The document discusses the historical development of the central Islamic lands, emphasizing the life of the Prophet Muhammad, the formation of the Islamic faith, and the establishment of the caliphate. It outlines the transition from Muhammad's leadership to the Umayyad dynasty, followed by the Abbasid revolution, highlighting key figures and significant events that shaped early Islamic society, politics, and expansion. The document also touches on cultural influences and the eventual fragmentation of the Islamic state into various dynasties.

1. Theme-4
THE CENTRAL ISLAMIC LANDS
THE CENTRAL ISLAMIC
LANDS
CHAPTER - 4

2. The Central Islamic Lands
 Islamic lands brought threeaspectsof human civilization:
Religion, Communityand Politics
Sources to understand the Historyof central Islamic land
 1. Semi-historical works, such as biographies, recordsof
the sayingsand doingsof the Prophet (hadith) and
commentarieson the Quran (tafsir) are available.
 2. Largecollection of eyewitnessreports (akhbar)
transmitted overa period of timeeitherorallyoron paper.
The authenticityof each report was tested by acritical
method called isnad.
 3. Christian chronicles, written in Syriac are fewer but they
throw interesting light on the historyof early Islam.
 4. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies,
traveloguesand literaryworks, such as storiesand
poems.

4. Arabs before Muhammad (Bedouins)
Before the Prophet Muhammad, the Arabs were
divided in to tribes(qabila).
A chief was chosen on the basis of his family as
well as his personal courage, wisdom and
generosity.
Many Arab tribes were nomadic (Bedouins),
moving from dry togreen areas (oases) of the
desert in search of food
Some settled in cities and practised tradeor
agriculture.
Muhammad belongs to tribe known as QURAYSH.

5. Life of Muhammad
(AD 571-632)
Muhammad was born in
Makkah (571AD) in present-
day Saudi Arabia to a
Muhammad in
Arabic Calligraphy
merchant family. His
parents died when he was
young and he ended up
living with his uncle who
was a merchantand he
becameacaravan manager.

6. Muhammad married an olderwidow named
Khadija.
Over time, he found the richness and
corruption of the merchants and townspeople
to be troubling.
He decided tovisit the hills to meditate.
Muslims believe that while he was meditating
in the hills he received revelations from God
through the Angel Gabriel.
The Life of Muhammed

7. Muhammad’s Revelation
Muslims believe the Angel Gabriel told
Muhammad to recite what he heard, it was
believed that Allah had already revealed
himself through Moses and Jesus, but now
had a final revelation for man.
This final revelation became the religion of
Islam. Which means submission to the will
of God.

8. The Quran (Koran)
The Quran,the holy book of Islam, is written
in Arabic, which was the languageof
Muhammad.
The Quran contains ethical
guidelines and laws by which
Muslims (followers of Islam)
should live their lives.
The Muslim observance of
Ramadan is tocommemorate
the recording of the holy text.

9. After the Revelation
After Muhammad received his revelation
hewent to his wife Khadija, she was his
first convert to the new religion.
He began to try to convert the peopleof
Makkah to his message, but hewas
unsuccessful becauseof theopposition
of wealthy merchants.

10. The Muslims and their new religion had
faced considerable opposition from the
Meccans.
In 622,Muhammad was forced to migrate
with his followers to Yathrib. (Renamed as
Medina-430 km from Mecca)
Theyearof his journey marked the
beginning of the Muslim calendar.
(Hijrah Era)
Islamic Calender

11. Rise of Islam in Arabia
In Yathrib, renamed Medina (which means thecity
of the prophet) Muhammad was accepted and
gained followers.
Oneof thegroups which converted to the new
religion of Islam were the Bedouins whowere
desert Arabs. This new community became the
first to practice the religion.
Afterseveral years, Muhammad became both a
spiritual and political leader, there was notan
idea of the separation of church and state. He
raised an army and conquered thecityof
Makkah.

12. The Kaaba
After Muhammad took thecity
of Makkah hecleansed the
Kaaba of idols and dedicated it
to Allah, who he taughtwas the
one true God.
All Muslims are encouraged to
make a pilgrimage to Makkah
known as the Hajj at leastonce
in their life if theyare
physically and financially able.

14. Importance of Mecca
It was in this city that Muhammad lived and
controlled the main shrine, a cube like
structure, known as Kaba in which idols were
placed.
Tribes outside Mecca also considered the Kaba
holy, and placed their idols in it and made
annual pilgrimage to this shrine called Hajj.
Mecca was located on the crossroad of a trade
route between Yemen and Syria which added
to the importance of the city.

15. Mecca

16. Principle and Messagesof Prophe Muhammad
 He declared himself to be a messengerof God (rasul)
and commanded to preach that Allah alone should be
worshipped.
 He preached that worship should involve simple rituals
such as daily prayers(salat)
 His followers should follow moral principles such as;
(a)Abstain from theft,(b)Distribute alms, and(c)Be
bound together through common religious beliefs.
 He preached to found a single community of
believers(umma). His followers werecalled Muslims.
 They were promised salvation on the Day of Judgment
(qiyama) and a share of the resources of the community
while on earth.

17. The Teachings of Muhammad
Islam is Monotheistic, like Judaism and
Christianity.
Islam teaches a belief in an afterlife, thosewho
hope toachieve this afterlife must submit to the
will of Allah.
Muslims do not believe the Muhammad was
divine, they believe that hewas a man.
Islam is seen not justas a religion, butas a wayof
life.

18. Muslims feel that in order to achieve
salvation that they must obey thewill
of Allah, or God.
In order to do this they must follow the
five major principles of Islam known as
the Five Pillars of Islam.

19. The Five Pillars of Islam
 1-Declaration of Faith
 Muslims must state that there is one God-Allah
and Muhammad is his prophet.
 2. Daily Prayer
 Muslims must pray five times a day facing the
Kaaba in Mecca.
 Pre Dawn
 Noon
 Afternoon
 Sunset
 Evening

20. Five Pillars Continued . . .
3. Charity
Muslims are supposed to help others and
donate part of their income to charity.
(Zakat)
4. Fasting-Ramadan
 Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset
during the holy month of Ramadan which
celebrates the recording of the Quran.

21. Hajj
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca: Hajj
 The fifth pillarof Islam is the Hajj.
 Once in a lifetime, if they are
physically and financiallyable, Muslims are to
journey to Mecca (Makkah) in Saudi Arabiaand
perform the rituals of the Hajj.

22. The Caliphate and its Objectives
 After the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, noone
remained there to succeed him as prophet.
 So his authoritywas transferred to ummawith no
established ruleof succession.
 Then began the processof innovationswhich led to
the formationof the institution of Caliphate in which
the leaderof the community (amiral-muminin)
became thedeputy (khalifa) of the prophet.
 There were two mainobjectives of Caliphates
First was to retain thecontrol over the tribes
constituting ummaand Secondly to raise resources for
the state.
The Caliphate: Expansion, Civil wars and Sect Formation

23. Creation of An Arab Empire
The First Four Caliphs
 The friend and father-in-lawof Muhammad,
Abu Bakr, was chosen to be the first Caliph, or
successor to Muhammad.
The second caliph was Umar. Heshaped the
umma's policy of expansion.
The third caliph was Uthman. He packed his
administration with his own men and this led
toopposition in Iraq and Egypt.
The fourth caliph was Ali. It was in his time
that Muslims broke in to shias and Sunnis

24. •The caliph knew that the umma could not be maintained
out of the modest income derived from trade and
taxes.
• Realising that rich booty (ghanima) could be obtained
from expeditionary raids, the caliph and his military
commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquer
lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and
the Sasanian empire in the east.
•The Byzantine Empire promoted Christianity and the
Sasanian empire patronised Zoroastrianism, the ancient
religion of Iran.

25. • On the eve of the Arab invasions, these two
empires had declined in strength due to religious
conflicts and revolts by the aristocracy.
•This made it easier for the Arabs to annex
territories through wars and treaties. In three
successful campaigns (637-642), the Arabs brought
Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the control of
Medina.
•Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the
Arab- slamic state controlled the vast territory
between the Nile and the Oxus.

26. The administration of the conquered territories by the
Caliphs
 The administration of conquered territories was headed by
governors (amirs) and tribal chieftains (ashraf).
 The central treasury(bait-al-mal)obtained its revenue from taxes
paid by Muslims as well as its share of booty from raids.
 The caliphs soldiers,mostly Bedouins,settled in campcities at the
edge of thedesert, such as Kufaand Basra.
 So that they remained within their natural habitatand atcaliph's
command.
 The ruling class and soldiers received shares from booty and
monthly payment(ata)
 The non-muslim population retained theirrights on propertyand
religious practices on payment of taxes. Such as kharaj and jiziya.
 Jews and Christians were declared as protected subjects of the
state(dammis) and were given a measure of autonomy in the
conduct of theircommunal affairs

27. •Political expansion and unification did not come easily to
the Arab tribesmen.
•With territorial expansion, the unity of the umma
became threatened by conflicts over the distribution of
resources and offices.
•The ruling class of the early Islamic state comprised
almost entirely the Quraysh of Mecca. The third caliph,
Uthman (644-56), also a Quraysh, packed his
administration with his own men to secure greater
control.
•This further intensified the Meccan character of the
state and the conflict with the other tribesmen.
Opposition in Iraq and Egypt, combined with opposition
in Medina, led to the assassination of Uthman. With
Uthman’s death, Ali became the fourth caliph.

28. •The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61)
fought two wars against those who represented the
Meccan aristocracy.
•Ali established himself at Kufa and defeated an army led
by Muhammad’s wife, Aisha, in the Battle of the Camel
(657).
•He was, however, not able to suppress the faction led by
Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of
Syria.
•Ali’s second battle, at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia),
ended in a truce which split his followers into two groups:
some remained loyal to him, while others left the camp
and came to be known as Kharjis.

29. •Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in
a mosque at Kufa.
•After his death, his followers paid allegiance
to his son, Hussain, and his descendants.
•Muawiya made himself the next caliph in
661, founding the Umayyad dynasty which
lasted till 750.

30. The Umayyads and the changes introduced by
Umayyads in Politics or administration
 The Umayyad Dynasty was centered in Damascus, in
modern-day Syria and was wealthy. This was alsoa
very diverseempireas manydifferent peoples had
been conquered in new territory.
 Muawiya was the first Umayyad caliph. He had made
himself the caliph after the death of Ali, in 661 C.E
 Umayyads werea prosperous clan of Qurayshi tribe.
 The Umayyads implemented a series of political
measures which first consolidated their leadership
within umma.
 Muawiya was the first Umayyad caliph moved his capital
to Damascus and adopted the court ceremonies and
administrative institutions of Byzantine Empire.

32. Damascus, Syria

33. Damascus, Syria

34. Changes introduced by Umayyads
 Muawiaalso introduced hereditary succession
and persuaded the leading Muslims toaccept his
son as his heir.
 Although there were Christian adviser in
administration and Zoroastrian bureaucrats and
scribes, itwas Islam that provided legitimacy to
theirrule.
 In the Umayyad state the imperial powerwas not
based directly on Islam but on statecraft. They
appealed forunityand suppressed rebellions in
the name of Islam.

35.  Thecontribution of Abdul Malik(685-705)
Hewas the 5th Umayyad rulerand itwas in his
time that Arab and Islamic identitywas
emphasized.
Arabic was adapted as language and
administration and Islamic coinagewas
introduced.
Cross symbols and seals were removed from the
early coins and used Arabic scripts and seals.
He built the Domeof the Rock at Jerusalem
which is an Arab-Islamic identity.

36. Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

37. Difference between the Islamic and other
coins that were circulating in the caliphate.
Before the introduction of Islamic coins the
gold Dinar and silver Dirham were in
circulation in the Caliphate which were the
copies of Byzantine and Iranian coins(denarius
and drachm).They had symbols of crosses and
fire altars and Greek and Pahlavi(the language
of Iran) inscription on them. Abdul Malik and
his successors removed these symbols and
introduced coins with Arabic inscriptions.

38. The Abbasid Revolution
The Umayyads were replaced by a
movementcalled dawa, led by Abbasids ,
another family of Mecca origin in 750.The
Umayyad regimewas portrayed as evil by
the Abbasids. They promised to restore the
original Islam of prophet.
Theirarmywas led byan Iranian slave, Abu
Muslim, who defeated the last Umayyad
caliph, Marwan, in a battle at the river Zab.

39. •The Abbasid uprising broke out in the distant
region of Khurasan (eastern Iran), a 20-day journey
from Damascus on a
fast horse.
•Khurasan had a mixed Arab-Iranian population
which could be mobilised for various reasons
•The Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, the
Prophet’s uncle, mustered the support of the
various dissident groups and legitimised their bid
for power by promising that a messiah (mahdi)
from the family of the Prophet (ahl al-bayt) would
liberate them from the oppressive Umayyad
regime.

40. The Abbasid Rule
 Under the Abbasid's rule the influenceof Arabs declined
and the importance of Iranian culture increased.
 The Abbasids established theircapital at Baghdad.
 The army and bureaucracy were reorganized on a non-
tribal basis toensure greater participation by Iraq and
Khurasan.
 The religious status and the functions of the caliphate
were strengthened under theirrule.
 They patronised Islamic institutions and scholars.
 They retained the centralized nature of state .
 They maintained the splendid imperial architectureand
elaborate court ceremonials of the Umayyads.

41. Bagdad

43. Causes for the Break-up of the Caliphate
A numberof causes were responsible for the declineof the
Abbasid state.
1.The Abbasid state became weaker because the control
from Baghdad todistant places of the empiredeclined.
2. A conflict between pro-Arab and pro-Iranian factions of
the army and bureaucracy also led to the decline.
3. In 1810, a civil war broke out between the supporters of
Amin and Mamun, the sons of caliph Harun-al-Rashid
which led to the creation of a new power block of Turkish
slave officers.
All these developments led tocreation of numberof
dynasties and Abbasid power limited tocentral Iraq and
western Iran.
Break up of the Caliphate and the rise of Sultanates

44. In 945 the Buyids, a Shiite clan from the
Caspian region of Iran captured Baghdad.
They kept the Abbasid caliph as the
symbolic head of their sunni subjects.
Fatimids wereof shiite origin and had
ambition to rule the Islamic world. They
claimed descendants of Fatima the daughter
of Prophet Muhammad and hence rightful
rulers of Islam. They had their base in
North Africa and conquered Egypt and
established new capital at Qahira (Cairo).

45. THE TURKS
 TheTurks were nomadic
tribes from the Central Asian
steppes whogradually
converted to Islam. Theywere
skilled riders and warriors and
entered the Abbasid, Samanid
and Buyid administrations as
slaves and soldiers, rising to
high positions on account of
their loyaltyand military
abilities.

46. The Rise of Sultanate
 The Ghaznavid sultanate was established by
Alptegin (961). Itwas consolidated by Mahmud of
Ghazni (998-1030).
 Ghaznavids were a military dynastywith a
professional army of Turks and Indians.
 The Abbasid caliphs were not rivals but a source
of legitimacy for Ghaznavids.
 Mahmud was eagerto receive the titleof Sultan
from thecaliph.
 Thecaliph was willing to support the Sunni
Ghaznavid as acounterweight to Shiite power.

47. Seljuk Turks
As the Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt became
more powerful they became the new center
of the Muslim world.
One groupwhich came to power in this
region were the Seljuk Turks.
The Turks played a large role in the
military and many rose through the ranks
to gain a lot of political power.

48. The Seljuk Turks
 The Saljuq Turks entered the scene as soldiers.
They laterestablished themselves as a powerful
group under the leadership of two brothers,
Tughril and Chaghri Beg.
 After thedeath of Mahmud of Gazni, they
conquered Khurasan and made Nishapur their
Capital.
 Then they moved towestern Persia and Iraq and
restored Baghdad to Sunni rule (1055)
 Thecaliph, al-Qaim, conferred on Tughril Beg the
titleof Sultan. The two Saljuq brothers ruled
together.

49. •
•
•
•

50. Crusades
 Crusades were thewars fought by Christians against
Muslims to free the Holy Land of Palestine.
 In 1076 Seljuk Turks conquered Jerusalem and
started torturing Christians.
 AD 1092 Seljuk Sultan Maliks died-hisempire started
disintegrating.
 This gave achance to Byzantine(E.orthodox church) Emperor
Alexius-I to regain Asia Minorand Northern Syriaand
he tried to conquer this region.
 Pope Urban II joined with Alexis to release the holy
land of Jerusalem.
 He advised to takearms, in the name of God.
 In between AD 1095-1291- 4 majorwars and small
battles, ie, Crusades.

51. Crusades

52. Crusade I (1098-1099)
Soldiers of Franceand Italy captured
Antioch & Jerusalem.
Massacre of Muslims and Jews.
Formation of 4 Crusade countries in
Syria-Palestine area-called Outremer.
Othercrusades for protect the
Outremer.

53. Crusade II (1145-1149)
 Started in 1144-Edessa,oneof Outremer, reconquered
by Turks.
 Pope declared II war, but failed.
 German-French army tried to capture Damascus but
defeated by Turks.
 Salam Aldin(Saladin) founded Egyptian-Syrian
empireand declared Jihad against Christians.
 In 1187 he defeated Crusaders and reoccupied
Jerusalem.
 Jerusalem came under the Turks aftera century.
 Saladin converted Christian churches to Muslim
Mosques and Jerusalem became a Muslim city.

54. Crusade III
 Started in AD1189.
 Majorcause – losing of Jerusalem.
 No majorsuccess to the Crusaders- But the
crusaders gained littlevictory in Palestine and got
freeaccess to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims.
 The Mamluks, the rulers of Egypt, finally
expelled thecrusading Christians from all of
Palestine in 1291.
 Europeans gradually lost their interest in
Crusades.

55. (1)Muslim countries began to show
rigid and hostile attitude towards its
Christian subjects where there were
mixed populations.
(2) Increased influence of Italian
mercantile communities in the trade
between the East and the West even
after the restoration of Muslim power.
Consequences of Crusades

56. Economy, Agriculture, Trade &
Urbanization
 Agriculture was the main occupation
 Land owned by Small & Big Peasants
 Tax collected by Estate owners
 Land gave up by owners given to Nobles, especially
in the familyof Caliph
 Agricultural land controlled by Govt.
 Land Tax- major source of income
 1/5 – ½, 1/10 for Muslims
 Tendencyof religious conversion
 Later - equal share from all

57. Economy, Agriculture, Trade &
Urbanization
 Officials paid from Agricultural revenue –
Iqta
 Cotton, Orange, Banana, Spinach,
Sugar, Water Melon
 Exported to Europe
 Construction of canals and dams,
digging of wells – encouraged by the
govt.

58. Agriculture

59. Economy, Agriculture, Trade &
Urbanization
 Cities: Khufa, Basra, Fustat, Cairo, Bagdad,
Damascus, Isfahan, Samarkhand.
 Two Important Structures at the heart of the city :
Masjid al Jami & Central Market place
 City Population: Rulers, Scholars, Merchants
 Outer Circle: Common People, Soldiers, Church,
Masjid, Synagogue
 Out side thecity: Cemetery, Rest houses.

60. Economy, Agriculture, Trade &
Urbanization

61. Economy, Agriculture, Trade &
Urbanization
Development of Trade;
Spices, Cotton textiles, gunpowder from
India and china.
Coinage: Gold, silver,copper
Use of Sakk (Cheque) – Banking
Sea trade monopoly for 5 centuries with
China, India and Europe- Arab & Iranian
Traders.

62. Islamic Coinage

63. ISLAMIC COINAGE

64. Society
Social divisions;
1. Muslimsof ruling class
2. Newly converted Muslims
3. Non-Muslims
4. Slaves

65. Learning & Culture
 Ulamas – Interpretationof Quran
 Islamic laws – Sharia
 The sharia provided guidance on all possible legal
issues within Sunni society.
 The Qasi- the judgeappointed by the state in each city
or locality.
 Differences in the interpretation of laws in the 8th & 9th
centuries.
 Four Schools of law(mazhab): Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii
and Hanbali.

66. Learning and Culture
 Quran: A book in Arabic divided into 114 chapters
(Suras), arranged from big tosmall, except 1st chapter
(short prayer- Al faitha oropening)
 According to Muslim tradition, the Quran is a
collection of messages which God sent to the prophet
Muhammed between AD 610 and 632, first in Mecca
and then in Madina.
 The task of compiling these revelations(messages)was
completed some time in AD 650.

67. The Holy Quran

68. Learning & Culture
 Highereducation Centre-Nizamiya-
Bagdad(Estd.1065)
 Mustansiriya Madrasaof Bagdad, founded in 1233.
 The Madrasawas acollege of learning forstudents
who had finished theirschooling in maktab.
 Madrasas were attached to mosques.
 Educational Institutions: Alexandria, Syria,
Mesopotamia.
 Greek philosophy, Maths, Astronomy, Medicine
 Translation of books in to Arabic.

69. Learning & Culture
Introduction of paper from China.
In 1896, a huge collection of medieval
Jewish documents was discovered in a
sealed room(Geniza) of the Ben Ezra
synagogue in Fustat (Egypt) – Geniza
records.
Thanks to the Jewish practice of not
destroying any piece of writing that
contained the nameof God.

70. Learning and culture
 Ibn Sina(AD980-1037), Avisenna in Europe
 Al-quanun fil tibb(Laws of medicine).

71. Learning and Culture
 Abu Nawas, Persian Poet
 Questioned thecultural domination of Arabic.

72. Ome Khayam(104 1113)
 Poet, Astronomer, Mathematician
 Authorof Rubayiath.

73. Omer Khayam

74. Rudaki
Fatherof modern Persian Poetry.

75. Firdousi
 Theauthorof Shanama (Book of kings)
 Lived in the Courtof Muhammed Gazni

76. Literature
 Jahid : Kitab-al-Bukkala(Book of misers)
 1001 Nights-Collection of stories told by a single
narrator, Shahrzad, to her husband nightafter
night.

77. Historical Texts
 Baladhuri’s Ansab-Al-Ashraf.
 Tabari’s Tarika-al-Rusul walmuluk(History of
prophets and kings)
 Al-Mazudi’s Muruj Al Dhahab
 Albiruni’s Tahkik ma lil-Hind (History of India)

78. Art & Architecture
Meccaand Madena – centreof Music,
poetry and love during Umayyad
Period.
Tuva isa (AD 632-710) - Fatherof
Arabian music.

79. Art & Architecture
Religious buildings were thegreatest
external symbols of Islamic world.
Mosques, shrines, palaces, tombs, caravan
serais and hospitals from Spain to Central
Asia showed the same basic design – arches,
domes, minarets and open courtyards.
Keerbath-al-mafjer-desrt palace-Palestine
Qasar Amra-desert palace-Jordhan-
Umeyyads

80. Keerbath-al-mafjer, Palestine

81. Qasar Amra, Jordhan

82. SUFISM
A group Muslims sought a deeper and more
personal knowledge of God through asceticism(renouncing worldly pleasures)
and mysticism.(beyond understanding)
The word ‘sufi’ means a person who wear wool.

83. Sufism
 A group Muslims sought a deeperand more personal
knowledge of God through asceticism and mysticism.
 The word ‘sufi’ means a person whowearwool.
 Devotion and loveof God-Unity with God can be
achieved through an intense love for God(Ishq), which
the woman-saint Rabia of Basra preached in her poems.
 Bayazid Bistami, an Iranian Sufi, was the first to teach
the importanceof submerging the self(fana) in God.
 Sufis used Music to preach their ideas. Followed
simplicity.
 Sufism is open toall regardless of religion, status and
gender. Sufism gained popularity and posed a challenge
toorthodox Islam.

85. THANK YOU

86.  Harun al-Rashid
 The greatest of the caliphs of the
dynasty. This is called the
golden age of the Abbasid
Dynasty (Caliphate)
 He was known for his charity
and was a great supporterof
culture and the arts.
 His son continued the tradition
and supported the study of
astronomy and began to
translate classical Greek works
into Arabic.