1) The document discusses the structure and components of research reports, including the traditional placement of methods sections and how to describe methods, results, discussions, and conclusions. 2) Key aspects of methods, results, and discussion sections are outlined, such as describing procedures, summarizing rather than reporting all raw data, acknowledging limitations, and drawing conclusions. 3) Guidelines are provided for effective visual aids like figures and tables, and how to discuss trends, implications, and remaining questions in the discussion section.

1. 1
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 2
Lecture 6.2: Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences , Chapter 4(2010)

2. Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1
Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
2
1. Methods are traditionally described immediately following the
introduction
2. An emerging trend is to place methods at the back, in smaller
font, or as supplemental text online to save reading time for
inspecting results (102)
3. Methods provide a framework within which the study’s results
and conclusions were generated
Describing Methods

3. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
3
4. Methods sections describe (for example—page 102)):
a. Selection of subjects of study (people, locations, objects)
b. Randomization and interventions
c. Adherence to drugs
d. Outcome measures
e. Determination of sample size
f. Statistical evaluation
g. Experimental design
5. Methods presented in simple past tense, active or passive
voice. Active is easier to follow, and more brief. Passive tends to
remove the researchers from the work, pointing strictly to facts.
(103)
Describing Methods
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1

4. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
4
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1
6. It is generally recognized that methods section cannot describe
everything (103)
7. Standard, common procedures do not need to be cited; earlier
procedures in previous studies do need to be cited; new
procedures or substantial modifications need to be explained
and justified.
8. Methods argues that the research design was sensibly
constructed and conducted (103)
9. How you explain methods is crucial to your ethos as a scientist
(103)
Describing Methods

5. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
5
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1
Reporting Results
1. The Results section is where new evidence is presented to
address the gap or question outlined in the introduction (105)
2. There is not space to record all raw data, requiring scientists to
summarize data (105)
3. Results generalize data, pointing out trends. It is often best to
place data in tables, then generalize and describe it, not just
repeat it (See examples on pg. 106)
a. “Fifty percent of the eradication group and 36% of the
placebo group responded successfully to treatment in the
intention-to-treat analysis (table 2)…”
b. The proportion of patients who were considered a
treatment success was significantly greater for the
eradication arm than the placebo arm…”

6. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
6
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1
Reporting Results
4. Authors should refer readers to a visual explicitly and tell them
the patterns to notice (example C106)
a. “Table 3 show the impact of eradication treatment on
disease specific measures of quality of life. The difference
in the change in scores from pretreatment to study end
showed significantly greater improvement…”
5. 88% of scientific articles in the 20th century include tables and
figures (48% in the 19th century) (107)
6. Different kinds of visuals demonstrate different kinds of data
(tables, bar charts, line graphs, photographs, diagrams, etc.)
(107 – 108)

7. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
7
Reporting Results
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1
7. Guidelines for visuals include:
a. Figures must be independent, stand alone
b. Figure titles should be as informative as possible
c. Figure captions should be as informative as possible
d. Figures should be interdependent with the text—they
should help each other out
e. Figures should be clearly referenced in the text and
placed as close to the textual reference as possible (109)
8. Graphics should be self-explanatory, but you still need to let
the reader know what you find interesting in the represented
data (109)

8. Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
8
1. Discussion explains how the research question posited in
the introduction has been answered by the research. A
new state of knowledge in the field is described (111)
2. Discussion is the place to:
a. Summarize major findings, including their magnitude
and direction of the effects
b. Acknowledge advantages and limitations of the
methods
c. Outline research questions that remain (111)
Discussing Trends and Implications
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1

9. 9
Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
9
3. Acknowledging limitation is crucial to show awareness.
“Rebuttals” should be clearly expressed to acknowledge
counterarguments (112)
a. “Although some may argue that the lack of double-
blinding introduced an important bias into our study, no
objective data support such a contention…” (page
112)
4. Conclusions sometimes come after discussions, describing
possible applications, policies, recommendations for
clinicians, etc.
5. Researchers do not leave it up to the reader to draw
conclusions—they tell them their conclusions
Discussing Trends and Implications
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1

10. 1010
Adapted from Penrose & Katz, Writing in the Sciences (2010)
10
6. Choice of verbs is important: suggest, indicate, show,
demonstrate… (113)
7. Hedging verbs show that the scientist is aware that this data
is true only within the boundaries of current knowledge
(114)
8. Qualifying/hedging statements include: possibly, probably,
very likely, necessarily, certainly,, without doubt,
presumably, in all probability, hypothetically, maybe,
certainly, without doubt… (114)
Discussing Trends and Implications
Reading and Writing
Research Reports, part 1