Chapter Four Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations

1. Chapter Four: Writing
Strategies and Ethical
Considerations

2. Chapter Outline
Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
Writing the Proposal
Arguments Presented in a Proposal
Format for a Qualitative Proposal
Example 4.1. A Qualitative Constructivist/Interpretivist Format
Example 4.2. A Qualitative Transformative Format
Format for a Quantitative Proposal
Example 4.3. A Quantitative Format
Format for a Mixed Methods Proposal
Example 4.4. A Mixed Methods Format
Designing the Sections of a Proposal
Writing Ideas
Writing as Thinking
The Habit of Writing
Readability of the Manuscript
Example 4.5. An Illustration of the Hook-and-Eye Technique
Voice, Tense, and “Fat”
Ethical Issues to Anticipate
Prior to Beginning the Study 95 Beginning the Study 97 Collecting the Data 97 Analyzing the Data 99 Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data

3. Writing the Proposal
• What are the major points that will be addressed in the
proposal?
• How will these major points convey a coherent study?
• What are the core arguments to be advanced in the
proposal?

4. 9 questions one should ask when writing a research proposal:
1. What do readers need to better understand the topic?
2. What do readers need to know about the topic?
3. What do you propose to study?
4. What is the setting, and who are the people you will study?
5. What methods do you plan to use to collect data?
6. How will you analyze the data?
7. How will you validate the findings?
8. What ethical issues will your study present?
9. What do preliminary results show about the practicability and value
of the proposed study?

5. Format for a Qualitative Constructivist/Interpretive Proposal
See Example
• Introduction
• Statement of the problem (including
deficiencies in the literature, and
relevance of the study for audiences)
• Purpose of the study
• The research questions
• Procedures
• Philosophical assumptions about
qualitative research
• Qualitative design
• Role of the researcher
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis procedures
• Strategies for validating findings
• Proposed narrative structure
• Anticipated ethical issues
• Significance of the study
• Preliminary pilot findings
• Expected outcomes
• References
• Appendices:
• Interview questions
• Observational forms
• Timeline
• Proposed budget
• Summary of proposed content for
each chapter

6. Format for a Qualitative Transformative Proposal
See Example 4.2
• Introduction
Statement of the problem (including issues
to be addressed, existing literature about the
problem, deficiencies in the literature, and
relevance of the study for audiences)
• Procedures
Philosophical assumptions or worldview
Qualitative research strategy
Role of the Researcher
Data collection procedure
Data analysis procedure
Strategies for validating findings
Proposed narrative structure
Anticipated ethical issues
• Preliminary pilot findings
• Significance of the study and transformative
changes likely
• References
• Appendixes
Interview questions
Observational forms
Timeline
Proposed budget
Summary of proposed chapters

7. Format for a Quantitative Proposal
See Example 4.3
• Introduction
• Statement of the problem (issue,
existing literature about the problem,
deficiencies in the literature,
relevance of the study for audiences)
• Purpose of the study
• Research questions or hypotheses
• Theoretical perspective
• Review of the Literature
• Methods
• Type of research design
• Population, sample, and participants
• Data collection instruments, variables,
and materials
• Data analysis procedures
• Anticipated ethical issues
• Preliminary studies or pilot tests
• Appendices:
• Instruments
• Timeline
• Proposed budget

8. Format for a Mixed Methods Proposal
See Example 4.4
• Introduction
• The research problem
• Existing research on the problem
• Deficiencies in the literature
• Relevance of the study to audiences
• Purpose
• Research questions and hypotheses
• Quantitative questions or hypothesis
• Qualitative questions
• Mixed methods questions
• Philosophical foundations for using mixed
methods research
• Literature review
• Methods
• Definition of mixed methods
• Type of design and its definition
• Challenges in using design and how they will
be addressed
• Examples of this design
• Reference and Inclusion of a visual diagram
• Quantitative data collection
• Quantitative data analysis
• Qualitative data collection
• Qualitative data analysis
• Mixed methods data analysis procedures
• Validity approaches
• Researcher's resources and skills
• Potential ethical issues
• References
• Appendices:
• Instruments
• Protocols
• Diagram
• Timeline
• Budget
• Summary of major content for each chapter

9. Designing the Sections of a Proposal
• Specify the sections early in the design of a proposal
• Find proposals that other students have authored under
your advisor and look at them closely
• Determine whether your program or institution offers a
course on proposal development or some similar topic
• Sit down with your advisor, and go over his or her preferred
format for a proposal

10. Writing Ideas
• Read widely fiction and nonfiction
• Read good literature
• Always think about how the ideas writers share in their
works might be applied in writing good research

11. Writing as Thinking
• Write ideas down early in the process rather than talking
about them
• Work through several drafts of a proposal rather than trying
to polish the first draft
• Do not edit at the early-draft stage
• Start with an outline
• Write a draft and shift and sort ideas
• Finally, edit and polish each sentence

12. The Habit of Writing
• Make writing a daily activity
• Chart your daily activities in one-hour blocks so you can identify possible writing
time
• Write while you are fresh
• Avoid writing in binges
• Write in small regular amounts
• Schedule writing to allow for work on specific manageable chunks
• Keep a daily chart, account for a) time spent writing, b) page equivalents finished,
and c) percentage of planned task completed
• Plan beyond daily goals
• Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public
• Try to work on two or three writing projects concurrently so that you do not become
overloaded with any one

13. The Habit of Writing Cont.
The following are suggested exercises that may improve one’s
writing:
• Describe an object by its parts and dimensions
• Write a conversation between two people
• Write a set of directions for a complicated task
• Take a subject and write about it three different ways
• Choose a physical location for writing that is not a
distraction

14. Readability of the Manuscript
Before writing, consider how you will enhance its readability for the audience:
• Use consistent terms throughout the proposal
• Consider how narrative thoughts of different types guide the reader:
Umbrella thoughts: General or core ideas
Big thoughts in writing: Specific ideas
Little thoughts: Reinforcing ideas
Attention or interest thoughts: Meant to keep the reader on track, organize
ideas
• Use coherence to add to the readability of the manuscript: Connect
sentences and paragraphs in the manuscript

15. Voice, Tense, and “Fat”
• Keep the essential words and delete the passive voice
• Scale down qualifiers, eliminate overused phrases
• Reduce excessive quotations, use of italics, and parenthetical
comments
• Use the active voice as much as possible, if the subject acts, the voice
is active
• Use strong active verbs
• Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs, use the present tense
to add vigor to the study
• Expect to edit and revise drafts of a manuscript to trim fat, this
process typically consists of writing, reviewing, and editing

16. Ethical Issues to Anticipate
• Because research involves collecting data from people, Researchers
need to:
• Protect research participants
• Personal disclosure, authenticity and credibility of research report
• Develop trust with research participants
• Promote the integrity of research
• Guard against misconduct
• Cope with new problems that emerge

19. Ethical Issues: Prior to Beginning the Study
• Consider codes of ethics, see the code of ethics for your
professional association
• Apply for the institutional review board (IRB)or human
subjects review board (HSRB)
• Obtain the necessary permissions to gain access to the site
and to study participants
• Select a site without vested interests
• Negotiate authorship for publication

20. Ethical Issues: Beginning the Study
• In the Research Problem
– Identify a problem that will benefit individuals being studied
• In the Purpose and Questions
Convey the purpose and sponsors of the research to
participants
• Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms,
obtain informed consent from participants
• Respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures

21. Ethical Issues: Collecting the Data
• Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible
• Make sure all participants receive the benefits
• Avoid deceiving participants
• Respect potential power imbalances, consider reciprocity
• Avoid exploitation of participants
• Avoid collecting harmful information, do not put participants at risk
• Respect vulnerable populations
• Address issues of confidentiality
• Interview with sensitivity
• Anticipate issues that may arise

22. Ethical Issues: Data Analysis
• Avoid going native, do not take sides or disregard data that
proves or disproves personal hypotheses
• Avoid disclosing only positive results, data analysis should
reflect the statistical tests and not be underreported
• Respect the privacy of participants:
• Protecting anonymity of participants
• Storing data and destroying it after a set time
• Planning for ownership of the data and not sharing data with
others

23. Ethical Issues: Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data
• Do not falsify authorship, evidence, data, findings or conclusions
• Do not plagiarize
• Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants
• Communicate in clear straightforward, appropriate language
• Share data with others (example: stakeholders, participants)
• Keep raw data and other materials for a reasonable period of time
• Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications
• Complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict
of interest
• Understand who owns the data