This presentation traces how the meaning of English words changed categorically. The examples are from An Outline History of the English Language by F T Wood.

1. Change of Meaning
Dr. Dinesh Kumar G
Assistant Professor of English
SRCAS, CBE -06

2. 1. Generalisation (Broadening of Meaning)
• A word with a specific meaning expands to a broader application.
• Examples:
– Box originally referred to a type of tree and its wood → later applied to small caskets →
now means any container of any size or material.
– Journey once meant a day's travel → now applies to any trip of any length.
– Companion originally meant "one who eats bread with another" → now means a close
friend.
– Nice has expanded in meaning over time, once having a more precise use.
– Common nouns derived from trade names: Vaseline, Hoover, Thermos, Sellotape, Biro
(pen).
– The name of a material applied to objects made from it: iron, copper, tin, glass, paper.
– The name of a container used for the contents: a glass of beer, a box of chocolates, a tin
of biscuits.

3. 2. Specialisation (Narrowing of Meaning)
• A word once used broadly becomes more specific.
• Examples:
– Fowl once meant any bird → now refers specifically to domestic poultry.
– Deer once meant any wild animal → now refers to a specific species.
– Weeds meant clothing → now only survives in widow’s weeds.
– Doom once meant "judgment" → now refers to disaster or fate.
– Meat originally meant any kind of food → now refers specifically to animal
flesh.
– Doctor once meant "teacher" → now commonly refers to a medical professional.
– Voyage once meant any journey → now associated with sea travel.
– Toy originally meant any trivial thing → now means a child’s plaything.

4. Other Observations:
• Many words take on more negative meanings over time (stink, lust,
mistress).
• Some words undergo both generalisation and specialisation at
different stages (slay, sack, crate, bushel).
• Specialisation continues in modern times, e.g., Prohibition now
primarily refers to alcohol bans.

5. 3. Extension or Transference, Followed by Differentiation
of Meaning
• Some words undergo a change in meaning through generalization
and specialization.
• This process, called differentiation, allows a word to acquire
additional meanings while retaining its original sense.
• Example: "Wire" originally referred to metallic filament but also
came to mean a telegram due to association.

6. Other examples:
• "To give a ring" (telephone call) and "to drop a line" (send a
letter).
• Words like "board" and "book" have multiple meanings.
• Many names of animals, birds, and body parts undergo this change.
• "Crane" (bird and machine), "kite" (bird and toy).
• Body parts: "leg," "arm," "foot," "eye," etc. used metaphorically in
different contexts.
• Some words disguise their original meaning:
• "Window" originally meant "wind-eye" (hole for air), now
replaced by "ventilator".

7. Diverging Meanings Over Time
• Words can develop meanings that seem opposite or unrelated:
• "Fast" originally meant "firm", but also came to mean "quick-
moving" and "abstaining from food".
• "Fret" meant "to eat", later evolved into "to worry" and
"fretwork" (design).
• "Fine" derived from "finished", leading to meanings of "delicate"
and "high quality".
• "Brand" (originally a burning piece of wood) evolved to mean
quality, trademarks, and branding.

8. Spelling Variations to Show Meaning Differences
• Some words changed spelling to differentiate meanings:
– "Flour" and "flower" (originally the same word).
– "Curtsey" and "courtesy", "human" and "humane",
"metal" and "mettle".
– "Salon" and "saloon", "posy" (flowers) and "poesy"
(poetry).
– "Antic" (grotesque) and "antique" (old).

9. 4. Association of Ideas
• Some words took on negative connotations based on social
attitudes:
– "Villain" (originally "labourer") now means a bad person.
– "Tramp" (traveler) now means shabby person.
– "Vulgarity" (from Latin "crowd") came to mean "low-class behavior".
• Words connected to peasants or rural life often took on negative
meanings:
– "Churl" (peasant), "boor", "pagan", "heathen" (country dweller).
– "Lewd" once meant "uneducated", later became "immoral".

10. 4. Association of Ideas
• Other words evolved through metaphorical use:
– "Dilapidated" (originally meant "unstoned" for ruined stone
buildings) now applies to anything in bad condition.
– "Traffic" originally meant trade, now refers to vehicles.
– "Crescent" (originally meant "growing") came to refer to its
shape.
– "Reek" (originally meant "smoke") now implies a bad smell.
– "Drive" once applied to animals, later to cars and vehicles.

11. 5. Polarisation or Colouring of Words
• Words acquire emotional significance over time without etymological
justification.
• Some changes are temporary, while others persist and alter meaning.
• Examples of Words with Changed Connotations
– Gothic (18th century) → Initially meant uncouth or barbarous but later
regained its neutral meaning.
– Enthusiasm (18th century) → Used to mean fanaticism.
– Victorian → Once neutral, later implied disapproval (though less so today).
– Nationalism (first used in 1844) → Originally neutral, now carries a negative
connotation.
– Patriotism → Gained a positive connotation, often contrasted with nationalism.

12. 5. Polarisation or Colouring of Words
• The Case of Propaganda
– Initially meant organized religious mission work.
– Later applied to any cause-related publicity.
– Before 1914, it meant informing the public.
– Post-World War I → Shifted to imply misinformation and deception.
– Modern use suggests distortion or falsehood.
• Other Words with Evolving Meanings
– Bolshevik → Once a highly negative term, now mostly historical.
– Anarchist → Initially referred to an idealistic political philosophy but now associated with
lawlessness and violence.
– Harbour → Originally meant to provide shelter but now implies harboring criminals or
undesirable things.
– Fellow → Once an equalizing term but later took on a lower-class or depreciative meaning.
– Amateur → Initially meant someone pursuing a passion but now implies a lack of skill.

13. 6. Loss of Distinctive Colouring
• Some words lose their controversial or prejudicial connotations over
time.
• Christian → Originally a derogatory term.
• Methodist, Quaker → Once mockery, now accepted.
• Mohammedanism, Freethinker → Once seen negatively, now
neutral.
• Politics, Policy, Politician → Previously associated with dishonesty,
now neutral.
• Brave → Once meant boastful or gaudy, now means courageous.

14. 7. Metaphorical Application
• Many words are used metaphorically, sometimes unconsciously.
• Two main categories:
– Words with both literal and metaphorical meanings (e.g., "keen," "dull," "sharp").
– Words where the metaphorical meaning has replaced the original (e.g., "sad" originally
meant "full," "silly" meant "happy").
• Some metaphorical meanings have become dominant:
– "Crank" (originally a bent object) now means an eccentric person.
– "Bias" (from bowling) now means a prejudice.
– "Hypocrite" (originally meant "actor") now means someone insincere.
– "Broadcast" (originally scattering seeds) now primarily refers to mass communication.
– "Pineapple" (once meant "pine cone") now refers to the tropical fruit.

15. 8. Euphemism
• Euphemism is the practice of using milder terms to describe unpleasant
concepts.
• Common areas where euphemism changes word meanings:
– Death: "Passing" or "falling asleep" instead of "dying."
– Mental illness: "Mental case" instead of "insane."
– Madness: "Simple," "lunatic" (from belief in moon influence), "idiot"
(originally meant "private person").
– Funeral professions: "Undertaker" became "funeral director" due to
negative connotations.
• Some euphemisms lose their original softer intent over time and
require replacements.

16. 9. Prudery
• Some euphemisms stem from false delicacy, refinement, social
snobbery, or affectation.
• Examples include:
– "Paying guest" for "boarder"
– "Financier" for "moneylender"
– "Turf-accountant" for "bookmaker"
– "Sanitary engineer" for "plumber"
– "Meat purveyor" for "butcher"
– "Interesting event" for "birth"
– "A certain condition" for "pregnancy"

17. 9. Prudery
• Many such expressions are temporary, tied to a particular period (e.g., Victorian era).
• The term "trousers" was once considered too improper to mention in mixed company.
• "Expectorate" (for "spit") and "fallen woman" (for "prostitute") were once polite
alternatives.
• Words like "guts" and "belly" were replaced by "stomach" due to Victorian sensibilities.
• "Serviette" was originally considered affected but later became common, replacing
"table-napkin."
• Some words, once euphemisms, are now seen as indelicate:
– "Lavatory" replaced by "toilet"
– "Dung" replaced by "manure," which in turn became "fertilizer"

18. 10. Reversal of Meaning
• Some words have changed to mean the opposite of their original sense.
• Grocer: Originally meant a wholesaler (from "en gros"), now refers to a
retail trader.
• Restive: Initially meant "stubbornly still," now means "impatient, restless."
• Scan: Originally meant "to read carefully," now often means "to skim
quickly."
• Wiseacre: Once meant "wise person" but now is used ironically to mean a
know-it-all.

19. 11. Popular Misunderstanding
• Misinterpretation of Words
– A student misunderstood "undulating" as meaning "hilly" and created "dulating" to mean
"flat."
– The prefix "un-" in "undulating" is not an English negative but part of the Latin root unda
(wave).
• Words Changing Due to Misunderstanding
– Helpmate: Originally a mistaken reading of "help meet."
– Preposterous: Originally meant "before-after" (illogical order), now means "absurd."
– Premises: From logical arguments to meaning "a property" due to legal usage.
– Transpire: Originally meant "to leak out," now often used incorrectly as "to happen."
– Emergency: Originally meant "emerge," now means "urgent situation."
– Demean: Meant "to conduct oneself," now means "to degrade" due to confusion with "mean."
– Pester: Originally meant "to entangle," changed due to association with "pest."

20. 12. Proper Names Becoming Common Words
• Dunce: From philosopher Duns Scotus, now means "stupid person."
• Guy: From Guy Fawkes, originally meant an effigy, now means a person.
• Atlas: Named after the Titan, became associated with maps.
• Meander: From a winding river in Asia Minor, now means "to wander
aimlessly."
• Bedlam: From Bethlehem Hospital, originally a lunatic asylum, now means
chaos.
• Maudlin: From Mary Magdalene, associated with excessive sentimentality.
• Hooligan: From a rowdy Irish family in Southwark, now means "violent
troublemaker."

21. Complex Word Evolutions
• Romance: From Latin for "Roman," later meant adventure stories,
then love stories, now used broadly.
• Bureau: From "cloth" to "desk" to "office" to "government agency."
• Fairy: Originally "fay" (supernatural being), changed meaning over
time.
• Miniature: From minium (red lead used in illustrations) to "small
detailed portrait" to "small version."
• Gossip: Originally "godparent," later "close friend," then "talkative
person," now means spreading rumors.

22. False Etymologies and Mistaken Associations
• Homonyms are often unrelated (e.g., pawn (chess piece) vs. pawn
(pledge)).
• Some words resemble others by chance (e.g., cleave "to split" vs. "to
cling").
• Folk etymologies lead to myths (e.g., "Sirloin" was not knighted by
Henry VIII, it comes from French sur loin).
• Swift mocked false etymologies (e.g., "Alexander" from "All eggs
under the grate").
• These examples illustrate how language evolves through
misunderstanding, cultural shifts, and mistaken associations.

23. Questions?