This document provides an outline of a lecture on managing groups and teams. It discusses the foundations of work groups, including types of formal and informal groups. It also covers work group inputs like composition, roles, and size. Key work group processes discussed include norms, cohesiveness, and development stages. The document also summarizes information on task forces, teams, communication skills, and human resource management.
The document discusses various organizational interventions including human process interventions like coaching, training, and team building. It also discusses techno-structural interventions like reengineering, employee involvement programs, and quality circles. The key characteristics of effective interventions are that they are relevant to organizational needs, based on causal knowledge, and transfer competence to manage change internally. The design of interventions depends on factors like readiness for change and cultural context. Specific intervention approaches covered include process consultation, third party conflict resolution, confrontation meetings, and socio-technical systems.
The document discusses the roles and relationships between clients and consultants in organizational development projects. It defines consultants as independent advisors contracted to help clients identify and solve management problems. The ideal relationship involves building trust and mutual understanding, with the consultant acting as a facilitator rather than expert to help develop the client's own problem-solving abilities over time.
The document discusses understanding groups and teams in organizations. It defines different types of groups, describes the stages of group development, and explains how factors like roles, norms, conformity, and cohesiveness influence group behavior. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making. Teams are compared to groups, and characteristics of effective teams are listed. Current challenges in managing global teams and using social networks are also examined.
Foundations of Organization Structure, Chapter 16-Organizational BehaviorDr.Amrinder Singh
Foundations of Organization Structure, Chapter 16-Organizational Behavior
This PPT is based on the Organizational Behavior Book Written By Stephen P. Robbins & Timothy A. Judge, Edition -12th, Publisher Pearson
Organizational diagnosis is a process to identify gaps between a company's current and desired performance in order to help it achieve its goals. The process involves gathering data through methods like interviews, observations, and questionnaires, analyzing the information, and providing feedback to identify strengths, opportunities, and problems. It is important to have clear expectations and roles defined between the client and consultant to facilitate open communication and ensure useful data is collected. Various techniques can be used in analysis, such as force field analysis, which balances the forces for and against decisions to help strengthen supportive forces and reduce opposition.
Interpersonal and group process interventionsgaurav jain
The document discusses four main interpersonal and group process interventions: T-groups, process consultation, third-party intervention, and team building. T-groups are designed to provide experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership, and interpersonal relations. Process consultation helps groups assess and improve processes like communication and decision-making to help themselves. Third-party intervention addresses conflicts between two or more people. Team building examines elements of work groups like goals, structure, and relationships to improve effectiveness.
Organizational Change and Development - Module 2 - MG University - Manu Melwi...manumelwin
Organizational development –Concept and evolution-nature and characteristics.
First order and second order Change.
Foundations of Organizational Development.
Conceptual frame work of OD –Action Research Model-Positive Model-John Kotter’s eight-stage process Model.
Parallel learning structures.
Process of organizational development – Organizational Diagnosis .
The document discusses various organizational interventions including human process interventions like coaching, training, and team building. It also discusses techno-structural interventions like reengineering, employee involvement programs, and quality circles. The key characteristics of effective interventions are that they are relevant to organizational needs, based on causal knowledge, and transfer competence to manage change internally. The design of interventions depends on factors like readiness for change and cultural context. Specific intervention approaches covered include process consultation, third party conflict resolution, confrontation meetings, and socio-technical systems.
The document discusses the roles and relationships between clients and consultants in organizational development projects. It defines consultants as independent advisors contracted to help clients identify and solve management problems. The ideal relationship involves building trust and mutual understanding, with the consultant acting as a facilitator rather than expert to help develop the client's own problem-solving abilities over time.
The document discusses understanding groups and teams in organizations. It defines different types of groups, describes the stages of group development, and explains how factors like roles, norms, conformity, and cohesiveness influence group behavior. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making. Teams are compared to groups, and characteristics of effective teams are listed. Current challenges in managing global teams and using social networks are also examined.
Foundations of Organization Structure, Chapter 16-Organizational BehaviorDr.Amrinder Singh
Foundations of Organization Structure, Chapter 16-Organizational Behavior
This PPT is based on the Organizational Behavior Book Written By Stephen P. Robbins & Timothy A. Judge, Edition -12th, Publisher Pearson
Organizational diagnosis is a process to identify gaps between a company's current and desired performance in order to help it achieve its goals. The process involves gathering data through methods like interviews, observations, and questionnaires, analyzing the information, and providing feedback to identify strengths, opportunities, and problems. It is important to have clear expectations and roles defined between the client and consultant to facilitate open communication and ensure useful data is collected. Various techniques can be used in analysis, such as force field analysis, which balances the forces for and against decisions to help strengthen supportive forces and reduce opposition.
Interpersonal and group process interventionsgaurav jain
The document discusses four main interpersonal and group process interventions: T-groups, process consultation, third-party intervention, and team building. T-groups are designed to provide experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership, and interpersonal relations. Process consultation helps groups assess and improve processes like communication and decision-making to help themselves. Third-party intervention addresses conflicts between two or more people. Team building examines elements of work groups like goals, structure, and relationships to improve effectiveness.
Organizational Change and Development - Module 2 - MG University - Manu Melwi...manumelwin
Organizational development –Concept and evolution-nature and characteristics.
First order and second order Change.
Foundations of Organizational Development.
Conceptual frame work of OD –Action Research Model-Positive Model-John Kotter’s eight-stage process Model.
Parallel learning structures.
Process of organizational development – Organizational Diagnosis .
Implications of Organizational Development Organizational Change and Develop...manumelwin
Most individuals believe in their personal growth.
Majority of the people are desirous of making greater contributions to the organizations they are serving.
The document discusses different types of consulting approaches for helping groups, including process consultation which helps groups diagnose functioning and address process problems, and task-focused consultation which examines tasks, roles, and strategies. It also mentions transformational consultation which clarifies values, finds new solutions, and articulates a new vision, as well as stress consultation which mobilizes employees during difficult periods. Finally, it notes that some approaches specify standardized best practices for managing organizations.
The od journey of TCS - Case study - Organizational Change and Development - ...manumelwin
Teach-Train-Transfer workshop by expert OD consultants- to explore means of institutionalizing goal-oriented performance management organization.
Personal Score Card-clearly outlined what would define goals, outputs, performance management, Economic Value adds & the ways and means for facilitating goal alignment.
This document outlines an open systems model for diagnosing organizations. It describes the key components of an organizational system including inputs, outputs, structure, culture, environment, and technology. The model can be applied at different levels of analysis and considers how interdependent components impact effectiveness. When components are misaligned, signs of ineffectiveness emerge. The document provides guidance on using the model to broadly assess an organization's context, interactions, and forces of change in order to better understand problems and opportunities for improvement.
Ch02 - Organisation theory design and change gareth jonesAnkit Kesri
This document discusses stakeholders in organizations and their relationships with managers. It defines stakeholders as anyone with an interest in an organization, separating them into inside stakeholders like managers and employees, and outside stakeholders like customers, suppliers, and the government. It describes how managers must balance competing stakeholder goals and allocate resources to satisfy their various interests. The CEO plays a key role in setting goals and strategy to influence organizational effectiveness for stakeholders. Agency theory is also introduced to explain conflicts that can arise between shareholders and top managers.
This document discusses models for diagnosing organizations. It introduces the open systems model which views organizations as existing within an environment and exchanging inputs, transformations, and outputs. Key properties of systems like boundaries and feedback are also discussed. Several diagnostic models are presented for understanding organizations at the individual, group, and organization levels. The document emphasizes that diagnosis involves understanding each part of the model and assessing how well elements are aligned with each other and external inputs to impact organizational effectiveness. A number of other diagnostic models developed over time are also listed.
Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and/or efficiency and/or to enable the organization to achieve its strategic goals.
The document discusses how HR can add value to an organization through strategic human resource management practices. It outlines the HR value chain model which shows how HR activities can lead to improved HR outcomes and organizational objectives. Effective HR practices like talent acquisition, learning and development, and performance management can increase employee engagement, commitment and skills, leading to higher organizational performance in areas like productivity, quality and customer service. This in turn can improve the organization's financial results. Strategic HR aims to improve business performance through people by meeting both business and individual needs.
Organization development (OD) practitioners can be internal or external consultants who offer professional services to organizations. They specialize in fields like organization design, quality management, and business strategy. They help managers apply OD concepts in their work areas. Effective OD practitioners have strong interpersonal, conceptual, analytical, and consultation skills. They understand theories of planned change and how to design and implement interventions. Practitioners must manage relationships with external stakeholders and understand power dynamics and value conflicts between organizations. They are expected to promote collaboration while also considering competitive pressures. Practitioners must perform their helping role ethically and avoid misconduct or abusing their professional power and clients.
hrd systems, processes, outcomes and organizational effectiveness Vidhu Arora
This document discusses HRD systems, processes, outcomes, and organizational effectiveness. It outlines five major HRD systems - career, work, development, self-renewal, and culture systems. Each system has its own subsystems. HRD processes center around the individual, role, teams, and organization. Key HRD outcomes include increased competence, commitment, collaboration and change readiness. Organizational effectiveness is defined as how well an organization achieves its intended outcomes and is important for non-profits in particular. Effectiveness is measured by productivity, costs, profits, growth, and image.
The contradiction model of organizational effectiveness considers an organization to be more or less effective regarding different, often conflicting goals. It recognizes that organizations face multiple constraints from various internal and external stakeholders over different time frames. Effectiveness in one domain does not necessarily relate to effectiveness in another. The contradiction model can help identify constraints outside an organization's control and analyze how organizations make compromises and respond to environmental pressures.
This document discusses elements of an effective organization. It argues that a decentralized organizational structure is most effective in today's global environment. Key elements of effective organizations include structure, global operations, communication strategies, management, decision-making, problem-solving, and leadership. Decentralized structures allow for open communication across departments and empower employees. Clear, participatory communication is important both internally and externally. Principles of effective management should follow an open-system approach in decentralized organizations.
This document discusses group dynamics and teams in organizations. It defines what groups and teams are, including factors that influence group dynamics like organizational, member, and group-related factors. It also discusses different types of groups like formal and informal groups, and different types of teams like problem-solving, self-managed, cross-functional, and virtual teams. Finally, it outlines considerations for creating effective teams, including ensuring adequate resources, effective leadership and structure, a climate of trust, and appropriate performance rewards systems.
This document discusses organizational effectiveness and different approaches to assessing it. Organizational effectiveness refers to how well an organization achieves its intended outcomes. The document outlines four main approaches: 1) the goal attainment approach assesses effectiveness based on achieving clear, measurable goals, 2) the systems approach considers acquiring resources and interactions with the external environment, 3) the strategic constituencies approach focuses on satisfying internal and external stakeholders, and 4) the competing values approach matches an organization's emphases to constituent preferences. The approaches are best applied depending on factors like clear goals, connections between inputs/outputs, powerful stakeholder influence, and organizational emphases.
Organization Development and Culture Change Solutions from InspireOneInspireOne Consultants
This document discusses an organization development solution called Branded Customer Service provided by InspireOne. The solution aims to align an organization's culture and customer service with its brand in order to leverage the brand and create memorable customer experiences.
The solution involves five phases: 1) Ensuring customer service staff can deliver branded experiences, 2) Creating a culture where all employees understand customers, 3) Aligning all parts of the organization (strategy, culture, skills etc.) to the brand, 4) Designing and customizing the solution, and 5) Embedding cultural changes.
The document provides an example output from applying the solution which analyzes an organization across different elements like strategy, culture, skills and proposes areas of improvement to
This document discusses various types of organizational development interventions. It begins by defining intervention and describing criteria for effective interventions. It then discusses factors that impact the success of interventions, including those relating to the change situation and target of change. Various intervention types are covered such as team interventions, inter-group and third party interventions, and comprehensive OD interventions involving the whole system. Structural interventions involving redesigning the organization are also outlined. Presentation sections provide details on specific interventions like team building, process consultation, and socio-technical system design.
1. The phases of organizational development (OD) include recognition of the need for change, diagnosis of problems, planning for change, intervention in the system, and evaluation and feedback.
2. During the diagnosis phase, the real problem is defined and examined by identifying the problem, what must change to resolve it, and the expected objectives of the change.
3. The planning phase involves transforming the diagnosis into an action plan with overall goals and the best approach and timeline for achieving them.
Chapter 11 management (10 th edition) by robbins and coulterMd. Abul Ala
This document provides an overview of managing teams and groups. It discusses types of groups, stages of group development, factors that influence group performance and satisfaction, turning groups into effective teams, and challenges of managing teams. Some key points include defining formal and informal groups, outlining the forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning stages of group development, and comparing advantages of using teams versus individuals. The document also examines how group structure, processes, tasks, and external conditions impact a group's effectiveness.
The document discusses different types of work groups, including formal groups officially created by an organization and informal groups established by employees. It describes how work groups operate through inputs like group composition, roles, size, and processes like norms, cohesiveness, and development. Key outputs of work groups are performance and need satisfaction. The document also discusses factors that influence group norms and cohesiveness, and the stages of group development.
IT professionals usually focus technology. Team Management is usually weak. This is 2 hours session for IT professionals about good behaviors that will motivate your team.
Implications of Organizational Development Organizational Change and Develop...manumelwin
Most individuals believe in their personal growth.
Majority of the people are desirous of making greater contributions to the organizations they are serving.
The document discusses different types of consulting approaches for helping groups, including process consultation which helps groups diagnose functioning and address process problems, and task-focused consultation which examines tasks, roles, and strategies. It also mentions transformational consultation which clarifies values, finds new solutions, and articulates a new vision, as well as stress consultation which mobilizes employees during difficult periods. Finally, it notes that some approaches specify standardized best practices for managing organizations.
The od journey of TCS - Case study - Organizational Change and Development - ...manumelwin
Teach-Train-Transfer workshop by expert OD consultants- to explore means of institutionalizing goal-oriented performance management organization.
Personal Score Card-clearly outlined what would define goals, outputs, performance management, Economic Value adds & the ways and means for facilitating goal alignment.
This document outlines an open systems model for diagnosing organizations. It describes the key components of an organizational system including inputs, outputs, structure, culture, environment, and technology. The model can be applied at different levels of analysis and considers how interdependent components impact effectiveness. When components are misaligned, signs of ineffectiveness emerge. The document provides guidance on using the model to broadly assess an organization's context, interactions, and forces of change in order to better understand problems and opportunities for improvement.
Ch02 - Organisation theory design and change gareth jonesAnkit Kesri
This document discusses stakeholders in organizations and their relationships with managers. It defines stakeholders as anyone with an interest in an organization, separating them into inside stakeholders like managers and employees, and outside stakeholders like customers, suppliers, and the government. It describes how managers must balance competing stakeholder goals and allocate resources to satisfy their various interests. The CEO plays a key role in setting goals and strategy to influence organizational effectiveness for stakeholders. Agency theory is also introduced to explain conflicts that can arise between shareholders and top managers.
This document discusses models for diagnosing organizations. It introduces the open systems model which views organizations as existing within an environment and exchanging inputs, transformations, and outputs. Key properties of systems like boundaries and feedback are also discussed. Several diagnostic models are presented for understanding organizations at the individual, group, and organization levels. The document emphasizes that diagnosis involves understanding each part of the model and assessing how well elements are aligned with each other and external inputs to impact organizational effectiveness. A number of other diagnostic models developed over time are also listed.
Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and/or efficiency and/or to enable the organization to achieve its strategic goals.
The document discusses how HR can add value to an organization through strategic human resource management practices. It outlines the HR value chain model which shows how HR activities can lead to improved HR outcomes and organizational objectives. Effective HR practices like talent acquisition, learning and development, and performance management can increase employee engagement, commitment and skills, leading to higher organizational performance in areas like productivity, quality and customer service. This in turn can improve the organization's financial results. Strategic HR aims to improve business performance through people by meeting both business and individual needs.
Organization development (OD) practitioners can be internal or external consultants who offer professional services to organizations. They specialize in fields like organization design, quality management, and business strategy. They help managers apply OD concepts in their work areas. Effective OD practitioners have strong interpersonal, conceptual, analytical, and consultation skills. They understand theories of planned change and how to design and implement interventions. Practitioners must manage relationships with external stakeholders and understand power dynamics and value conflicts between organizations. They are expected to promote collaboration while also considering competitive pressures. Practitioners must perform their helping role ethically and avoid misconduct or abusing their professional power and clients.
hrd systems, processes, outcomes and organizational effectiveness Vidhu Arora
This document discusses HRD systems, processes, outcomes, and organizational effectiveness. It outlines five major HRD systems - career, work, development, self-renewal, and culture systems. Each system has its own subsystems. HRD processes center around the individual, role, teams, and organization. Key HRD outcomes include increased competence, commitment, collaboration and change readiness. Organizational effectiveness is defined as how well an organization achieves its intended outcomes and is important for non-profits in particular. Effectiveness is measured by productivity, costs, profits, growth, and image.
The contradiction model of organizational effectiveness considers an organization to be more or less effective regarding different, often conflicting goals. It recognizes that organizations face multiple constraints from various internal and external stakeholders over different time frames. Effectiveness in one domain does not necessarily relate to effectiveness in another. The contradiction model can help identify constraints outside an organization's control and analyze how organizations make compromises and respond to environmental pressures.
This document discusses elements of an effective organization. It argues that a decentralized organizational structure is most effective in today's global environment. Key elements of effective organizations include structure, global operations, communication strategies, management, decision-making, problem-solving, and leadership. Decentralized structures allow for open communication across departments and empower employees. Clear, participatory communication is important both internally and externally. Principles of effective management should follow an open-system approach in decentralized organizations.
This document discusses group dynamics and teams in organizations. It defines what groups and teams are, including factors that influence group dynamics like organizational, member, and group-related factors. It also discusses different types of groups like formal and informal groups, and different types of teams like problem-solving, self-managed, cross-functional, and virtual teams. Finally, it outlines considerations for creating effective teams, including ensuring adequate resources, effective leadership and structure, a climate of trust, and appropriate performance rewards systems.
This document discusses organizational effectiveness and different approaches to assessing it. Organizational effectiveness refers to how well an organization achieves its intended outcomes. The document outlines four main approaches: 1) the goal attainment approach assesses effectiveness based on achieving clear, measurable goals, 2) the systems approach considers acquiring resources and interactions with the external environment, 3) the strategic constituencies approach focuses on satisfying internal and external stakeholders, and 4) the competing values approach matches an organization's emphases to constituent preferences. The approaches are best applied depending on factors like clear goals, connections between inputs/outputs, powerful stakeholder influence, and organizational emphases.
Organization Development and Culture Change Solutions from InspireOneInspireOne Consultants
This document discusses an organization development solution called Branded Customer Service provided by InspireOne. The solution aims to align an organization's culture and customer service with its brand in order to leverage the brand and create memorable customer experiences.
The solution involves five phases: 1) Ensuring customer service staff can deliver branded experiences, 2) Creating a culture where all employees understand customers, 3) Aligning all parts of the organization (strategy, culture, skills etc.) to the brand, 4) Designing and customizing the solution, and 5) Embedding cultural changes.
The document provides an example output from applying the solution which analyzes an organization across different elements like strategy, culture, skills and proposes areas of improvement to
This document discusses various types of organizational development interventions. It begins by defining intervention and describing criteria for effective interventions. It then discusses factors that impact the success of interventions, including those relating to the change situation and target of change. Various intervention types are covered such as team interventions, inter-group and third party interventions, and comprehensive OD interventions involving the whole system. Structural interventions involving redesigning the organization are also outlined. Presentation sections provide details on specific interventions like team building, process consultation, and socio-technical system design.
1. The phases of organizational development (OD) include recognition of the need for change, diagnosis of problems, planning for change, intervention in the system, and evaluation and feedback.
2. During the diagnosis phase, the real problem is defined and examined by identifying the problem, what must change to resolve it, and the expected objectives of the change.
3. The planning phase involves transforming the diagnosis into an action plan with overall goals and the best approach and timeline for achieving them.
Chapter 11 management (10 th edition) by robbins and coulterMd. Abul Ala
This document provides an overview of managing teams and groups. It discusses types of groups, stages of group development, factors that influence group performance and satisfaction, turning groups into effective teams, and challenges of managing teams. Some key points include defining formal and informal groups, outlining the forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning stages of group development, and comparing advantages of using teams versus individuals. The document also examines how group structure, processes, tasks, and external conditions impact a group's effectiveness.
The document discusses different types of work groups, including formal groups officially created by an organization and informal groups established by employees. It describes how work groups operate through inputs like group composition, roles, size, and processes like norms, cohesiveness, and development. Key outputs of work groups are performance and need satisfaction. The document also discusses factors that influence group norms and cohesiveness, and the stages of group development.
IT professionals usually focus technology. Team Management is usually weak. This is 2 hours session for IT professionals about good behaviors that will motivate your team.
This document outlines the key elements of effective team structure, process, and culture. It discusses:
1) The importance of defining team structure upfront, including the team's purpose, leader, size, skills, and stability.
2) The critical components of the team process, including formation, development, adjustment, cohesion, reinforcement, learning, and transformation over time.
3) Key aspects of team culture like values, rituals, and continuous learning that help foster collaboration and success.
The document discusses key topics related to managing groups and teams, including defining what makes a group, the stages of group development, organizational politics, and building trust within teams. It identifies six stages of group development including orientation, conflict, cohesion, delusion, disillusion, and acceptance. It also discusses the concept of groupthink and how it can lead groups to blind conformity without considering alternatives. Finally, it emphasizes that trust is a key factor in team effectiveness and managers can build trust through open communication, support, respect, fairness, predictability, and competence.
This document discusses various techniques for group decision making. It begins by defining group decision making as a process where multiple individuals collectively analyze problems, consider alternatives, and select solutions. It then describes several specific techniques: brainstorming, where groups generate ideas; nominal group technique, which structures participation to avoid domination; and the Delphi technique, where experts anonymously provide and refine responses over multiple rounds to reach consensus. The document provides details on how each technique is implemented and its advantages and disadvantages.
Group decision making involves individuals collectively choosing from alternatives. It can occur through consensus of all members or a majority vote. The process involves diagnosing the problem, developing alternatives, evaluating options, and implementing the chosen decision. While time-consuming, group decisions benefit from diverse perspectives and skills; however, influential members can manipulate the outcome. Techniques like brainstorming, nominal group technique, Delphi method, and consensus mapping provide structured processes for group decision making.
Chapter 3 management (9 th edition) by robbins and coulterMd. Abul Ala
This document provides an outline for Chapter 3 of an organizational behavior textbook. It covers several key topics:
- The manager's role can be seen as either omnipotent or symbolic, with discretion constrained by culture and environment.
- Organizational culture is shaped by values, symbols and practices that influence employee behavior. Strong cultures with widely shared values provide benefits but also constraints for managers.
- Managers must address issues like creating ethical, innovative and customer-focused cultures. Workplace spirituality is also an emerging concern.
- The external environment, including specific industry forces and broader societal factors, affects organizational performance and managerial discretion. Managing stakeholder relationships is important.
Group decision making involves making choices collectively from alternatives. It can be more effective than individual decisions but also prone to flaws. Some techniques for group decision making include brainstorming, nominal group technique, and Delphi technique. While group decisions benefit from shared information and synergy, they also risk diffusion of responsibility, lower efficiency, and groupthink. Factors like leadership, personalities, and time constraints can influence group behaviors and decisions.
The document discusses several key concepts relating to groups and teams:
1) It defines groups as two or more individuals interacting to achieve objectives, and classifies groups as formal or informal.
2) It outlines the five stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
3) It discusses important group properties like roles, norms, size, and cohesiveness that impact performance.
4) Factors that influence effective group decision making are examined, along with potential pitfalls like groupthink.
This document discusses team work and team building. It defines types of teams and explains the synergy that can be created when teams work well together by increasing resources, improving decision making, enhancing commitment, and fostering creativity. The document also outlines task and maintenance activities teams engage in, as well as behaviors to avoid. It identifies obstacles to teamwork and characteristics of high performing teams. Finally, it discusses inputs, throughputs, and outputs of effective team building.
Teams are becoming more popular in organizations as they allow employees to use their talents better and are more flexible than individuals. A work team is defined as a group whose efforts are greater than the sum of individual inputs. There are different types of teams such as problem-solving teams, self-managed teams, task forces, committees, cross-functional teams, and virtual teams. Creating effective teams requires factors such as adequate resources, leadership, trust among members, and proper performance evaluations. Team composition, work design, processes, and leadership are also important for team success. However, teams are not always preferable to individuals for certain types of work.
The document discusses diagnosing organizational effectiveness through a comprehensive three-level model examining the organization, groups within the organization, and individuals. At the organizational level, it evaluates factors like strategy, structure, culture and resources. At the group level, it assesses goals, tasks, composition and norms. At the individual level, it analyzes job characteristics and personal factors that influence satisfaction and performance.
Teams are becoming more popular in organizations as they allow better use of employee talents and are more flexible than individuals. A work team is defined as a group whose efforts are greater than the sum of individual inputs. Effective teams have adequate resources, clear leadership and structure, trust among members, and a performance evaluation system that rewards team efforts. Creating successful teams requires the right composition of members, roles, diversity, and size, as well as work design that gives autonomy and meaningful tasks. While teams often outperform individuals, they are not always the best approach and their success depends on factors like interdependent work and a common purpose.
FOUNDATION OF GROUP BEHAVIOR AND UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMNISHA SHAH
This document discusses groups and teams in an organizational context. It defines groups and teams, describes different types of groups like formal vs informal groups and small vs large groups. It discusses factors that influence group formation and dynamics like proximity, attitudes, rewards and costs. It also outlines stages of group development and factors that impact group effectiveness like tasks, processes, leadership, size and diversity. Work teams are defined as small groups committed to common goals and mutual accountability. The benefits and types of work teams are described.
The document discusses diagnosing organizational effectiveness at three levels: organizational, group, and individual. At the organizational level, it examines factors like strategy, structure, culture, human resources systems, and technology. At the group level, it analyzes group dynamics, composition, goals, norms, and task structure. At the individual level, it assesses job design dimensions like autonomy, feedback, task significance, identity, and variety.
The document outlines key concepts about work groups and teams. It discusses types of groups, stages of group development, factors influencing group behavior like roles, norms, conformity and cohesiveness. It also covers group decision making, conflict management, and advantages/disadvantages of groups vs teams. Effective teams are defined as having clear goals, competent members, trust, commitment to goals, good communication, negotiation skills, and supportive environments.
The document discusses groups and teams in organizational settings. It defines groups as two or more individuals interacting to accomplish a common goal, while teams have interdependent members fully committed to achieving shared goals. Groups and teams share characteristics like structure and roles. Key differences are that teams have complementary skills, collaborative cultures, and synergistic performance exceeding members' individual contributions. The stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Group cohesion and norms influence member behavior. Strategies to increase cohesion include clarifying goals and increasing interaction.
This document discusses group dynamics and effective group performance. It begins by outlining objectives of understanding social processes that impact group development and performance, and acquiring skills to improve individual and group performance. It then discusses reasons for group formation, types of groups, optimal group sizes, and how group structure and diversity impact effectiveness. Several models of group development are presented, including stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Factors that influence cohesiveness and decision-making are also examined. The document concludes with characteristics of effective teams and groups.
Organization development interventions involve engaging organizational units in tasks or activities aimed at organizational improvement and individual development. There are several types of interventions, including discrepancy-based, theory-based, procedural, and relational interventions. The intervention process typically involves initial definition of purpose and scope, formation of a steering committee, communicating to members, forming study groups, an inquiry process, identifying potential changes, experimental implementation of changes, and system-wide diffusion and evaluation. Methods for assessing what is happening in an organization include questionnaires, interviews, observation, reviewing secondary sources, sensing sessions, and environmental scanning.
MBA MCO101 Unit 8 C Lecture 9 200806 XxDerek Nicoll
The document discusses concepts related to managing expectations, motivation, leadership, groups, and teams. It provides learning outcomes and topics that will be discussed, including management theory, human resources, decision-making, and operations management. Specifically, it covers the advantages and disadvantages of using teams, different types of teams, characteristics of effective teams, and ways to enhance team effectiveness such as training, compensation, goal-setting, and selecting team members.
The document defines groups and different types of groups like formal, informal, command, task, and friendship groups. It discusses why people join groups and models of group development like forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning stages. It also describes an alternative punctuated equilibrium model of temporary group development. The document outlines group roles, norms, status, composition, cohesiveness, and decision making. It discusses techniques like interacting groups, brainstorming, nominal groups, and electronic meetings. It also evaluates group effectiveness and defines teams, comparing groups and teams.
The document discusses the key differences between groups and teams. It defines groups as two or more individuals interacting and interdependent to achieve objectives, while defining teams as small numbers of people committed to a common purpose and goals who hold each other accountable. The document also discusses models of group development, factors that affect group effectiveness, different types of teams, and measures to improve team effectiveness. It provides an overview of process-based and team-based organizational design.
This document discusses team interventions and effective teams. It defines intervention as entering a system of relationships to help groups or persons. It distinguishes between work groups and teams, noting that teams have greater interdependence and interaction. The document outlines steps for team interventions, including identifying at-risk members, holding intervention team meetings, beginning interventions, and requesting further testing if needed. It also lists characteristics of effective teams and components like positive culture and recognition.
Chapter-10 - UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS.pptxSindhuDawani
The document discusses teams in organizations and what makes them effective. It defines different types of teams, including problem-solving teams, self-managed teams, cross-functional teams, and virtual teams. It identifies key components that determine team effectiveness, such as context, composition, leadership, goals, and processes. While teams can outperform individuals, they are not always the best approach and managers must consider whether the work is complex enough to benefit from a team.
An effective team has certain key characteristics: it shares leadership roles and accountability; develops a clear purpose and concrete goals; and works interdependently. Team interventions aim to help struggling members by diagnosing issues, accomplishing tasks, strengthening relationships, and improving processes. Common interventions include clarifying goals and roles, building trust, managing conflict, and relating to external stakeholders. A multi-step team intervention process begins by identifying at-risk members and brainstorming interventions to improve team effectiveness.
The document discusses organizational behavior and why it is important. It defines organizational behavior as the study of individuals and groups in organizations, emphasizing high performance. It notes that organizational behavior occurs in a global context and involves dimensions of individual/group behavior and organizational processes. Valuing diversity is a core theme of organizational behavior. Organizational learning is important and involves acquiring knowledge to adapt to changing circumstances. Understanding organizational behavior requires studying individuals, groups/teams, and organizational processes.
The document discusses organizational behavior and why it is important. It defines organizational behavior as the study of individuals and groups in organizations, emphasizing high performance. It notes that organizational behavior occurs in a global context and involves dimensions of individual/group behavior and organizational processes. Valuing diversity is a core theme of organizational behavior. Organizational learning is important and involves acquiring knowledge to adapt to changing circumstances. Understanding organizational behavior requires studying individuals, groups/teams, and organizational processes.
The document discusses organizational behavior and why it is important. It defines organizational behavior as the study of individuals and groups in organizations, emphasizing high performance. It notes that organizational behavior occurs in a global context and involves dimensions of individual/group behavior and organizational processes. Valuing diversity is a core theme of organizational behavior. Organizational learning is important and involves acquiring knowledge to adapt to changing circumstances. Understanding organizational behavior requires studying individuals, groups/teams, and organizational processes.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
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This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
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The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
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Editor's Notes
This Chapter begins Part 4 of the textbook - covering the fourth management function - Leading. The “Leading” section of the textbook has three chapters: Groups and Teams, Motivation and Leadership. Detailed Chapter contents are given on Page 242, Learning Objectives are set out on Page 243, and the Chapter 8 begins with a case study (Pages 244-246) on the Human Resources and “employee engagement” strategies of Guild Insurance and Financial Services.
Page 242. The detailed learning objectives for Chapter 8 are set out on Page 243.
Strangers leaving by the same door at a theatre are not a group–they are not interdependent, nor are they interacting and influencing each other collectively or trying to reach the same goal. Increasingly, organisations are seeing the importance of groups and teams in meeting their objectives and improving performance. Teamwork happens when groups work together efficiently and effectively to reach organisational goals. Although groups have always been central to organisations, as noted above, they are seen increasingly as important organisational assets. Groups and teams are used by organisations of all sizes. Further discussion can be found on page 246.
Pages 246-247. Further details on Formal and Informal groups are given in the two following slides. Students might also look at Figure 8.1 on Page 247, where the different kinds of groups are set out diagrammatically.
Each organisational work unit (manager and subordinates) is a command group that is linked to higher (in the hierarchy) command groups–in this way, supervisors link lower-level and higher-level groups. A task group is a formal group set up to supplement or replace work normally undertaken by a command group. Task groups can be permanent or temporary. Further discussion can be found on pages 246-247.
Informal groups may or may not help achieve organisational goals. They are set up by employees outside or separate from the normal hierarchical and command group structures of the organisation. An interest group is an informal group set up to help employees with common concerns. Such concerns can have a wide base, for example, sport, a mutual interest in computer game play, or a desire to have the organisation change some policy. A friendship group is an informal group existing because of employee social needs. The groups stem from mutual attraction based on common characteristics such as similar work, backgrounds and/or values. These groups may get together outside formal work times - over lunch breaks, after work, at weekends. They can help attract and bind employees to the organisation. Further discussion can be found on pages 246-249.
See Figure 8.3 on page 249. Homans (1950) explained how informal groups grow out of formal group dynamics. Required activities are needed to perform job tasks. Required interactions are specified dealings with others as part of the job. Required sentiments are attitudes needed to do the job. Given sentiments are non-required attitudes brought to the job. Homans notes that, out of the formal group activities, informal groups with emergent activities, interactions and sentiments will grow. These can possibly supplant the required activities, interactions and sentiments (Page 248). Note that group member satisfaction is an important outcome from group activities, as well as group performance.
This is Figure 8.4 from Page 249 - A general model of work group behaviour. Several factors affect teamwork and formal work groups’ effectiveness. In analysing these, it helps to see groups as systems using inputs, engaging in many processes or transformations, and producing outcomes. (Remember the inputs, transformation process and outputs diagram from Chapter 1, Page 24). Note that important outcomes are not just group performance measures, such as quantity, quality and costs, but member satisfaction too. Further discussion can be found on Pages 249-258. These inputs and processes are dealt with in further detail in the next few slides.
As work-group composition has a bearing on a group’s ultimate success, managers must consider carefully who will be part of a group. Two crucial selection factors are potential member characteristics and reasons for their attraction to the group. Because diverse groups perform better in the long term (creativity, flexibility, decision making) than homogeneous groups, managers need to consider measures to build group diversity. Members often cannot choose their own specific work groups (except for some task groups, committees or project teams) but they may be attracted to particular organisations, they may like other group members, and can be interested in the work itself. Members can also have goals beyond the group - looking for experience or contacts for future promotion or career development. Further discussion can be found on Pages 249-250.
The common categories of group roles: task, maintenance and self-oriented were outlined by Alcorn (1985) and Bateman and Snell (2004). All are discussed in the next few slides. Group-task roles help a group develop and reach its goals. Further discussion can be found on Page 250 including more detailed explanation of each the above roles.
These are roles not directly addressing a task itself but, instead, helping foster group unity, positive interpersonal relations among group members and development of their ability to work effectively together. Further discussion can be found on Page 251, including more details on the above roles.
These are roles related to the personal needs of group members and often negatively influence group effectiveness. Further discussion can be found on Page 251.
Pages 251-252. There is no one ideal group size, and modern team structures are often relatively large. With pairs (dyads, groups of two) there can either be politeness or tension and disagreement. Groups of three can result in “two against one”. Groups of four or six often deadlock. There are some benefits in groups of five or seven. Beyond about 12 members, usually communications and coordination start to become problems. Social loafing or free riding describes the tendency for people to use less effort working in groups than alone. This can “snowball” as other members then also reduce their efforts. Individualism is where personal interests are given priority over group needs. Collectivism is where group interest are given priority over individual needs. Individualism and collectivism are both cultural (learned) and personality factors. For individualists, social loafing tends to increase with increasing group size.
Figure 8.5, Effects of group size on performance, Page 252. Note how performance increases significantly as group size grows from very small, but then tapers off and starts to fall away as size continues to increase beyond the optimum.
Some groups accomplish more than others, despite the similarity in inputs. The reason for this lies, in part, in group processes , the dynamic inner workings of the group. As group members work, some energy goes into group development and operations. This is diverted from the task and is known as process loss, as it is energy which could have been devoted to the task. Process loss is inevitable, given group members’ normal interdependence. Further discussion can be found on page 252.
Page 252. Sometimes, process loss is more than offset by positive group synergy - the energy flow of really successful groups. Group synergy and effectiveness are affected by the three major group process factors - norms, cohesiveness and group development. These are dealt with in following slides.
For a behaviour to be a norm, members must see it as expected for group membership. Work groups do not use norms to regulate all behaviour. Rather they develop and enforce norms relating to central matters. For example, group norms develop about production processes. These norms relate to quality and quantity as well as how the job is done. Norms can also develop about social processes – how group members speak to and treat each other, when to have lunch, who to have it with, etc. Further discussion can be found on Pages 254-255.
Pages 255-256. High cohesiveness means members’ performance levels are similar. If performance norms are low, there will be pressure not to “show up” other group members by working hard. Change can also be harder to implement if opposed by a highly cohesive group, but is easier if backed by a cohesive group.
Page 256 Figure 8.6 - Effects of cohesiveness and performance norms on group performance - shows the relationship between performance norms and achievement of organisational goals/high performance. Students should note that high cohesiveness does not necessarily lead to high group performance - it depends on the performance norms in the group. For example, group members in a very repetitive, boring job might be very cohesive, but might be united in efforts to do as little as possible.
New groups, such as work units, committees and task forces form constantly. Even established groups change as members leave and new ones join. It is argued that groups pass through fairly predictable development stages. New groups may progress through these phases but, if membership changes, development may briefly regress to earlier stages. The stages of group development were described by Tuckman (1965). Students often misconceive Tuckman’s stages as “compulsory” and evenly spaced. It should be emphasised that they are typical and descriptive – some groups could skip a stage, or pass through it very quickly, other stages could be very long-running. The five stages are set out diagrammatically in the next slide. Further discussion can be found on pages 256-257.
See Figure 8.7 on page 257, which shows the five stages, but gives significantly more descriptive detail. Forming: “Who are these people? What’s going to be expected of me? Will I fit in? Will I like it? Will I be able to do the work?” Storming: “Why should you be boss? Why are you doing the job like that? Why didn’t you do the job like I suggested? I don’t think that I like you.” (Conflicts) Norming: building cohesiveness, developing consensus, clarifying roles. Performing: groups focus on their tasks, norms are accepted, roles are clear, the group starts to achieve its goals. Adjourning: goals accomplished, groups prepare to disband. (Permanent groups may not go through an adjourning stage, unless there are numbers of resignations, or a merger or takeover). Some management writers give a sixth stage of group development – Mourning, where group members go through a grieving process – they may be sad at leaving friends and an interesting work environment. Managers often use symbolic means of helping staff through adjourning and mourning – awards, certificates, parties, celebrations, farewell speeches.
Groups are used when organisations can benefit from the experience and ideas of two or more people. Group efforts are increasingly useful when creativity and innovation are needed for organisational success. Further discussion can be found on pages 258-260. Because task forces can promote interaction across the various specialist departments and command groups of an organisation, they are useful where innovation or creativity in needed. The three kinds of teams identified - entrepreneurial, self-managing, and virtual - are dealt with separately in the three following slides.
Page 258. Entrepreneurial teams may be given significant freedom to experiment and try out new products and services.
Page 258-259. Also called “autonomous work groups”. Famously pioneered by the Volvo car company in the early 1970s. At its Kamar plant, Volvo organised workers into groups of about 20, and gave them responsibility for complete parts of the production process (eg. making the entire engine unit). The groups were also given responsibility for planning, scheduling, reporting, and sometimes for selection of new group members (hiring). Some studies show that job satisfaction and organisational commitment is higher in self-managing teams than in traditional work groups. However, getting rid of unsatisfactory workers, performance appraisal and settling pay matters can be difficult in self-managed teams. Hackman (1987) list four steps to improve chances of success: Carefully consider the appropriate tasks and the level of authority to be delegated to the team, Consider group composition and allocation of resources, Support training in group processes and team work, Remove performance obstacles, help group learning. Sims (1995) says productivity in self-managed teams can drop initially and take up too 18 months to recover as the team learns to manage itself.
Virtual teams comprise members who rarely, if ever, meet, instead interacting through different means of technology including phones, faxes, email, computer networks and video conferencing. Global organisations with widely dispersed activities are finding virtual teams increasingly important as knowledge becomes further specialised. Duarte and Snyder (1999) give six steps for establishing a virtual team: Identify significant organisational power sources and influences Develop clear purpose or mission statement Identify team participants Orchestrate initial contacts Orientate members to virtual team processes (a face-to-face meeting?) Set up control and management processes. Virtual teams can cross the organisation’s traditional boundaries (eg, could involve other experts, an outsourced supplier, etc.) Further discussion can be found on Pages 259-260.
So far, the lecture has concentrated on the challenges facing groups and teams in working together. Their main interactions are through the communication process. This section on communication covers the five individual factors that can influence communications breakdown: the perceptual process, the attribution process, semantics, the cultural context and communication skills. Page 260.
Page 260. Perception is influenced by how we perform these three stages - influenced by our previous experience, needs, personality, culture and education.
How do we work out what causes our behaviour and the behaviour of others? Attribution theory is one way to understand how perceptions influence managerial communication and interpersonal processes. It explains how people make judgments or attributions about causes of the behaviour of another or themselves. These judgments form a basis for later actions. Fundamental attribution error is when we underestimate the influence of the situation or circumstances, and overestimate “dispositional” factors (the personality and motives of the individual). For example, we are likely to interpret minor rudeness from service industry staff as stemming from their natural nastiness or lack of friendliness, rather than being caused by overwork. pressure and lack of support or resources. When we personally are involved, we are likely to fall into self-serving bias. For example, a student who does well in an exam is likely to think that this results from their hard work and intelligence, rather than from the exam being easy, or from the good coaching of their lecturers Further discussion can be found on Page 260.
Words are symbols, so their meanings differ for everyone. Semantics is the study of meanings and word choice. Within organisations, a common cause of semantic blocks is the use of professional jargon , or language related to a specific profession but unfamiliar to outsiders. Further discussion can be found on Page 260. Table 8.1 on Page 260 has some interesting examples of miscommunication through semantic blocks.
Page 260-261. Communications experts differentiate between passive listening (following the general meaning) and active listening (participating to ensure that all relevant facts are understood, and the speaker’s feelings are considered as well). Active listening involves paraphrasing, checking meaning, affirmations (including nods and body language). Effective feedback focuses on specific behaviours or outcomes rather than generalities or the person themselves. It is easier to give positive feedback than negative feedback, although both can be important to working in groups successfully. If you are receiving negative feedback, try not to be defensive, seek specific examples, and use paraphrasing to check understanding and perceptions.
This is a modified version of Figure 8.8 (Basic components of the communication process) on Page 261. It sets the process of transferring meaning from one person to another within an organisational context. As well as the normal communication difficulties of encoding, decoding, noise and subordinate reluctance to give negative information, situational stresses may cause communication breakdown. Students should note that “noise” in the communication process does not necessarily refer to sound. It refers to any interference or distraction which affects the transfer of messages.
When tasks need input from several, managers must look at the communication network, or the information flow patterns among task group members. Further discussion can be found on Pages 261-262. (See Figure 8.9 on page 262.) As shown in Figure 8.9, communication networks can have varying degrees of centralisation or decentralisation. Centralised networks work well for fast, accurate communication on simple, routine tasks. Decentralised networks help build morale and high performance for more complex tasks.
This section will deal with Human Resources Management: the proper staffing and management of work groups and teams is critical for their success. Aspects of HRM covered in this section (Pages 262-265) and dealt with in more detail in following slides, are: Establishing the employment relationship Maintaining the employment relationship HRIS, Internet, intranet, etc. The future of work Terminating the employment relationship. (The sequential flow of HRM tasks, set in the organisational context, and the broader legislative context (eg. Anti-discrimination laws) is set out in Figure 8.10 on Page 263 - The Human resource management framework). In establishing the employment relationship, the organisation tries to make sure it has the right number of people with the right blend of skills, when they are needed. Two outcomes of job analysis are job descriptions (the duties, what the job entails) and job specifications (what is needed to do the job - skills, experience, qualifications, qualities). Recruitment is attracting a pool of suitable candidates, preferably at minimal cost. Students should note that recruitment does NOT equal hiring, l which might occur after the selection process. Selection occurs to decide which of the possible candidates should be hired (or it can be used for promotion decisions or for deciding on membership of special project teams, etc.). Selection techniques can include applications, reference checks, general intelligence or other ability tests, job trials, interviews (sometimes including group interviews), or selection centres. The objective of the selection techniques should be to be reliable (to be consistent, to return the same results over time) and to be valid (to actually measure what they set out to measure - eg. aptitude for the job involved, rather than skill in taking tests).
Strategies to get employees to stay with the organisation, to stay motivated, and to work well with other members. Reward Management: Mix of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Balance between paying too little (not attracting or keeping good staff) and paying too much (losing money). Remuneration policies: may be covered by legislation (Workplace Relations Act), awards, enterprise bargains or individual contracts. Training (specific skills). Eg. Learning how to use new computer software. Development (wider experience). Eg. A posting to a branch in another country, opportunity to work on a special project. Performance Management Systems: broader than performance appraisal. Long-term improvement of individual and group performance. Performance Appraisal: measures employee performance against targets – can lead to bonuses, promotions, or identification of training needs. Very poor performance can possibly lead to counseling, discipline or dismissal (Usually based on supervisor rankings). 360-degree feedback: looks beyond supervisor ratings – can take in ratings from other team members and coworkers, managers, subordinates, customers or suppliers. According to Carruthers (2003) in 2002, 360-degree feedback was used in 90% of Australia’s “Fortune 500” companies. See Pages 263-264.
See Page 264. The trend is increasingly towards employee self-service, where employees can access, use, or change their personal information and details.
The above trends are given in slightly more detail on Page 264.
Employment relationships involve a legal contract of employment, and terminations need to be managed well, not just for legal reasons, but for the overall morale and efficiency of the organisation. Terminations can affect the people NOT leaving the organisation – they can be concerned about job security, increased workloads on them, and loss of valued friends and colleagues. Organisations often try to use voluntary means of termination (offering departure packages to those willing to leave) to help maintain morale. However, there are some crisis circumstances where involuntary terminations are needed (changed circumstances, financial crises) or when individual dismissal is needed for serious disciplinary reasons. Further details are on Page 265.
HR metrics measure the impact of HRM activities. They are defined as “the group of measurement processes used to evaluate the contribution or impact of HR activities”. For example, organisation members might agree broadly on the value of management training. HR metrics would try to determine exactly what contribution particular management training has made to organisational performance or improvements. See Page 265.
Chapter 8’s main learnings are summarised on Pages 265-266.