The document provides guidance on style, composition, and conventions for formal scientific writing. It offers recommendations on maintaining formality through precise vocabulary and grammar usage. Specific topics covered include using active voice to make organisms the agents of action, avoiding unnecessary words, precisely comparing items, and properly formatting numbers, units of measurement, and species names. The overall document aims to help writers improve clarity, precision, and readability in scientific documents.
Recent studies have suggested that various anatomical changes, such as the widening of the hypoglossal canal, the descent of the larynx, and the loss of air sacs, are prerequisites for speech or occurred due to selective pressure on speech. Such studies have been used to suggest that Homo neanderthalis as well as early Homo sapiens were capable of speech. However, using a broad literature review of multimodal languages, such as whistle languages, and the articulation processes behind prosodic features, I will show that such studies ignore various aspects of language that would not require maximal discreteness in phonological features. I will suggest that these studies do not adequately account for prosodic features that would not require anatomical changes in early hominins when considering protolanguage, as they are based on a fundamentally modern view of modern languages which place a heavier load on phonological features at the cost of prosodic load. Therefore, a reanalysis of anatomical changes in early hominins is necessary.
This document is quoted from Academic Writing Skill, IFL, Cambodia. It's for students in year three not only at IFL but also other institutions in Cambodia.
Getting Started with the Hymenoptera Anatomical OntologyKatja C. Seltmann
For Biodiversity Informatics workshop in Stockholm, Friday September 18. Describing the Hymenoptera Anatomical Ontology. Authors: Matthew Yoder, Andrew Deans, Katja Seltmann, István Mikó, Matthew Bertone
Zotero is a reference management software. It is a free download. The advantages of storing references, documents.,etc., in one location was shown to increase participation as well as final grades in an online class.
Recent studies have suggested that various anatomical changes, such as the widening of the hypoglossal canal, the descent of the larynx, and the loss of air sacs, are prerequisites for speech or occurred due to selective pressure on speech. Such studies have been used to suggest that Homo neanderthalis as well as early Homo sapiens were capable of speech. However, using a broad literature review of multimodal languages, such as whistle languages, and the articulation processes behind prosodic features, I will show that such studies ignore various aspects of language that would not require maximal discreteness in phonological features. I will suggest that these studies do not adequately account for prosodic features that would not require anatomical changes in early hominins when considering protolanguage, as they are based on a fundamentally modern view of modern languages which place a heavier load on phonological features at the cost of prosodic load. Therefore, a reanalysis of anatomical changes in early hominins is necessary.
This document is quoted from Academic Writing Skill, IFL, Cambodia. It's for students in year three not only at IFL but also other institutions in Cambodia.
Getting Started with the Hymenoptera Anatomical OntologyKatja C. Seltmann
For Biodiversity Informatics workshop in Stockholm, Friday September 18. Describing the Hymenoptera Anatomical Ontology. Authors: Matthew Yoder, Andrew Deans, Katja Seltmann, István Mikó, Matthew Bertone
Zotero is a reference management software. It is a free download. The advantages of storing references, documents.,etc., in one location was shown to increase participation as well as final grades in an online class.
Class 06 emerson_phonetics_fall2014_intro_to_linguistics_clinical_phxLisa Lavoie
There is no class 5; that was an exam. This is the sixth class in a semester-long, once per week course in Phonetics for students in Communication Disorders
Structure your sentences well in englishMaura Hannon
Are you speaking and writing in English as a second language? Do you get feedback on your academic writing - but you are not really sure what it means? Do you write in English but it does not sound English? These slides are from a workshop I give to help everyone write better.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
1. 3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Vocabulary (Verbs)
According to some biologists, coming up with clear
proof of the decreasing number of frogs has been
difficult.
Better
According to some biologists, offering clear
proof of the decreasing number of frogs has been
difficult.
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
2. 3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Vocabulary (Other Parts of Speech)
In Hong Kong there is one cell phone for just about/nearly
every two people.
There has been a lot of/considerable interest in how
background sounds affect an individuals ability to
concentrate.
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
3. I. Avoid contractions.
Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger.
Better
Export figures will not improve until…
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Non-vocabulary
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
4. II. Avoid “run-on” expressions (“and so forth”, “etc.”)
These semiconductors can be used in robots,
CD players, etc.
Better
These semiconductors can be used in robots,
CD players, and other electronic devices.
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Non-vocabulary
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
5. III. Avoid addressing the reader as “you.”
You can see the results in Table 1.
Better
The results can be seen in Table 1.
3.Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Non-vocabulary
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
6. IV. Limit the use of direct questions.
What can be done to lower costs?
Better
It is necessary to consider how costs may be
lowered.
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality Non-vocabulary
Adapted from Swales and Feak, 2004; Hofmann, 2010
7. 3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality
1. Brought on caused
2. Looking into investigating
3. Figure out determine
4. Come up with determined
5. Get rid of eliminate
6. Gone up increased
7. Keep up maintain
8. Gone down decreased
8. 3. Style, Composition, Conventions
A. Formality
A.
1. Integral part
2. Nearly
3. Considerable
4. Obtained
5. Increasing
B.
6. Gotten more become
7. Do not have enough lack the
8. Do not happen very often
do not happen frequently
happen infrequently
9. Made bigger to make it easier
increased to facilitate loading and unloading
9. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
I. Ambiguity—use the word “relatively” only when making explicit
comparisons.
Many of the animals living near deep-sea hydrothermal vents
are relatively large.
Animals living near deep-sea hydrothermal vents can exceed
lengths of 3 meters.
Many of the animals living near deep-sea hydrothermal vents
are large relative to their shallow-water counterparts.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
10. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
I. Ambiguity—use of the words “several” and “frequently” may also
be ambiguous.
The current remained increased for several hours.
The current remained increased for 6 hours.
Nests were observed frequently for signs of predation.
Nests were observed every 12 hours for signs of predation.
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
11. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
II. Say exactly what you mean (precision).
1. I saw three squid SCUBA diving last Thursday.
While SCUBA diving last Thursday, I saw three
squid.
2. From observations made in aquaria, feed rates of the
fish were highest at night.
Feeding rates of fish held in aquaria were highest
at night.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
12. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“between” and “among”: Between usually refers to 2 things while among
usually refers to more than 2 things.
The 20 caterpillars were randomly distributed between
2 dishes.
The 20 caterpillars were randomly distributed among
8 dishes.
“its” and “it’s”: It’s is always an abbreviated form of “it is”. If “it is”
does not belong in your sentence, use its.
When treated with the chemical, the amoeba lost its
cilia.
It’s clear that the loss of cilia was caused by the treatment.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
13. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“effect” and “affect”: Effect is a noun that means an “outcome” or a “result.”
Affect is a verb that means “to influence.”
What is the effect of fuel oil on the feeding behavior
of birds?
How will fuel oil affect the feeding behavior of birds?
“i.e” and “e.g.”:
i.e. is an abbreviation for id est, which,in Latin
means “that is” or “that is to say”
Data on sex determination suggest that this species has only two sexual
genotypes, i.e., female (XX) and male (XY).
e.g. stands for exempli gratis which means “for example”
The larvae of several butterfly species (e.g., Papilio demodocus,
P. eurymedon, and Plieris napi) are able to feed on milkweed.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
14. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“Their” and “there”
Their: Possessive version of "they“
There: Indication of location
They’re looking for their books.
There is a boat in the harbor.
“Then” and “than”
Than: a conjunction, is used to compare things.
Then: an adverb, is used with descriptions of time.
Then, suddenly, Mr. Perez shouted, “I’m a better diver than you’ll
ever be!”
I think she looks scared, but then, what do I know?
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
15. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“varying” and “various”: “Varying” means “changing over time”
or with changing circumstances, while “various” means “different.”
We also examined feeding rates among animals maintained at
varying temperatures.
“supernatant”
Proper use of commas in writing species names. Use commas
to set off formal species names only when the formal names are
preceded by specific common names.
Genomic DNA was extracted from embryos of the common blue
mussel, Mytilus edulis.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
16. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“which” and “that”:
“That” is used with restrictive phrases. Restrictive phrases are
phrases that are essential to the sentence.
“Which” is used with nonrestrictive phrases. Nonrestrictive phrases
are phrases that states non essential information. A phrase is
nonrestrictive phrase if it can be removed from the sentence.
Fish, which live at depths up to 1000 m, experience up to
101 atmospheres of pressure.
Fish that live at depths up to 1000 m experience up to
101 atmospheres of pressure.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
17. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
III. Commonly misused or misspelled words
“Data” = plural
The data are convincing.
These data show some surprising trends.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
See Commonly Misused Words Appendix
Hofmann, 2010
18. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
IV. Avoid Sexism
Man is not the only host for this parasite.
Humans are not the only host for this parasite.
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
19. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
V. Don’t be teleological.
-Giraffes did not evolve long necks “in order to reach the
leaves of tall trees.”
-Birds did not evolve nest-building behavior “in order to
protect their young.”
-Insects did not evolve wings “in order to fly.”
-Plants did not evolve flowers “in order to attract bees
for pollination.”
VI. Beware of anthropomorphism.
The existence of sage in the harsh, dry climate of the
American plains results from Nature’s timeless
experimentation.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
20. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
V. Omit unnecessary words and phrases
The sample size was not quite sufficiently large enough.
The sample size was not large enough.
High pH values have been observed to occur in areas
that have been determined to have few pine trees.
High pH values occur in areas with few pine trees.
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004
21. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
V. Omit unnecessary words and phrases
-The following words usually add nothing to the text…
actually, basically, essentially, fairly, much, really, practically
quite, rather, several, very, virtually
-Other examples of redundancies…
(already) existing (basic) fundamentals cold (temperature)
(currently) underway each and every (choose one) estimated (roughly) at
First (and foremost) (main) essentials period (of time)
(still) persists at (the) present (time) blue (in color)
(completely) eliminate each (individual) (end) result
(final) outcome (future) plans never (before)
reason is (because) (true) facts
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
22. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
VI. Avoid noun clusters (“2 is company, 3 is a crowd”)
sparse matrix crystallization
crystallization by sparse matrix
cultured rat trachea endothelial cells
cultures of endothelial cells from the tracheas of rats
When the strips were exposed to Leishmaniasis diseased patients’ sera…
When the strips were exposed to the sera of patients with Leishmaniasis…
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
23. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
VII. Faulty Comparisons (compare “like” items)
Our conclusions are consistent with Smith et al.
Our conclusions are consistent with the conclusions of Smith et al.
OR
Our conclusions are consistent with those of Smith et al.
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
24. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
VII. Faulty Comparisons (than versus compared to)
Use “than” not “compared to” for comparative terms such as “smaller,”
“higher,” “lower,” “fewer,” “greater,” or “more,” etc.
We found more fertilized eggs in buffer A compared to buffer B.
We found more fertilized eggs in buffer A than in buffer B.
Adapted from Hofmann, 2010
25. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
VIII. For interest, make the organism the agent of action (use the
active voice).
Studies on the rat show that the activity levels vary
predictably during the day (Hatter, 1976). {passive voice}
Rats vary their activity predictably during the day
(Hatter, 1976). {active voice}
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004, Hofmann, 2010
26. 3.Style, Composition, Conventions
B. Other Recommendations, Common Errors
VIII. For interest, make the organism the agent of action (use the
active voice).
Cats are hated by dogs. {passive voice}
Dogs hate cats. {active voice}
No change in activity was observed. {passive voice}
We observed no change in activity. {active voice}
Adapted from Pechenik, 2004, Hofmann, 2010
27. I. Abbreviate units of measurement that are preceded by numbers.
no periods after symbols (may be periodical specific)
always use the same symbol for 1 or >1
1 mm, 50 mm
1 hr, 50 hr
1 g, 454 g
II. Usually underline or italicize genera/species names and most
times foreign words.
Homo sapiens (H. sapiens), in vitro, in vivo, in silico, et al.
III. Do not capitalize common names.
monarch butterfly, gorillas, fruit fly
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)
28. IV. Capitalize the names of taxonomic groups (clades) above
the level of genus, but not the names of taxonomic categories
themselves.
It has been reported that insects belong to the phylum
Arthropoda and the class Insecta.
It has been reported that insects are arthropods, members
of the phylum Arthropoda.
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)
29. V. Numbers
Use numerals rather than words when writing about:
Counted or measured items 6 larvae, 18 seedlings
Percentages 25%
Decimals 1.5 times greater
Magnification 50X magnification
Ratios 3:1 ratio
Abbreviated Units of
measurement 0.7 g, 18 ml
Except…use words instead of numerals if beginning a sentence:
Twenty grams of NaCl were added to each of 4 flasks.
Thirty percent of the tadpoles metamorphosed by the end
of the week.
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)
30. V. Numbers (cont.)
When 2 numbers are written next to each other without
being separated by words or a comma:
The sample was divided into five 25-seedling groups
Unless zero or one is followed by units of measure (e.g.
“I added 1 mg of sucrose…”), or is part of an equation
(e.g. “n=1”), or part of a series that includes larger numbers
(e.g. “1,8, and 25 individuals…”), use words rather than
numerals.
When writing about numbers smaller than zero, precede the
decimal point with a zero:
“…and we then added 0.25 g of NaCl to each flask.”
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)
31. V. Numbers (cont.)
When using ordinal numbers (e.g. fifth, first), it is suggested
that words be used for the first 9 numbers (“the sixth replicate”)
and numerals for the others (“the 25th replicate).
However, you should be consistent within a series:
fifth, sixth ninth, 14th, 15th, and 16th samples…
Better: 5th, 6th, 9th, 14th, 15th, and 16th samples….
When writing about very large or small numbers use scientific
notation:
0.0056 g/ml Better: 5.6 X 10-3 g/ml
180,000 cells/ml Better: 1.8 X 105 cells/ml
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)
32. V. Numbers (cont.)
Use commas only when numerals contain more than 4
numbers (?):
Only 1073 of the original 12,450 frog tadpoles died during the
study.
3. Style, Composition, Conventions
C. Council of Science Editors (CSE Style Manual)