This document discusses key concepts in research methods for studying crime and criminal justice. It covers why research methods are important for professionals in the field to critically evaluate research and produce accurate studies. It also outlines different types of knowledge, such as experiential reality and agreement reality. The document then discusses scientific research principles and different purposes of research like exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and applied research. It provides guidance on conceptualizing a research study, choosing a method, defining concepts, sampling, data collection, analysis, and application.

1. CRIME, CRIMINAL
JUSTICE, AND
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
CHAPTER 1

2. WHY STUDY RESEARCH
METHODS?
•CJ professionals are both consumers and
producers of research
•Need to know how to critically evaluate research
reports and determine whether appropriate
methods were utilized
•Need to know how to interpret research and how
to produce accurate research

3. TWO REALITIES
•Experiential reality – the things we know from
direct experience (e.g., if you step on glass,
you know it hurts)
•Agreement reality – things we consider real
because we have been told they are real, and
everyone agrees (e.g., sun sets in the West)
•It is important to remember that agreement
reality can be wrong: Kansas City Preventive
Patrol Experiment

4. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
• Empirical – the production of knowledge thatis
based on experience or observation
•Scientists have certain criteria to be met
• An assertion must have both logical and
empirical support
•Epistemology - science of knowing
•Methodology – science of finding out
• Scientific methods can be used to better understand crime and criminal
justice policy

5. PERSONAL HUMAN INQUIRY
•Desire is to predict our future circumstances
•We use causal and probabilistic reasoning
•The goal is to understand why certain things
are related, why patterns occur, to enable us to
make more accurate predictions
• Patterns are probabilistic
• The effects occur more often when the causes occur
than when the causes or absent—but not always

6. SECONDHAND KNOWLEDGE
•Tradition – “things that everyone
knows”
•Authority – trusting the judgment of
someone with special expertise
•Both can be problematic
• Prevents innovation or questioning of
status quo; may simply be inaccurate

7. EXAMPLE
• One of the problems with gaining knowledge
through authority arises when we generalize
an expert’s knowledge beyond their expertise.
• As presented in the following example, news
outlets commonly seek out movie stars,
entertainers, and famous athletes to provide
commentary on issues outside their expertise.

8. EXAMPLE
 In a 2003 Tucker Carlson of CNN interviewed Britney
Spears. During the interview he asked her whether she
was opposed to the Iraq War—a topic that was of great
public controversy at the time. Infamously, Britney
replied, “Honestly, I think we should just trust our
president in every decision he makes and should just
support that, you know, and be faithful in what
happens.” Although Britney received a great deal of
criticism for her response, this is clearly an illustration
of the public’s tendency to extend professionals’
expertise. Being a talented dancer, singer and performer
does not make Britney a political expert.
 See: http://edition.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/09/03/cnna.spears/

9. ERRORS IN PERSONAL HUMAN
INQUIRY
•Inaccurate observation – use measurement
devices
•Overgeneralization – large sample, replication
• Replication: repeating a study to be sure the same
results are found
•Selective observation – pre-specify number and
kind of observations
•Illogical Reasoning – use explicit systems of logic
•Ideology and Politics – guard against its influence

10. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH:
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
•Research on a topic in which little is
known
•Might also collect data on some
measure to serve as a baseline for
later comparisons
•Also appropriate when some type of
policy change is being considered

11. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH:
DESCRIPTION RESEARCH
•Describe the scope of a problem or policy
response
•Make more accurate and formal observations
•Often concerned with counting or
documenting observations; exploratory
studies focus more on developing a
preliminary understanding
•Example: Uniform Crime Reports

12. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH:
EXPLANATION RESEARCH
•Explain things – answers “Why?”
•E.g., Why do some people believe that the
police are doing a good job and others do
not?

13. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH:
APPLICATION
•Applied research is based on a need for
specific facts and findings – with
implications for policy
•Two major types of applied research:
•Evaluation research – comparing program
goals to results
•Policy/problem analysis – prospective –
anticipate future consequences of
alternative actions

14. DESIGNING A RESEARCH
PROJECT
•Beginning points for a line of research
•E.g., interests, ideas, theories, new programs
•Why does something occur?
•Why is this how it is?
•What about this possible program?
•These questions may lead to others you might
like to explore

15. GETTING STARTED
•Find out what research has been done
•Read newspaper stories, journal
articles, check out the Internet, talk to
relevant people
•Figure out your objective and intended
audience
•Generally, your purpose for undertaking
research can be expressed in a report

16. CONCEPTUALIZATION
•Conceptualization: what do you mean by the
concept being studied?
•If you are going to study concern about
sexual assault:
• Police officers may be concerned about sexual assault because
it is part of their jobs
• College students might be concerned about sexual assault as
a social issue or fear being a victim of sexual assault
•You need to specify ALL the concepts you
wish to study

17. CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHOD
• Each available method has strengths
and weaknesses
• Choose one after considering the specific concept you
want to study
• Interviews, surveys, field research,
content analysis, official records
• The best studies utilize more than one research
method

18. OPERATIONALIZATION
•Operationalization: create concrete
ways of measuring your concept
•Sexual assault:
•Questionnaire item: “How worried are you about the
risk of being sexually attacked while on campus or
at college-related social events?”
• Worried or Not worried

19. POPULATION AND SAMPLING
• Exactly who or what will you study?
• Population – group (e.g., of people) about whom
we want to be able to draw conclusions
• Since it is generally unfeasible to study ALL
members of that population, how will you take a
representative sample?
• Sexual assault: Will you include full-time and
part-time students? Students who live on and off
campus?

20. OBSERVATIONS
•Collect the empirical data
•Make the observations that you will
process, analyze, interpret, apply,
and review

21. ANALYSIS
•Manipulate the data (usually with a software
program like SPSS)
•Goal is to draw conclusions that reflect on the
interests, ideas, and theories which initiated
our research project
•Begin with calculating percentages
•Move to examining frequencies of subsets of
your population and explanatory analysis

22. APPLICATION
•Utilize the research you have conducted and the
conclusions you have reached
•Make your findings known to others
•Develop policy to address your findings
•Determine what mistakes were made that could be
corrected in the future
•Determine how your research might feed into
future research

23. THINKING ABOUT RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
• One of the most difficult parts of research
is developing a research question specific
to your interest
• Most researchers reword their research
questions as they learn more about the
topic
• Begin by finding out more about the topics
in which you are interested

24. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
• Learn about what is already known about a topic
• Process of accumulating, sorting, and
synthesizing information on a topic
• Organize search around key concepts
• Begin with book or article on topic and search its
references
• Limit search to academic journals and related
publications; stay away from websites unless
they are sponsored by a college, government
agency, or professional organization
• Use the library and librarians to develop

25. HOW TO READ SCHOLARLY
RESEARCH
• Read the abstract first to get information on the purpose
of the research, the methods used, and the major findings
• Tells you if you need to read the rest of the article and if it
is relevant to your research
• Skim to article and read the discussion/conclusions to be
sure the article is relevant
• If the article is relevant, take notes when reading the
entire article and mark passages you might want to quote
later
• After carefully reading it, skim it again to get a broader
understanding of the research

26. READING A BOOK-LENGTH
REPORT
 Read the preface or the opening chapter
 Skim the entire book
 For each chapter read the first and last
paragraph
 Read it deliberately
 When reading the book, take notes and note
questions you have
 You can skip chapters if they are not relevant to
your research

27. THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
•Problem or Objective
•Literature Review
•Research Questions
•Subjects for Study
•Measurement
•Data Collection
Methods
•Analysis
•References
•Schedule
•Budget