The type in which steel bars are not provided is known as plain cement concrete.
Reinforced cement
The type which is provided with steel bars is known as reinforced cement concrete.
Lime
The type which is consisting of lime, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates is known as
lime concrete.
Factors that must considered for orientation of a building

18. 18 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 18
Factors that must considered for orientation of a building:
Following are the factors which must be considered for proper orientation of a building.
 Orientation of a building means a particular direction in which building is placed.
 Windows should be such that there is an open passage for wind.
 Building should be such that there is no direct sunlight on it.
 It should be such oriented that it offers resistance to direct rain.
 There should be proper ventilation inside building.
 In hilly areas roofs should be made sloppy.
 Best locality is in north east direction.
 It should be such oriented that it has an easy access to roads.
Allowable bearing capacity | Safe bearing capacity
Allowable bearing capacity
It may be defined as
The net load intensity at which no failure occurs is called allowable bearing capacity.
Calculating the gross allowable load bearing capacity of shallow foundation requires the
application of the factor of safety (FS) to the gross ultimate bearing capacity.
q allowable = q ultimate / FS
Net ultimate bearing capacity
It may be defined as
It is defined as the ultimate pressure per unit area of the foundation that can be
supported by the soil in excess of the pressure caused by the surrounding soil at the
foundation level.
If the difference between the unit weight of the soil and the concrete is negligible, then
q net(u) = q(u) – q
From the above equation it can be seen that net ultimate BC is less than the ultimate
bearing capacity.
q net(u) = net ultimate bearing capacity

19. 19 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 19
q = unit weight of soil * Depth of foundation (Df)
So
q allowable (net) = (q(ultimate)-q) / FS
Safe bearing capacity
It may be defined as
The maximum Pressure that a soil bears without shear failure is known as safe bearing
capacity.
Conclusion
Maximum safe bearing capacity is always greater than maximum allowable bearing
capacity.
Allowable bearing capacity is usually taken as 150kN/m^2 .
Generally these two terms allowable and Safe BC are confused. But by studying about
definitions it becomes clear that these are a bit different due to load intensity.
Difference between ultimate and net ultimate BC
Whereas the difference between ultimate and net ultimate BC is that, in ultimate bearing
capacity the ultimate pressure per unit area along with the pressure of the surrounding
soil is considered. Whereas in net ultimate BC, pressure of the surrounding soil is not
considered. Only the load intensity is considered in net ultimate BC.
Precautions for health hazards and safety measures
Precautions for health hazards and safety measures:
As we are well aware of the fact that during construction of a building many dangerous
chemicals are used for building purposes. So Following are the remedies which should
be taken for health hazards.
 Labors should be well aware of these chemicals and they should carefully handle
it.
 These chemicals can harm the people using it. So remedial measurements should
be taken to avoid any damage.

20. 20 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 20
 Chemicals used should be in concentrated form while bringing them to the site.
 The containers in which these chemicals are preserved should be given with
complete guide.
 Care should be taken so that chemicals should not have contact with skin otherwise
it can provide harm.
 Labors should wear neat and clean clothing and they should wash their hands
before using any type of edibles.
 Care should be taken that no explosive material should enter into the eyes and if it
happens then eyes should be washed with plenty of water and soap.
Definition of Coffer Dam | Types of Coffer Dam
Definition of Coffer Dam
Coffer Dam is a temporary structure constructed in a river, lake etc for excluding water
from a given site (where the construction is to be start) to enable the building operation
to be performed on dry surface.
It may be made of earth materials, timber or steel sheet piling or a combination of these.
Some of the common types of coffer dams are as follow:
1. Cantilever sheet pile coffer dam: This dam is suitable for small heights.
2. Braced dam: These are economical for small to moderate heights.
3. Embankment protected dam: There is no height limit for embankment type coffer dam.
4. Double wall dam: These are suitable for moderate heights.
5. Cellular dam: These are suitable for moderate and large heights.
Six General Types of Stairs | Straight Run Stairs | L Stairs
There are six general types of stairs commonly used in residential construction:
 Straight run stairs
 L stairs
 Double L stairs
 U stairs
 Spiral stairs
 Winder stairs
Straight Run Stairs:
The straight run stairs are the stairs used most in new home construction. Straight
stairs, as the name implies, have no turns. These stairs are not as expensive to
construct as other types of stairs.

21. 21 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 21
L Stairs:
The L stairs (Quarter turn stairs) has one landing at some point along the flight of steps.
If the landing is near the top or bottom of the stairs, the term Long L is used to describe
the difference. L stairs are used when the space required for a straight run stairs is not
available.
Weakness of Concrete | Concrete Ingredients
Weakness of Concrete :
i.Normal concrete has comparatively low tensile strength and for structural applications it
is normal practice to incorporate steel bars to resist tensile forces. Tensile strength of
concrete is approximately 10% of its compressive strength and is not reliable because of
shrinkage cracks.
ii.Volume changes
iii.Low ductility (brittle)
iv.Low strength to weight ratio
The ingredients of concrete are:
1.Cement,
2.Water,
3.Aggregates,
4.Admixtures.
The type, quality, and proportioning of these ingredients affect the curing rate,
compressive strength and durability of the concrete. Chemical admixtures can be used to
enhance one or more properties of the concrete or to improve its handling and placing
characteristics.
Constituents of Concrete | Importance of Cement paste in Concrete
Constituents of Concrete:
•Cement + water = cement paste

22. 22 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 22
•Cement + water + sand cement = mortar
•Cement + water + sand + lime = masonry mortar
•Cement + water + sand + coarse aggregate = concrete
Importance of Cement in Concrete:
A hydraulic cement capable of setting, hardening and remaining stable under water.The
cement (dry powder of very fine particles) powder, when mixed with water, forms a
paste.This paste acts like glue and holds or bonds the aggregates together.
The cement has as many as 1.1 x 10 12 particles per kilogram.
The amount of coal required to manufacture one tonne (2200lb) of cement is between
100 kg and 350 kg depending upon the process used.
ASTM Standard Setting time for Cement | How setting time of cement
is affected?
ASTM C150 SPECIFIED SET TIMES BY TEST METHOD:
How Setting Time of Cement is Affected:
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement
fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content)
and admixtures.
Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets. For
construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not be
too late.
Additionally, setting times can give some indication of whether or not cement is
undergoing normal hydration (PCA, 1988). Normally, two setting times are defined:
Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain
some load.

23. 23 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 23
What is Dampness | Harmful Effects of Dampness
Dampness: The Access or penetration of moisture contents inside a building through its
walls, floors or roof is known as dampness.
Harmful Effects of Dampness :
Dampness is not only harmful for the building itself but also for the inhabitants of the
building . So it is very important to make a building damp proof.
Following are some common ill or harmful effects which dampness may cause.
 It Causes dry rot to the wooden portion of the building. Dry rot
is a fungal disease that causes timber to become brittle and crumble into powder.
 It causes Corrosion of metals used in construction .
 It causes peeling off or removal of plaster.
 It causes the paints to get blistered.
 It causes floors of the building to remain ugly.
 All Electric Installations get destroyed.
 It reduces the life of the structure as a whole.
 It causes unhygienic conditions for the occupants of the building.
What are Coordinating Dimensions and working Dimensions of Brick
The coordinating dimensions are a measure of the physical space taken up by a brick
together with the mortar required on one bed , one header face and one stretcher face.
A standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm (9”×4½”
×3“) called nominal size of a brick.
The working dimensions are the sizes to which manufacturers will try to make the bricks.
Working dimensions (actual dimensions) of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm (8.5“ * 4 *2.5) called
architectural size.
Difference between working and coordinating dimensions:
The difference between the working and coordinating dimensions of a brick is 10mm
(0.5“)and this difference is taken up with the layer of mortar into which the bricks are
pressed when laying.

24. 24 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 24
What are Partition walls ? | Purpose & Advantages of Partition walls
Partition walls : The walls which divide the floor area of the building into number of rooms
to provide privacy to the inhabitants of the building from sound and sight are called
partition walls.
Generally these are non-load bearing walls and therefore, their cross section is taken thin.
Purpose of Partition walls:
 These walls are made to divide the floor area of the building.
 For privacy purposes for the inhabitants of the building.
Advantages of Partition walls:
 These walls can be easily constructed because they are thin in cross section .
 These walls are light in weight.
 As their cross section is thin so they occupy less area of the floor.
Purposes of Partition walls can also be included in advantages of partition walls.
Requirements or Qualities of a good partition wall
Qualities of a good partition wall:
A good partition wall must fulfil the following requirements.
 It should be thin so that the maximum floor area can be utilized.
 It should provide privacy in such a way that inhabitants feel comfortable with respect
to sight and sound.
 It should be light in weight.
 The wall must have fire resisting properties so that in a sudden short circuit or any
other reason, it could not catches fire.
 The material used for the wall must be durable.
 It should not be subjected to white-ant or fungus. White ant* or termite is a small
insect which feeds on wood .
 It should be economical and simple in construction.
 It should be rigid enough to bear the vibrations caused due to the loads.
 It should be able to support sanitary fittings and heavy fixtures**.
Fixture** :
1-A piece of equipment or furniture which is fixed in position.

25. 25 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 25
2-(fixtures) articles attached to a house or land and considered legally part of it so that
they remain in place when an owner moves.
Stretcher Bond or Common Bond | Header Bond Or Spanish Bond
Stretcher/Common Bond:
Only used for walls of half brick thickness(partition wall) ,this is the only practical bond
which can be used on a wall of this thickness. To break the vertcal continuity, ½ inch
brick bat is provided in alternating courses.
Below is the Plan of The stretcher bond .
Header Bond:

26. 26 | P a g e
SAQIB IMRAN 0341-7549889 26
This bond is also known as Spanish bond, was a very common bond for bearing walls.
It is composed of header bricks, set in rows that are offset, ¾ inch of a brick as a quoin
brick in alternating courses, which produces a solid easy to lay bond.
Below is the Plan of first layer and second layer of header bond.