Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Cells contain organelles that carry out necessary chemical functions to sustain life. Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a common function. The main tissues in the body are epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues cover and line body surfaces. Connective tissues bind, support and protect the body. Muscle tissues produce movement. Nervous tissues transmit signals throughout the body. Cells must carry out transport of nutrients and waste, respond to stimuli, grow and divide to form new cells through the cell cycle.
در روزهای اولیه میکروسکوپ الکترونی، زیست شناسان تصور میکردند که اندامک سلول یوکاریوتی آزادانه در سیتوزول شناور است. اما پیشرفت های انجام شده در تکنولوژی ساخت میکروسکوپهای نوری و الکترونی نشان داده است که شبکهای از فیبرها در سراسر سیتوپلاسم گسترش یافته است و آنها آن را اسکلت سلولی نامیده اند.
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In the early days of electron microscopy, biologists thought that the organelles of a eukaryotic cell floated freely in the cytosol. But improvements in both light microscopy and electron microscopy have revealed that a network of fibers is extended throughout the cytoplasm and they named it the cytoskeleton.
سلولها به همان اندازه اتمها در شیمی، برای سیستمهای زنده اساسی هستند. هم اکنون انواع مختلفی از سلول ها در بدن ما کار میکنند. در طول تکامل، سلولها به روشهای مختلف اصلاح شدهاند. اگرچه سلولها میتوانند تفاوت اساسی با یکدیگر داشته باشند، اما ویژگیهای مشترکی دارند. در این اسلاید و 2 مورد بعدی، ما سفری به درون یک سلول خواهیم داشت و با اجزای سازنده آن آشنا خواهیم شد.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cells are as fundamental to the living systems of biology as the atom is to chemistry. Many different types of cells are working in our body right now. During the evolution, cells have been modified in many different ways. Although cells can differ substantially from one another, they share common features. In this slide and the next 2 ones, we’ll take a tour inside a cell and become acquainted with its components.
در زیست شناسی کمپبل با صراحت و روشنی ذکر شده است: "غشای پلاسمایی که سلول را احاطه کرده است را میتوان به عنوان لبه حیات دانست، مرزی که سلول زنده را از محیط اطراف خود جدا میکند." در این اسلاید، ما سعی میکنیم یاد بگیریم که چگونه غشای سلولی، عبور مواد مختلف را با اندازهها و ماهیت مختلف کنترل میکند.
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It is neatly mentioned in Campbell Biology: “The plasma membrane that surrounds the cell can be considered the edge of life, the boundary that separates a living cell from its surroundings.” In this slide, we try to learn how cellular membrane controls the passage of different substances of different size and nature.
دیواره سلولی، شکل ویژهای از ماتریس خارج سلولی است که هر سلول گیاه را احاطه کرده است. دیواره سلولی مسئول بسیاری از خصوصیاتی است که سلولهای گیاهی را از سلولهای حیوانی متمایز میکند. در سلولهای حیوانی داستان متفاوت است! بافتهای مختلف دارای اجزا و سازمان منحصر به فرد و تخصصی ماتریس خارج سلولی (ECM) هستند، که هر ECM را قادر میسازند تا نقشهای خاص بافتی، از جمله پشتیبانی ساختاری، انتقال نیروها و فیلتراسیون ماکرومولکولی را انجام دهد.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cell wall, specialized form of extracellular matrix that surrounds every cell of a plant. The cell wall is responsible for many of the characteristics that distinguish plant cells from animal cells. In animal cells, the story is different! Different tissues have unique and specialized Extracellular Matrix (ECM) components and organization, which enables each ECM to carry out tissue-specific roles, including structural support, the transmission of forces and macromolecular filtration.
در روزهای اولیه میکروسکوپ الکترونی، زیست شناسان تصور میکردند که اندامک سلول یوکاریوتی آزادانه در سیتوزول شناور است. اما پیشرفت های انجام شده در تکنولوژی ساخت میکروسکوپهای نوری و الکترونی نشان داده است که شبکهای از فیبرها در سراسر سیتوپلاسم گسترش یافته است و آنها آن را اسکلت سلولی نامیده اند.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the early days of electron microscopy, biologists thought that the organelles of a eukaryotic cell floated freely in the cytosol. But improvements in both light microscopy and electron microscopy have revealed that a network of fibers is extended throughout the cytoplasm and they named it the cytoskeleton.
سلولها به همان اندازه اتمها در شیمی، برای سیستمهای زنده اساسی هستند. هم اکنون انواع مختلفی از سلول ها در بدن ما کار میکنند. در طول تکامل، سلولها به روشهای مختلف اصلاح شدهاند. اگرچه سلولها میتوانند تفاوت اساسی با یکدیگر داشته باشند، اما ویژگیهای مشترکی دارند. در این اسلاید و 2 مورد بعدی، ما سفری به درون یک سلول خواهیم داشت و با اجزای سازنده آن آشنا خواهیم شد.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cells are as fundamental to the living systems of biology as the atom is to chemistry. Many different types of cells are working in our body right now. During the evolution, cells have been modified in many different ways. Although cells can differ substantially from one another, they share common features. In this slide and the next 2 ones, we’ll take a tour inside a cell and become acquainted with its components.
در زیست شناسی کمپبل با صراحت و روشنی ذکر شده است: "غشای پلاسمایی که سلول را احاطه کرده است را میتوان به عنوان لبه حیات دانست، مرزی که سلول زنده را از محیط اطراف خود جدا میکند." در این اسلاید، ما سعی میکنیم یاد بگیریم که چگونه غشای سلولی، عبور مواد مختلف را با اندازهها و ماهیت مختلف کنترل میکند.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is neatly mentioned in Campbell Biology: “The plasma membrane that surrounds the cell can be considered the edge of life, the boundary that separates a living cell from its surroundings.” In this slide, we try to learn how cellular membrane controls the passage of different substances of different size and nature.
دیواره سلولی، شکل ویژهای از ماتریس خارج سلولی است که هر سلول گیاه را احاطه کرده است. دیواره سلولی مسئول بسیاری از خصوصیاتی است که سلولهای گیاهی را از سلولهای حیوانی متمایز میکند. در سلولهای حیوانی داستان متفاوت است! بافتهای مختلف دارای اجزا و سازمان منحصر به فرد و تخصصی ماتریس خارج سلولی (ECM) هستند، که هر ECM را قادر میسازند تا نقشهای خاص بافتی، از جمله پشتیبانی ساختاری، انتقال نیروها و فیلتراسیون ماکرومولکولی را انجام دهد.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cell wall, specialized form of extracellular matrix that surrounds every cell of a plant. The cell wall is responsible for many of the characteristics that distinguish plant cells from animal cells. In animal cells, the story is different! Different tissues have unique and specialized Extracellular Matrix (ECM) components and organization, which enables each ECM to carry out tissue-specific roles, including structural support, the transmission of forces and macromolecular filtration.
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2. Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to
sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
things
• Tissues are groups of cells that are similar
in structure and function
3. Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main regions
– Nucleus
– Cytoplasm
– Plasma membrane
Figure 3.1a
4. The Nucleus
• Control center of the
cell
– Contains genetic
material (DNA)
• Three regions
– Nuclear membrane
– Nucleolus
– Chromatin
Figure 3.1b
5. Nuclear Membrane
• Barrier of nucleus
• Consists of a double phospholipid
membrane
• Contain nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
6. Nucleoli
• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome production
– Ribosomes then migrate to the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores
7. Chromatin
• Composed of DNA and protein
• Scattered throughout the nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes when the cell divides
8. Plasma Membrane
• Barrier for cell contents
• Double phospholipid layer
– Hydrophilic heads
– Hydrophobic tails
• Also contains protein, cholesterol, and
glycoproteins
12. Cytoplasm
• Material outside the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane
– Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
– Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
– Inclusions
• Non-functioning units
14. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Ribosomes
– Made of protein and RNA
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
15. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
– Two types of ER
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Studded with ribosomes
– Site where building materials of cellular membrane are
formed
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat
metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
16. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Golgi apparatus
– Modifies and packages proteins
– Produces different types of packages
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane components
• Lysosomes
18. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
– Contain enzymes that digest nonusable
materials within the cell
• Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances
• Break down free radicals
(highly reactive chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
19. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
– “Powerhouses” of the cell
– Change shape continuously
– Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to
break down food
– Provides ATP for cellular energy
20. Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell with an internal framework
Figure 3.7a
28. Cellular Physiology:
Membrane Transport
• Membrane Transport – movement of
substance into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
– Passive transport
• No energy is required
– Active transport
• The cell must provide metabolic energy
29. Solutions and Transport
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or
more components
– Solvent – dissolving medium
– Solutes – components in smaller quantities
within a solution
• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and
cytosol
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the
cell
30. Selective Permeability
• The plasma membrane allows some
materials to pass while excluding others
• This permeability includes movement into
and out of the cell
31. Passive Transport Processes
• Diffusion
– Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a
solution
– Movement is
from high
concentration
to low
concentration,
or down a
concentration
gradient
32. Passive Transport Processes
• Types of diffusion
– Simple diffusion
• Unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small
enough to pass through membrane pores
33. Passive Transport Processes
• Types of diffusion
– Osmosis – simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water easily crosses the
plasma membrane
– Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein carrier for
passive transport
35. Passive Transport Processes
• Filtration
– Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
– A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a
high pressure area to a lower pressure
area
36. Active Transport Processes
• Transport substances that are unable to pass by
diffusion
– They may be too large
– They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the
membrane
– They may have to move against a concentration
gradient
• Two common forms of active transport
– Solute pumping – chemical exchanges
– Bulk transport - exocytosis
40. Cell Life Cycle
• Cells have two major periods
– Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
– Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for growth and
repair processes
41. DNA Replication
• Genetic material
duplicated and
readies a cell for
division into two
cells
• Occurs toward the
end of interphase
• DNA uncoils and
each side serves
as a template Figure 3.14
42. Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis
– Division of the nucleus
– Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
• Cytokinesis
– Division of the cytoplasm
– Begins when mitosis is near completion
– Results in the formation of two daughter cells
43. Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase
– No cell division occurs
– The cell carries out normal metabolic activity
and growth
• Prophase
– First part of cell division
– Centromeres migrate to the poles
44. Stages of Mitosis
• Metaphase
– Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center of
the cell
45. Stages of Mitosis
• Anaphase
– Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the
poles
– The cell begins to elongate
• Telophase
– Daughter nuclei begin forming
– A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to
form
48. Protein Synthesis
• Gene – DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
– Building materials for cells
– Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis
49. Body Tissues
• Cells are specialized for particular
functions
• Tissues
– Groups of cells with similar structure and
function
– Four primary types
• Epithelium
• Connective tissue
• Nervous tissue
• Muscle
50. Epithelial Tissues
• Found in different areas
– Body coverings
– Body linings
– Glandular tissue
• Functions
– Protection
– Absorption
– Filtration
– Secretion
51. Classification of Epithelium
• Number of cell
layers
– Simple – one layer
– Stratified – more
than one layer
Figure 3.17a
52. Classification of Epithelium
• Shape of cells
– Squamous –
flattened
– Cuboidal – cube-
shaped
– Columnar – column-
like
Figure 3.17b
53. Simple Epithelium
• Simple Squamous
– Single layer of flat
cells
– Usually forms
membranes
• Lines body cavities
• Lines lungs and
capillaries
Figure 3.18a
54. Simple Epithelium
• Simple cuboidal
– Single layer of
cube-like cells
– Common in glands
and their ducts
– Forms walls
of kidney tubules
– Covers the ovaries
Figure 3.18b
55. Simple Epithelium
• Simple columnar
– Single layer of tall
cells
– Often includes
goblet cells, which
produce mucus
– Lines digestive tract
Figure 3.18c
56. Simple Epithelium
• Pseudostratified
– Single layer, but some
cells are shorter than
others
– Often looks like a
double cell layer
– Sometimes ciliated,
such as in the
respiratory tract
– May function in
absorption or secretion
Figure 3.18d
57. Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body
• Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
• Functions
– Binds body tissues together
– Supports the body
– Provides protection
58. Connective Tissue
Characteristics
• Variations in blood supply
– Some tissue types are well vascularized
– Some have poor blood supply or are
avascular
• Extracellular matrix
– Non-living material that surrounds living cells
59. Connective Tissue Types
• Bone (osseous tissue)
– Composed of:
• Bone cells in
lacunae (cavities)
• Hard matrix of
calcium salts
• Large numbers of
collagen fibers
– Used to protect and
support the body
Figure 3.19a
60. Connective Tissue Types
• Hyaline cartilage
– Most common
cartilage
– Composed of:
• Abundant collagen
fibers
• Rubbery matrix
– Entire fetal skeleton
is hyaline cartilage
Figure 3.19b
62. Connective Tissue Types
• Fibrocartilage
– Highly
compressible
– Example: forms
cushion-like
discs between
vertebrae
Figure 3.19c
63. Connective Tissue Types
• Areolar connective
tissue
– Most widely
distributed
connective tissue
– Soft, pliable tissue
– Contains all fiber
types
– Can soak up excess
fluid
Figure 3.19e
64. Figure 3.19f
Connective Tissue Types
• Adipose tissue
– Matrix is an areolar
tissue in which fat
globules predominate
– Many cells contain
large lipid deposits
– Functions
• Insulates the body
• Protects some organs
• Serves as a site of
fuel storage
65. Connective Tissue Types
• Blood
– Blood cells
surrounded by fluid
matrix
– Fibers are visible
during clotting
– Functions as the
transport vehicle for
materials
Figure 3.19h
66. Muscle Tissue
• Function is to produce movement
• Three types
– Skeletal muscle
– Cardiac muscle
– Smooth muscle
67. Muscle Tissue Types
• Skeletal muscle
– Can be controlled
voluntarily
– Cells attach to
connective tissue
– Cells are striated
– Cells have more than
one nucleus
Figure 3.20a
68. Muscle Tissue Types
• Cardiac muscle
– Found only in the heart
– Function is to pump
blood (involuntary)
– Cells attached to other
cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks
– Cells are striated
– One nucleus per cell
Figure 3.20b
69. Muscle Tissue Types
• Smooth muscle
– Involuntary muscle
– Surrounds hollow
organs
– Attached to other
smooth muscle cells
– No visible striations
– One nucleus per cell
Figure 3.20c
70. Nervous Tissue
• Neurons and nerve
support cells
• Function is to send
impulses to other
areas of the body
– Irritability
– Conductivity
Figure 3.21
71. Regeneration of Tissues
• Tissues that regenerate easily
– Epithelial tissue
– Fibrous connective tissue and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
– Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
– Cardiac muscle
– Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord