Chapter two

CHAPTER 2

SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND
URBAN SOCIETY

It is often said that change is the earth for approximately 500,000 (five
only unchanging aspect of society. lakh) years, but they have had a
Anyone living in modern society does civilized existence for only about 6,000
not need to be reminded that constant years. Of these civilized years, it is only
change is among the most permanent in the last 400 years that we have seen
features of our society. In fact, the constant and rapid change; even
discipline of sociology itself emerged within these years of change, the pace
as an effort to make sense of the rapid has accelerated only in the last 100
changes that Wester n European years. Because the speed with which
society had experienced between the change happens has been increasing
seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. steadily, it is probably true that in the
But though social change last hundred years, change has been
seems such a common and obvious faster in the last fifty years than in
fact about moder n life, it is – the first fifty. And within the last fifty
comparatively speaking – a very new years, the world may have changed
and recent fact. It is estimated that more in the last twenty years than in
human beings have existed on planet the first thirty…

The Clock of Human History
Human beings have existed on earth for about half a million years. Agriculture,
the necessary basis of fixed settlements, is only about twelve thousand years old.
Civilisations date back no more than six thousand years or so. If we were to think
of the entire span of human existence thus far as a day (stretching from midnight
to midnight), agriculture would have come into existence at 11:56 pm and
civilisations at 11:57. The development of modern societies would get underway
only at 11:59 and 30 seconds! Yet perhaps as much change has taken place in
the last thirty seconds of this human day as in all the time leading up to it.
From: Anthony Giddens,2004 Sociology, 4th edition, p.40.

SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 23

Activity 1 big impact spread over a large sector
of society – in order to qualify as social
Talk to your elders and make a list
change.
of the things in your life that: (a) did
not exist when your parents were Even after this kind of
your age; and (b) did not exist when specification, social change still
your grandparents were your age. remains a very broad term. Attempts
Eg: Black & white/colour TV; to further qualify it usually try to
milk in plastic bags; zip fasteners on classify it by its sources or causes; by
clothes; plastic buckets; etc. – did it its nature, or the kind of impact it has
exist in your parents’/grandparents’ on society; and by its pace or speed.
childhood? For example, evolution is the name
Can you also make a list of things
given to a kind of change that takes
that existed in your parents/
grandparents time but don’t exist in
place slowly over a long period of time.
your time?
This term was made famous by the
natural scientist Charles Darwin, who
proposed a theory of how living
SOCIAL CHANGE
organisms evolve – or change slowly
‘Social change’ is such a general term over several centuries or even millenia,
that it can be, and often is, used to by adapting themselves to natural
refer to almost any kind of change not circumstances. Darwin’s theory
qualified by some other term, such as emphasized the idea of ‘the survival of
economic or political change. the fittest’ – only those life forms
Sociologists have had to work hard to manage to survive who are best
limit this broad meaning in order to adapted to their environment; those
make the term more specific and that are unable to adapt or are too slow
hence useful for social theory. At the to do so die out in the long run. Darwin
most basic level, social change refers suggested that human beings evolved
to changes that are significant – that from sea-borne life forms (or varieties
is, changes which alter the ‘underlying of fish) to land-based mammals,
structure of an object or situation over passing through various stages the
a period of time’ (Giddens 2005:42). highest of which were the various
Thus social change does not include varieties of monkeys and chimpanzees
any and all changes, but only big ones, until finally the homo sapiens or
changes which transfor m things human form was evolved. Although
fundamentally. The ‘bigness’ of Darwin’s theory refered to natural
change is measured not only by how processes, it was soon adapted to the
much change it brings about, but also social world and was termed ‘social
by the scale of the change, that is, by Darwinism’, a theory that emphasised
how large a section of society it affects. the importance of adaptive change. In
In other words, changes have to be contrast to evolutionary change,
both intensive and extensive – have a change that occurs comparatively

24 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

quickly, even suddenly, is sometimes previous chapter.) For example, the
called ‘revolutionary change’. It is used emergence of paper money as
mainly in the political context, when currency marked a major change in
the power structure of society changes the organisation of financial markets
very rapidly through the overthrow of and transactions. Until this change
a former ruling class or group by its came about, most forms of currency
challengers. Examples include the involved precious metals like gold and
French revolution (1789-93) and the silver. The value of the coin was
Soviet or Russian revolution of 1917. directly linked to the value of the gold
But the term has also been used more or silver it contained. By contrast, the
generally to refer to sharp, sudden and value of a paper currency note has no
total transformations of other kinds as relationship to the value of the paper
well, such as in the phrase ‘industrial it is printed on, or the cost of its
revolution’ or ‘telecommunications printing. The idea behind paper
revolution’, and so on. money was that a medium or means
for facilitating the exchange of goods
Activity 2 and services need not itself be
Refer to the discussions about the intrinsically valuable. As long as it
French Revolution and the Industrial represents values convincingly — i.e.,
Revolution which you have come as long as it inspires trust — almost
across before in your textbooks. anything can function as money. This
What were the major kinds of change idea was the foundation for the credit
that each brought about? Would market and helped change the
these changes qualify to be called structure of banking and finance.
‘social change’? Were these changes
These changes in turn produced
fast enough and far reaching enough
to qualify as ‘revolutionary change’?
further changes in the organisation of
What other kinds of social change economic life.
have you come across in your books Changes in values and beliefs can
which might not qualify as also lead to social change. For
revolutionary change? Why would example, changes in the ideas and
they not qualify? beliefs about children and childhood
have brought about very important
Types of change that are identified kinds of social change, there was a
by their nature or impact include time when children were simply
structural change and changes in considered small adults — there was
ideas, values and beliefs. Structural no special concept of childhood as
change refers to transformations in such, with its associated notions of
the structure of society, to its what was right or wrong for children
institutions or the rules by which to do. As late as the 19th century for
these institutions are run. (Recall the example, it was considered good and
discussion of social structure from the proper that children start to work as


soon as they were able to. Children some industries in our country that
were often helping their families at even today depend on child labour at
work from the age of five or six; the least partially (such as carpet weaving,
early factory system depended on the small tea shops or restaurants, match-
labour of children. It was during the stick making, and so on), child labour
19th and early 20th centuries that is illegal and employers can be
ideas about childhood as a special punished as criminals.
stage of life gained influence. It then But by far the most common way
became unthinkable for small of classifying social change is by its
children to be at work, and many causes or sources. Sometimes the
countries passed laws banning child causes are pre-classified into
labour. At the same time, there inter nal (or endogenous) and
emerged ideas about compulsory exter nal (or exogenous) causes.
education, and childr en wer e There are five broad types of sources
supposed to be in school rather than or causes of social change:
at work, and many laws were passed environmental, technological,
for this as well. Although there are economic, political and cultural.

Students in a classroom


A child doing skilled work

Environment their environment. The same was true
for people living in very cold climates,
Nature, ecology and the physical
or in port towns, along major trade
environment have always had a
routes or mountain passes, or in fertile
significant influence on the structure
and shape of society. This was river valleys. But the extent to which
particularly true in the past when the environment influences society
human beings were unable to control has been decreasing over time with the
or overcome the effects of nature. For increase in technological resources.
example, people living in a desert Technology allows us to overcome or
environment were unable to practise adapt to the problems posed by
settled agriculture of the sort that was nature, thus reducing the differences
possible in the plains, near rivers and between societies living in different
so on. So the kind of food they ate or sorts of environments. On the other
the clothes they wore, the way they hand, technology also alters nature
earned their livelyhood, and their and our relationship to it in new ways
patterns of social interaction were all (see the chapter on environment in
determined to a large extent by the this book). So it is perhaps more
physical and climatic conditions of accurate to say that the effect of


The earth caves in after heavy floods may have shaped societies, but how did
it play any role in social change? The
easiest and most powerful answer to
this question can be found in natural
disasters. Sudden and catastrophic
events such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods, or tidal waves (like
the tsunami that hit Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, the Andaman Islands and parts
of Tamil Nadu in December 2004) can
change societies quite drastically.
These changes are often irreversible,
that is, they are permanent and don’t
allow a return to the way things were.
For example, it is quite possible that
many of those whose livelihoods were
destroyed by the tsunami will never be
able to return to them again, and that
many of the coastal villages will have
their social structure completely
altered. There are numerous instances
of natural disasters leading to a total
transformation and sometimes total
destruction of societies in history.
Environmental or ecological factors
need not only be destructive to cause
change, they can be constructive as
well. A good example is the discovery
of oil in the desert regions of West Asia
(also called the Middle East). Like the
discovery of gold in California in the
19th century, oil reserves in the Middle
East have completely transformed the
societies in which they were found.
Countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait or
the United Arab Emirates would be very
different today without their oil wealth.
nature on society is changing rather
Technology and Economy
than simply declining.
But how, you might ask, does this The combination of technological and
affect social change? The environment economic change has been responsible


for immense social changes, specially international trade and migration.
in the modern period. Technology Both these developments created
affects society in a wide variety of gigantic ripples of change which
ways. As seen above, it can help us to affected not only the economy but also
resist, control, adapt to or harness the social, cultural and demographic
nature in dif ferent ways. In dimensions of world society.
combination with the very powerful The importance and impact of
institution of the market, technological steam power became visible relatively
change can be as impressive in its quickly; however, sometimes, the
social impact as natural factors like a social impact of technological changes
tsunami or the discovery of oil. The becomes visible only retrospectively.
most famous instance of massive and A technological invention or discovery
immediately visible social change may produce limited immediate
brought about by technological change ef fects, as though it were lying
is the Industrial Revolution itself, dormant. Some later change in the
which you have already read about. economic context may suddenly
You will surely have heard of the change the social significance of the
massive social impact made by the same invention and give it recognition
steam engine. The discovery of steam as a historic event. Examples of this
power allowed emerging forms of large are the discovery of gunpowder and
scale industry to use of a source of writing paper in China, which had
energy that was not only far stronger only limited impact for centuries until
than animals or human beings, but they were inserted into the context of
was also capable of continuous modernising Western Europe. From
operation without the need for rest. that vantage point, given the
When harnessed to modes of transport advantage of enabling circumstances,
like the steam ship and the railway, it gunpowder helped to transform the
transformed the economy and social technology of warfare and the paper-
geography of the world. The railroad print revolution changed society
enabled the westward expansion of forever. Another example closer home
industry and trade on the American is the case of technological innovations
continent and in Asia. In India too, in the textile industry in Britain. In
the railways have played a very combination with market forces and
important r ole in shaping the imperial power, the new spinning and
economy, specially in the first century weaving machines destroyed the
after their introduction in 1853. handloom industry of the Indian
Steamships made ocean voyages subcontinent which was, until then,
much faster and much more reliable, the largest and most advanced in the
thereby changing the dynamics of world.


Activity 3 Politics
Have you noticed other such In the old ways of writing and
technological changes which have recounting history, the actions of
social consequences in your own life? kings and queens seemed to be the
Think of the photo-copying machine most important forces of social
and its impact. Have you ever change. But as we know now, kings
thought of what things were like and queens were the representatives
before photo-copying became so
of larger political, social and economic
cheap and freely available? Another
example could be the STD telephone
trends. Individuals may indeed have
booths. Try to find out how people had roles to play, but they were part
communicated befor e these of a larger context. In this sense,
telephone boths had appeared and political forces have surely been
very few homes had telephone among the most important causes of
connections. Make a list of other social change. The clearest examples
such examples. are found in the history of warfare.
When one society waged war on
Sometimes changes in economic
another and conquered or was
organisation that are not directly
conquered, social change was usually
technological can also change society.
an immediate consequence.
In a well-known historical example,
Sometimes, conquerors brought the
plantation agriculture — that is, the
seeds of change and planted them
growing of single cash crops like
wherever they went. At other times,
sugarcane, tea or cotton on a large
scale — created a heavy demand for the conquered were actually
labour. This demand helped to successful in planting seeds of change
establish the institution of slavery and among the conquer ors and
the slave trade between Africa, Europe transformed their societies. Although
and the Americas between the 17th there are many such examples in
and 19th centuries. In India, too, the history, it is interesting to consider a
tea plantations of Assam involved the modern instance — that of the United
forced migration of labour from States and Japan.
Eastern India (specially the Adivasi The United States won a famous
areas of Jharkhand and Chattisgarh). victory over Japan in the Second World
Today, in many parts of the world, War, partly through the use of a
changes in customs duties or tariffs weapon of mass destruction never
brought about by inter national seen before in human history, the
agreements and institutions like the nuclear bomb. After the Japanese
World Trade Organisation, can lead to surrender, the United States occupied
entire industries and occupations and ruled over Japan for several years,
being wiped out or (less often) sudden bringing about lots of changes,
booms or periods of prosperity for including land refor m in Japan.
other industries or occupations. Japanese industry, at that time, was


trying very hard to copy American through the redistribution of power
industry and learn from it. By the across different social groups and
1970s, however, Japanese industrial classes.
techniques, specially in fields like car Considered from this viewpoint,
manufacturing, had gone far ahead of universal adult franchise — or the ‘one
the Americans. Between the 1970s person, one vote’ principle — is
and 1990s, Japanese industry probably the single biggest political
dominated the world and forced change in history. Until modern
changes in the industrial organisation democracies formally empowered the
of Europe and specially the United people with the vote, and until
States. The industrial landscape of elections became mandatory for
the United States in particular was exercising legitimate power, society
decisively altered by the impact of was structured very differently. Kings
Japanese industrial technology and and queens claimed to rule by divine
production organisation. Large, right, and they were not really
traditionally dominant industries like answerable to the common people.
steel, automobiles and heavy Even when democratic principles of
engineering suffered major setbacks voting were first introduced, they did
and had to restructure themselves not include the whole population —
according to Japanese technological in fact only a small minority could
and management principles. vote, or had any say in the formation
Emerging fields like electronics were of the government. In the beginning,
also pioneered by the Japanese. In the vote was restricted to those who
short, within the space of four were born into high status social
decades, Japan had turned the tables groups of a particular race or ethincity,
on the United States, but through or to wealthy men who owned
economic and technological means property. All women, men of lower
rather than warfare. classes or subordinated ethnicities,
Political changes need not only be and the poor and working people in
inter national — they can have general were not allowed to vote.
enormous social impact even at home. It is only through long struggles
Although you may not have thought that universal adult franchise came to
of it this way, the Indian independence be established as a norm. Of course,
movement did not only bring about this did not abolish all the inequalities
political change in the form of the end of previous eras. Even today, not all
of British rule, it also decisively countries follow democratic forms of
changed Indian society. A more recent rule; even where elections are held,
instance is to be found in the Nepali they can be manipulated; and people
people’s rejection of monarchy in can continue to be powerless to
2006. More generally, political influence the decisions of their
changes bring about social change government. But despite all this, it


cannot be denied that universal adult social change. In India too we find
franchise serves as a powerful norm many examples of religion bringing
that exerts pressure on every society about social change. Among the best
and every government. Governments known are the impact of Buddhism on
must now at least appear to seek the social and political life in ancient India,
approval of the people in order to be and the widespread influence of the
considered legitimate. This has Bhakti Movement on medieval social
brought massive social changes in structure including the caste system.
its wake. A different example of cultural
change leading to social change can
Culture be seen in the evolution of ideas about
Culture is used here as a short label the place of women in society. In the
for a very wide field of ideas, values, modern era, as women have struggled
beliefs, that are important to people for equality, they have helped change
and help shape their lives. Changes society in many ways. Women’s
in such ideas and beliefs lead naturally struggles have also been helped or
to changes in social life. The hindered by other historical
commonest example of a socio- circumstances. For example, during
cultural institution that has had the Second World War, women in
enormous social impact is religion. western countries started to work in
Religious beliefs and norms have factories doing jobs that they had
helped organise society and it is hardly never done before, jobs which had
surprising that changes in these always been done by men. The fact
beliefs have helped transform society. that women were able to build ships,
So important has religion been, that operate heavy machinery, manufacture
some scholars have tended to define ar maments and so on, helped
civilisations in religious terms and to establish their claims to equality. But
see history as the process of it is equally true that, had it not been
interaction between religions. for the war, they would have had to
However, as with other important struggle for much longer. A very
factors of social change, religion too different instance of change produced
is contextual — it is able to produce by the position of women can be seen
effects in some contexts but not in in consumer advertising. In most
others. Max Weber’s study ‘the urban societies, it is women who take
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of most of the everyday decisions about
Capitalism’ showed how the religious what to buy for their households. This
beliefs of some Christian Protestant has made advertisers very sensitive to
sects helped to establish the capitalist the views and perspectives of women
social system. It remains one of the as consumers. Significant proportions
most famous examples of the impact of advertising expenditure are now
of cultural values on economic and directed at women, and this in turn


has effects on the media. In short, upper class centre of authority
the economic role of women starts a (England). Similarly, the complete
chain of changes which can have a world dominance of the West Indies
larger social impact. For example, cricket team during the 1970s and
advertisements may tend to show 1980s, was also an expression of
women as decision-makers and as racial pride on the part of a colonised
important people in ways that would people. In India, too, beating England
not have been considered or at cricket was always seen as
encouraged before. More generally, something special, particularly before
most advertisements used to be independence. At another level, the
addressed to men; now they are immense popularity of cricket in the
addressed as much to women, or, in Indian sub-continent has altered the
some sectors like household commercial profile of the game which
appliances and consumer goods, is now driven by the interests of South
mainly to women. So it is now Asian fans, specially Indians.
economically important for advertisers As will be clear from the above
and manufacturers to pay attention discussion, no single factor or theory
to what women think and feel. can account for social change. The
Yet another instance of cultural causes of social change may be
change bringing about social change internal or external, the result of
can be found in the history of sports. deliberate actions or accidental
Games and sports have always been events. Moreover, the causes of social
expressions of popular culture that change ar e often interrelated.
sometimes acquir e a lot of Economic and technological causes
importance. The game of cricket may also have a cultural component,
began as a British aristocratic politics may be influenced by
pastime, spread to the middle and environment… It is important to be
working classes of Britain, and from aware of the many dimensions of
there to British colonies across the social change and its varied forms.
world. As the game acquired roots Change is an important subject for
outside Britain, it often turned into a us because the pace of change in
symbol of national or racial pride. modern and specially contemporary
The very different history of intense times is much faster than what it
rivalry in cricket shows the social used to be before. Although social
importance of sport in a very telling change is better understood
manner. The England-Australia retrospectively — after it has already
rivalry expressed the resentment of occurred — we also need to be aware
the socially subordinated colony of it as it happens, and to prepare for
(Australia) against the dominant it in whatever ways we can.


SOCIAL ORDER Activity 4
The meaning of social events or We are used to thinking of sameness
pr ocesses often becomes clear as boring and change as exciting; this
through contrasts, just as the letters is also true, of course — change can
on the page that you are reading be fun and lack of change can be
really dull. But think of what life
become legible because they contrast
would be like if you were forced to
against the background. In the same change all the time… What if you
way, social change as a process never, ever got the same food for
acquir es meaning against the lunch — every day something
backdrop of continuity or lack of different, and never the same thing
change. It may sound odd, but twice, regardless of whether you
change makes sense as a concept liked it or not? Here is a scarier
only if there are also some things that thought — what if every time you
are not changing, so that they offer came back from school there were
different people at home, different
the possibility of comparison or
parents, dif ferent brothers and
contrast. In other words, social sisters…? What if whenever you
change has to be understood together played your favourite game —
with social or der, which is the football, cricket, volleyball, hockey
tendency within established social and so on — the rules were different
systems that resists and regulates each time? Think of other areas of
change. your life where you would like things
Another way of looking at the to not change too quickly. Are there
relationship between social change areas of your life where you want
and social order is to think about the things to change quickly? Try to
think about the reasons why you
possible reasons why society needs to
want or don’t want change in
prevent, discourage, or at least control particular instances.
change. In order to establish itself as
a strong and viable social system, The above argument was an
every society must be able to abstract and general one about the
repr oduce itself over time and possible reasons why societies may
maintain its stability. Stability need to resist change. But there are
requires that things continue more or usually more concrete and specific
less as they are — that people continue reasons why societies do in fact resist
to follow the same rules, that similar change. Remember what you read
actions produce similar results, and about social structure and social
more generally, that individuals and stratification in Chapter 1. Most
institutions behave in a fairly societies most of the time are stratified
predictable manner. in unequal ways, that is, the different


strata are differently positioned with may be more or less efficient in
respect to command over economic dif ferent contexts, but however
resources, social status and political efficient it is, it can never completely
power. It is not surprising that those erase the will of the individual. In
who are favourably placed wish for other words, socialisation cannot turn
things to continue as they are, while people into programmed robots — it
those who are suffering disadvantages cannot pr oduce complete and
are anxious for change. So the ruling permanent consent for all norms at
or dominant groups in society all times. You may have experienced
generally resist any social changes this in your own lives: rules or beliefs
that may alter their status, because which seem very natural and right at
they have a vested interest in stability. one point of time, don’t seem so
On the other hand, the subordinated obviously correct at other times. We
or oppressed groups have a vested question things we believed in the
interest in change. ‘Normal’ conditions past, and change our minds about
usually favour the rich and powerful, what we regard as right or wrong.
and they are able to resist change. Sometimes, we may even return to
This is another broad reason why beliefs we once held and then
societies are generally stable. abandoned, only to rediscover them
However, the notion of social order afresh at some later stage of life or in
is not restricted to the idea of different circumstances. So, while
resistance to change, it also has a socialisation does take on much of the
more positive meaning. It refers to the burden of producing social order, it is
active maintenance and reproduction never enough by itself.
of particular pattern of social relations Thus, most modern societies must
and of values and norms. Broadly also depend on some form of power or
speaking, social order can be achieved coercion to ensure that institutions
in one of two ways — when people and individuals conform to established
spontaneously wish to abide by a set social norms. Power is usually defined
of rules and norms; or when people as the ability to make others do what
are compelled in various ways to obey you want regardless of what they
such norms. Every society employs a themselves want. When a relationship
combination of these methods to of power is stable and settled, and the
sustain social order. parties involved have become
Spontaneous consent to social accustomed to their relative positions,
order derives ultimately from shared we have a situation of domination. If
values and nor ms which are a social entity (a person, institution
internalised by people through the or group) is routinely or habitually in
process of socialisation. (Revisit the a position of power, it is said to be
discussion of socialisation in dominant. In normal times, dominant
Introducing Sociology). Socialisation institutions, groups or individuals


exercise a decisive influence on and justice. We have already seen how
society. It is not as though they are power is defined in society; power in
never challenged, but this happens itself is simply a fact — it can be either
only in abnormal or extraordinary legitimate or not. Authority is defined
times. Even though it implies that by Max Weber as legitimate power —
people are being forced to do things that is, power considered to be
they don’t necessarily want to do, justified or proper. For example, a
domination in normal times can be police officer, a judge, or a school
quite ‘smooth’, in the sense of teacher all exercise different kinds of
appearing to be without friction or authority as part of their jobs. This
tension. (Revisit the discussion of authority is explicitly provided to them
‘forced cooperation’ from Chapter 1. by their official job description — there
Why, for example, did women not want are written documents specifying their
to claim their rights in their families authority, and what they may and may
of birth? Why did they ‘consent’ to not do.
the patriarchal norm). The fact that they have authority
Domination, Authority and Law automatically implies that other
How is it that domination can be non- members of society — who have agreed
confrontational even when it clearly to abide by its rules and regulations
involves unequal relationships where — must obey this authority within its
costs and benefits are unevenly proper domain. The domain of the
distributed? Part of the answer we judge is the court room, and when
have already got from the discussion citizens are in the court, they are
of the previous chapter — dominant supposed to obey the judge or defer to
groups extract cooperation in unequal her/his authority. Outside the
relationships because of their power. courtroom, the judge is supposed to
But why does this power work? Does be like any other citizen. So, on the
it work purely because of the threat of street, S/he must obey the lawful
the use of force? This is where we authority of the police officer. When
come to an important concept in on duty, the policeman or woman has
sociology, that of legitimation. authority over the public actions of all
In social terms, legitimacy refers citizens except her/his superior
to the degree of acceptance that is officers. But police officers do not have
involved in power relations. jurisdiction over the private activities
Something that is legitimate is of citizens as long as they are not
accepted as proper, just and fitting. suspected of being unlawful. In
In the broadest sense, it is different way — different because the
acknowledged to be part of the social nature of the authority involved is less
contract that is currently prevailing. strictly or explicitly defined — the
In short, legitimacy implies conformity teacher has authority over her/his
to existing norms of right, propriety pupils in the classroom. The authority


of the teacher does not extend into the as an individual agree with a
home of the pupil where parents or particular law, it has binding force on
guardians have primary responsibility me as a citizen, and on all other
and authority over their children. citizens similarly regardless of their
There may be other for ms of beliefs.
authority that are not so strictly So, domination works through
defined, but are nevertheless effective power, but much of this power is
in eliciting consent and cooperation. actually legitimate power or authority,
A good example is the authority a large part of which is codified in law.
wielded by a religious leader. Although Consent and cooperation are obtained
some institutionalised religions may on a regular and reliable basis because
have partly formalised this authority, of the backing of this structure of
but the leader of a sect or other less- legitimation and formal institutional
institutionalised minor religious group support. This does not exhaust the
may wield enor mous authority domain of power or domination —
without it being formalised. Similarly there are many kinds power that are
reputed scholars, artists, writers and effective in society even though they
other intellectuals may wield a lot of are illegitimate, or if legitimate are not
authority in their respective fields codified in law. It is the mix of
without it being formalised. The same legitimate, lawful authority and other
is true of a criminal gang leader — he kinds of power that determines the
or she may exercise absolute authority nature of a social system and also its
but without any formal specifications. dynamics.
The difference between explicitly
codified and more informal authority Contestation, Crime and Violence
is relevant to the notion of the law. A
law is an explicitly codified norm or The existence of domination, power,
rule. It is usually written down, and legitimate authority and law does not
there are laws that specify how laws imply that they always meet with
are to be made or changed, or what is obedience and conformity. You have
to be done if someone violates them. already read about the presence of
A modern democratic society has a conflict and competition in society. In
given body of laws created through its a similar way, we need to recognise
legislature, which consist of elected more general forms of contestation in
representatives. The laws of the land society. Contestation is used here as
are enacted in the name of the people simply a word for broad forms of
of that land by the people’s insistent disagreement. Competition
representatives. This law forms the and conflict are more specific than
formal body of rules according to this, and leave out other forms of
which society will be governed. Laws dissent that may not be well described
apply to all citizens. Whether or not I by such terms.


One example is that of ‘counter Although it generally carries a
cultures’ among youth or ‘youth strong moral charge, the notion of
rebellion’. These are protests against crime is strictly derived from the law.
or refusal to conform to prevalent A crime is an act that violates an
social norms. The content of these existing law, nothing more, nothing
protests may involve anything from less. The moral worth of the act is not
hairstyles and clothing fashions to determined solely by the fact that it
language or lifestyle. More standard violates existing law. If the existing law
or conventional forms of contestation is believed to be unjust, for example,
include elections — which are a form a person may claim to be breaking it
of political competition. Contestations for the highest moral reasons. This is
also include dissent or protest against exactly what the leaders of the
laws or lawful authorities. Open and Freedom Movement in India were
democratic societies allow this kind of doing as part of their ‘Civil
dissent to different degrees. There are Disobedience’ campaign. When
both explicit and implicit boundaries Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law
defined for such dissent; crossing of the British government at Dandi,
these boundaries invites some form of he was committing a crime, and he
reaction from society, usually from the was arrested for it. But he committed
law enforcement authorities. this crime deliberately and proudly,
As you know very well, being and the Indian people were also proud
united as Indians does not prevent us of him and what he stood for. Of
from disagreeing with each other. course, these are not the only kinds
Different political parties may have of crime that are committed! There are
very different agendas even though many other kinds of crime that cannot
they may respect the same claim any great moral virtue. But the
Constitution. Belief in or knowledge important point is that a crime is the
of the same set of traffic rules does breaking of the law — going beyond
not prevent heated arguments on the the boundary of legitimate dissent as
road. In other words, social order need defined by the law.
not mean sameness or unanimity. On The question of violence relates at
the other hand, how much difference the broadest level to the basic definition
or dissent is tolerated in society is an of the state. One of the defining features
important question. The answer to of the moder n state is that it is
this question depends on social and supposed to have a monopoly over the
historical circumstances but it always use of legitimate violence within its
marks an important boundary in jurisdiction. In other words, only the
society, the boundary between the state (through its authorised
legitimate and the illegitimate, the functionaries) may lawfully use
legal and the illegal, and the violence — all other instances of
acceptable and the unacceptable. violence are by definition illegal. (There


are exceptions like self defense meant of the major changes in social
for extraordinary and rare situations). structure brought about by the
Thus, technically, every act of violence transition from nomadic ways of life
is seen as being directed against the based on hunting, gathering food and
state. Even if I assault or murder some transient agriculture to a more settled
other individual, it is the state that form of life. With the development of
prosecutes me for violating its sedentary forms of agriculture — or
monopoly over the legitimate use of forms that did not involve moving from
violence. place to place — social structure also
It is obvious that violence is the changed. Investment in land and
enemy of social order, and an extreme technological innovations in
form of contestation that transgresses agriculture created the possibility of
not only the law, but important social producing a surplus – something over
norms. Violence in society is the and above what was needed for
product of social tensions and survival. Thus, settled agriculture
indicates the presence of serious meant that wealth could be
problems. It is also a challenge to the accumulated and this also brought
authority of the state. In this sense it with it social differences. The more
also marks the failure of the regime of advanced division of labour also
legitimation and consent and the open created the need for occupational
outbreak of conflicts. specialisation. All of these changes
together shaped the emergence of the
SOCIAL ORDER AND CHANGE IN VILLAGE, village as a population settlement
TOWN AND CITY based on a particular form of social
Most societies can be divided into rural organisation.
and urban sectors. The conditions of In economic and administrative
life and therefore the forms of social terms, The distinction between rural
organisation in these sectors are very and urban settlements is usually
different from each other. So also, made on the basis of two major factors:
therefore, are the forms of social order population density and the proportion
that prevail in these sectors, and the of agriculture related economic
kinds of social change that are most activities. (Contrary to appearances,
significant in each. size is not always decisive; it becomes
We all think we know what is difficult to separate large villages and
meant by a village and by a town or small towns on the basis of population
city. But how exactly do we size alone.) Thus, cities and towns
differentiate between them? (see also have a much higher density of
the discussion in Chapter 5 on Village population — or the number of
Studies in the section on persons per unit area, such as a
M.N. Srinivas). From a sociological square km — than villages. Although
point of view, villages emerged as part they are smaller in terms of absolute


numbers of people, villages are spread for the first time in human history, the
out over a relatively larger area. world’s urban population will
Villages are also distinguished from outnumber its rural population.
towns and cities by the larger share of Indian society is also experiencing
agricultural activities in their urbanisation: the percentage of the
economic profile. In other words, population living in urban areas has
villages will have a significant increased from a little less than 11 per
proportion of its population engaged cent in 1901 to a little more than
in agriculture linked occupations, 17 per cent in 1951, soon after
much of what is produced there will independence. The 2001 Census
be agricultural products, and most of shows that almost 28 per cent of the
its income will be from agriculture. population now lives in urban areas.
The distinction between a town
and city is much more a matter of Social Order and Social Change in
administrative definition. A town and Rural Areas
city are basically the same sort of Because of the objective conditions in
settlement, differentiated by size. An villages being different, we can expect
‘urban agglomeration’ (a term used in the nature of social order and social
Censuses and official reports) refers change to be different as well. Villages
to a city along with its surrounding are small in size so they usually permit
sub-urban areas and satellite more personalised relationships; it is
settlements. A ‘metropolitan area’ not unusual for members of a village
includes more than one city, or a to know all or most other members by
continuous urban settlement many sight. Moreover, the social structure
times the size of a single city. in villages tends to follow a more
Given the directions in which traditional pattern: institutions like
modern societies have developed, the caste, religion, and other forms of
process of urbanisation has been customary or traditional social
experienced in most countries. This practice are stronger here. For these
is the process by which a progressively reasons, unless there are special
larger and larger proportion of the circumstances that make for an
country’s population lives in urban exception, change is slower to arrive
rather than rural areas. Most in villages than in towns.
developed countries are now There are also other reasons for
overwhelmingly urban. Urbanisation this. A variety of factors ensure that
is also the trend in developing the subordinate sections of society
countries; it can be faster or slower, have much less scope for expressing
but unless there are special reasons themselves in rural areas than their
blocking it, the process does seem to counterparts in cities. The lack of
occur in most contexts. In fact, the anonymity and distance in the village
United Nations reports that by 2007, makes it difficult for people to dissent


because they can be easily identified major impact on rural societies. Thus,
and ‘taught a lesson’ by the dominant measures like land reform which alter
sections. Moreover, the relative power the structure of land ownership have
of the dominant sections is much more an immediate impact. In India, the
because they control most avenues of first phase of land refor ms after
employment, and most resources of all independence took away proprietary
kinds. So the poor have to depend on rights from absentee landlords and
the dominant sections since there are gave them to the groups that were
no alternative sources of employment actually managing the land and its
or support. Given the small population, cultivation in the village. Most of these
it is also very difficult to gather large groups belonged to intermediate
numbers, particularly since efforts castes, and though they were often not
towards this cannot be hidden from the themselves the cultivators, they
power ful and are very quickly acquired rights over land. In
suppressed. So, in short, if there is a combination with their number, this
strong power structure already in place factor increased their social status and
in a village, it is very difficult to dislodge political power, because their votes
it. Change in the sense of shifts in mattered for winning elections. M.N.
power are thus slow and late to arrive Srinivas has named these groups as
in rural areas because the social order the ‘dominant castes’. In many
is stronger and more resilient. regional contexts, the dominant castes
Change of other sorts is also slow became very powerful in economic
to come because villages are scattered terms and dominated the countryside
and not as well connected to the rest and hence also electoral politics. In
of the world as cities and towns are. more recent times, these dominant
Of course, new modes of communication, castes are themselves facing
particularly the telephone and the opposition from the assertive
television have changed this. So the uprisings of castes further below them,
cultural ‘lag’ between villages and the lowest and the most backward
towns is now much shorter or non- castes. This has led to major social
existent. Communication links of upheavals in many states like Andhra
other sorts (road, rail) have also Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
generally improved over time so that Tamil Nadu.
few villages can really claim to be In the same way, changes in the
‘isolated’ or ‘remote’, words often technological organisation of
unthinkingly attached to villages in agriculture also has a large and
the past. This has also accelerated immediate impact on rural society.
the pace of change somewhat. The introduction of new labour saving
For obvious reasons changes machinery or new cropping patterns
associated with agriculture or with may alter the demand for labour and
agrarian social relations have a very thus change the relative bargaining


strength of different social groups like natural advantage. So did cities that
landlords and labourers. Even if they were well located from the point of view
don’t directly affect labour demand, of military strategy. Finally, religious
technological or economic changes places attracted large numbers of
can change the economic power of pilgrims and thus supported an urban
different groups and thus set in economy. In India too we have
motion a chain of changes. Sudden examples of such old cities, including
fluctuations in agricultural prices, the well known medieval trading towns
droughts or floods can cause havoc of Tezpur on the Brahmaputra river
in rural society. The recent spate of in Assam or Kozhikode (formerly
farmer suicides in India is an example known as Calicut) on the Arabian Sea
of this. On the other hand, large scale in northern Kerala. We also have
development programmes aimed at many examples of temple towns and
the rural poor can also have an places of religious pilgrimage, such as
enormous impact. A good example Ajmer in Rajasthan, Varanasi (also
of this is the National Rural known as Benaras or Kashi) in Uttar
Employment Guarantee Act of 2005. Pradesh, or Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
As sociologists have pointed out,
Activity 5 city life and modernity go very well
Find out more about the National together; in fact, each may be
Rural Employment Guarantee Act. considered an intimate expression of
What does it aim to do? Why is it the other. Though it houses large and
considered such an important very dense populations, and though it
development programme? What has been known throughout history as
problems does it face? What would the site for mass politics, the city is also
be the likely consequences if it the domain of the modern individual.
succeeds?
In its combination of anonymity and
the amenities and institutions that only
Social Order and Social Change in
large numbers can support, the city
Urban Areas
of fers the individual boundless
It is well known that though the city possibilities for fulfillment. Unlike the
itself is very old — even ancient village, which discourages individuality
societies had them — urbanism as a and cannot of fer much, the city
way of life for large segments of the nurtures the individual.
population is a modern phenomenon. But while the many artists, writers,
Before the modern era, trade, religion and scholars who have celebrated the
and warfare were some of the major city as the haven of the individual are
factors that decided the location and not wrong, it is also true that freedom
importance of cities. Cities that were and opportunity are available only to
located on major trade routes, or had some individuals. More accurately,
suitable harbours and ports had a only a socially and economically


privileged minority can have the luxury Most of the important issues and
of a predominantly free and fulfilling problems of social order in towns and
life. Most people who live in cities have cities are related to the question of
only limited and relative freedoms space. High population density places
within larger constraints. These are a great premium on space and creates
the familiar economic and social very complex problems of logistics. It
constraints imposed by membership in is the primary task of the urban social
social groups of various kinds, already order to ensure the spatial viability of
known to you from the previous the city. This means the organisation
chapter. The city, too, fosters the and management of things like:
development of group identities — housing and residential patterns; mass
based on factors like race, religion, transit systems for transporting large
ethnicity, caste, region, and of course numbers of workers to and from work;
class — which are all well represented arranging for the coexistence of
in urban life. In fact, the concentration residential, public and industrial land-
of large numbers in a relatively small use zones; and finally all the public
space intensifies identities and makes health, sanitation, policing, public
them integral to strategies of survival, safety and monitoring needs of urban
resistance and assertion. governance. Each of these functions

A doctor checking a patient


is a huge undertaking in itself and with no pr oper civic facilities
presents formidable challenges of (sanitation, water supply, electricity
planning, implementation and and so on) and homes made of all
maintenance. What adds to the kinds of building materials ranging
complexity is that all of these tasks from plastic sheets and cardboard to
have to be performed in a context multi-storeyed concrete structures.
where the divisions and tensions of Because of the absence of ‘settled’
class, ethnicity, religion, caste and so property rights of the kind seen
on are also present and active. elsewhere, slums are the natural
For example, the question of urban breeding ground for ‘dadas’ and
housing brings with it a whole host of strongmen who impose their authority
problems. Shortage of housing for the on the people who live there. Control
poor leads to homelessness, and the over slum territory becomes the
phenomenon of ‘street people’ — those natural stepping stone to other kinds
who live and survive on the streets and of extra-legal activities, including
footpaths, under bridges and flyovers, criminal and real estate-related gangs.
abandoned buildings and other empty Where and how people will live in
spaces. It is also the leading cause for cities is a question that is also filtered
the emergence of slums. Though through socio-cultural identities.
official definitions vary, a slum is a Residential areas in cities all over the
congested, overcrowded neighbourhood world are almost always segregated by

A girl child looking after the sibling


A commercial centre in a city

Women at work in cotton field


class, and often also by race, ethnicity, process. This has happened in many
religion and other such variables. cities in India, most recently in Gujarat
Tensions between such identities both following the riots of 2002. The
cause these segregation patterns and worldwide phenomenon of ‘gated
are also a consequence. For example, communities’ is also found in Indian
in India, communal tensions between cities. This refers to the creation of
religious communities, most commonly affluent neighbourhoods that are
Hindus and Muslims, results in the separated from their surroundings by
conversion of mixed neighbourhoods walls and gates, with controlled entry
into single-community ones. This in and exit. Most such communities also
turn gives a specific spatial pattern to have their own parallel civic facilities,
communal violence whenever it erupts, such as water and electricity supply,
which again furthers the ‘ghettoisation’ policing and security.

Various kinds of transport in an urban area


Shopping in a city


Activity 6 Daily long distance commuters can
become an influential political
Have you come across such ‘gated
constituency and sometimes develop
communities’ in your town or city,
elaborate sub-cultures. For example,
or in one you have visited? Find out
the sub-urban trains of Mumbai —
from your elders about such a
popularly known as ‘locals’ — have
community. When did the gates and
many infor mal associations of
fences come up? Was there any
commuters. Collective on-train
opposition, and if so by whom? What
activities include singing bhajans,
reasons might people have for
celebrating festivals, chopping
wanting to live in such places? What
vegetables, playing card and board
effects do you think it has on urban
games (including tournaments), or
society and on the neighbourhoods
surrounding it? just general socialising.

Finally, housing patter ns are The form and content of social
linked to the economy of the city in change in urban areas is also best
crucial ways. The urban transport understood in relation to the central
system is directly and severely affected question of space. One very visible
by the location of residential areas element of change is the ups and
relative to industrial and commercial downs experienced by particular
workplaces. If these are far apart, as neighbourhoods and localities. Across
is often the case, an elaborate mass the world, the city centre – or the core
transit system must be created and area of the original city – has had many
maintained. Commuting becomes a changes of fortune. After being the
way of life and an ever present source power centre of the city in the 19th
of possible disruption. The transport and early 20th century, the city centre
system has a direct impact on the went through a period of decline in the
‘quality of life’ of working people in the latter half of the 20th century. This
city. Reliance on road transport and was also the period of the growth of
specially on private rather than public suburbs as the af fluent classes
modes (i.e., cars rather than buses) deserted the inner city for the suburbs
creates problems of traffic congestion for a variety of reasons. City centres
and vehicular pollution. As will be are experiencing a revival now in many
clear to you from the above discussion, major western cities as attempts to
the apparently simple issue of regenerate community life and the arts
distribution of living space is actually bear fruit. A related phenomenon is
a very complex and multi-dimensional ‘gentrification’, which refers to the
aspect of urban society. conversion of a previously lower class
neighbourhood into a middle and


upper class one. As real estate prices Changes in modes of mass
rise, it becomes more and more transport may also bring about
profitable for developers to try and significant social change in cities.
effect such a conversion. At some Affordable, efficient and safe public
point, the campaign becomes self- transport makes a huge difference to
fulfilling as rental values increase and city life and can shape the social
the locality acquires a critical character of a city apart from
minimum of prosperous businesses influencing its economic fortunes.
and residents. But sometimes the Many scholars have written on the
effort may fail and the neighbourhood difference between cities based on
goes back down the class scale and public transport like London or New
returns to its previous status. York and cities that depend mainly
Activity 7 on individualised car -based
Have you noticed any ‘gentrification’ transport like Los Angeles. It remains
or ‘up-scaling’ taking place in your to be seen, for example, whether the
neighbourhood? Do you know of new Metro Rail in Delhi will
such instances? Find out what the significantly change social life in that
locality was like before this city. But the main issue regarding
happened. In what ways has it social change in cities, specially in
changed? How have these changes
rapidly urbanising countries like
affected different social groups and
classes? Who benefits and who India, is how the city will cope with
loses? Who decides about changes constant increase in population as
of this sort — is there voting, or some migrants keep streaming in to add
form of public discussion? to its natural growth.

GLOSSARY

Customs Duties, Tariffs: Taxes imposed on goods entering or leaving a country,
which increase its price and make it less competitive relative to domestically
produced goods.
Dominant Castes: Term attributed to M.N. Srinivas; refers to landowning
intermediate castes that are numerically large and therefore enjoy political
dominance in a given region.
Gated Communities: Urban localities (usually upper class or affluent) sealed
off from its surroundings by fences, walls and gates, with controlled entry
and exit.
Gentrification: The term used to describe the conversion of a low class (urban)
neighbourhood into a middle or upper class neighbourhood


Ghetto, Ghettoisation: Originally from the term used for the locality where Jews
lived in medieval European cities, today refers to any neighbourhood with a
concentration of people of a particular religion, ethnicity, caste or other common
identity. Ghettoisation is the process of creation of ghettoes through the conversion
of mixed composition neighbourhoods into single community neighbourhoods.
Legitimation: The process of making legitimate, or the grounds on which
something is considered legitimate, i.e., proper, just, right etc.
Mass Transit: Modes of fast city transport for large numbers.

EXERCISES

1. Would you agree with the statement that rapid social change is a comparatively
new phenomenon in human history? Give reasons for your answer.
2. How is social change to be distinguished from other kinds of change?
3. What do you understand by ‘structural change’? Explain with examples other
than those in the text.
4. Describe some kinds of environment-related social change.
5. What are some kinds of changes brought about by technology and the economy?
6. What is meant by social order and how is it maintained?
7. What is authority and how is it related to domination and the law?
8. How are a village, town and city distinguished from each other?
9. What are some features of social order in rural areas?
10. What are some of the challenges to social order in urban areas?

REFERENCES

GIDDENS, Antony. Sociology. 4th edition.
GERTH, HANS and C. WRIGHT MILLS. (eds) from Max Weber.
KHILNANI, SUNIL. 2002. The Idea of India, Penguin Books, New Delhi.
Patel, Sujata and Kushal Deb (eds). 2006. Urban Sociology (Oxford in India)
Readings in Sociology and Social Anthropology series). Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
SRINIVAS, M.N. Social Change in Modern India.

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