They have a higher capacity than chemical buffer systems and can eliminate excess acids or bases from the body over longer periods of time. The respiratory system eliminates carbon dioxide to indirectly remove carbonic acid from the blood. The kidneys eliminate fixed acids and bases to regulate acid-base balance in the blood and prevent metabolic acidosis.
It is the review research based topic of presentation on most important body's serum electrolytes "potassium". it is really a very useful effort to collecting the data material from such a many different websites and pages as i gave references in the end of this presentation.
It is the review research based topic of presentation on most important body's serum electrolytes "potassium". it is really a very useful effort to collecting the data material from such a many different websites and pages as i gave references in the end of this presentation.
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Generative AI Deep Dive: Advancing from Proof of Concept to ProductionAggregage
Join Maher Hanafi, VP of Engineering at Betterworks, in this new session where he'll share a practical framework to transform Gen AI prototypes into impactful products! He'll delve into the complexities of data collection and management, model selection and optimization, and ensuring security, scalability, and responsible use.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Welocme to ViralQR, your best QR code generator.ViralQR
Welcome to ViralQR, your best QR code generator available on the market!
At ViralQR, we design static and dynamic QR codes. Our mission is to make business operations easier and customer engagement more powerful through the use of QR technology. Be it a small-scale business or a huge enterprise, our easy-to-use platform provides multiple choices that can be tailored according to your company's branding and marketing strategies.
Our Vision
We are here to make the process of creating QR codes easy and smooth, thus enhancing customer interaction and making business more fluid. We very strongly believe in the ability of QR codes to change the world for businesses in their interaction with customers and are set on making that technology accessible and usable far and wide.
Our Achievements
Ever since its inception, we have successfully served many clients by offering QR codes in their marketing, service delivery, and collection of feedback across various industries. Our platform has been recognized for its ease of use and amazing features, which helped a business to make QR codes.
Our Services
At ViralQR, here is a comprehensive suite of services that caters to your very needs:
Static QR Codes: Create free static QR codes. These QR codes are able to store significant information such as URLs, vCards, plain text, emails and SMS, Wi-Fi credentials, and Bitcoin addresses.
Dynamic QR codes: These also have all the advanced features but are subscription-based. They can directly link to PDF files, images, micro-landing pages, social accounts, review forms, business pages, and applications. In addition, they can be branded with CTAs, frames, patterns, colors, and logos to enhance your branding.
Pricing and Packages
Additionally, there is a 14-day free offer to ViralQR, which is an exceptional opportunity for new users to take a feel of this platform. One can easily subscribe from there and experience the full dynamic of using QR codes. The subscription plans are not only meant for business; they are priced very flexibly so that literally every business could afford to benefit from our service.
Why choose us?
ViralQR will provide services for marketing, advertising, catering, retail, and the like. The QR codes can be posted on fliers, packaging, merchandise, and banners, as well as to substitute for cash and cards in a restaurant or coffee shop. With QR codes integrated into your business, improve customer engagement and streamline operations.
Comprehensive Analytics
Subscribers of ViralQR receive detailed analytics and tracking tools in light of having a view of the core values of QR code performance. Our analytics dashboard shows aggregate views and unique views, as well as detailed information about each impression, including time, device, browser, and estimated location by city and country.
So, thank you for choosing ViralQR; we have an offer of nothing but the best in terms of QR code services to meet business diversity!
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
PHP Frameworks: I want to break free (IPC Berlin 2024)Ralf Eggert
In this presentation, we examine the challenges and limitations of relying too heavily on PHP frameworks in web development. We discuss the history of PHP and its frameworks to understand how this dependence has evolved. The focus will be on providing concrete tips and strategies to reduce reliance on these frameworks, based on real-world examples and practical considerations. The goal is to equip developers with the skills and knowledge to create more flexible and future-proof web applications. We'll explore the importance of maintaining autonomy in a rapidly changing tech landscape and how to make informed decisions in PHP development.
This talk is aimed at encouraging a more independent approach to using PHP frameworks, moving towards a more flexible and future-proof approach to PHP development.
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf
Ch 26
1. EC questions
• What does ICF stand for?
• a chemical compound that dissociates into
ions in water is called an______.
• is sodium concentration higher in the ECF or
ICF?
• a sensation of thirst causes us to:
1
2. Describe the major fluid
compartments including intracellular,
extracellular, intravascular and
interstitial.
3. Total body water
Volume = 40 L
60% body weight Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Volume = 15 L
20% body weight
Intracellular fluid (ICF) Interstitial fluid (IF)
Volume = 25 L Volume = 12 L
40% body weight 80% of ECF
Figure 26.1
5. Regulation of Water Intake
• Thirst mechanism is the driving force for
water intake
• The hypothalamic thirst center
osmoreceptors are stimulated by
– Plasma osmolality of 2–3%
–Angiotensin II or baroreceptor input
–Dry mouth
–Substantial decrease in blood volume or
pressure
6. Regulation of Water Intake
• Drinking water creates inhibition of the
thirst center
• Inhibitory feedback signals include
–Relief of dry mouth
–Activation of stomach and intestinal
stretch receptors
7. • Most of the body’s water is
1. Intracellular
2. Intravascular
3. interstitial
7
8. Regulation of Water Output
• Obligatory water losses
–Insensible water loss: from lungs, skin,
Feces
–Minimum daily sensible water loss of
500 ml in urine to excrete wastes
• Body water and Na+ content are regulated
in tandem by mechanisms that maintain
cardiovascular function and blood
pressure
9. Regulation of Water Output: Influence
of ADH
• Water reabsorption in collecting ducts is
proportional to ADH release
• ADH dilute urine and volume of body
fluids
• ADH concentrated urine
• Hypothalamic osmoreceptors trigger or
inhibit ADH release
10. • Which of the following would stimulate thirst
center osmoreceptors?
1. Plasma osmolality of 2–3%
2. Angiotensin II or baroreceptor input
3. Dry mouth
4. Substantial decrease in blood volume
or pressure
5. All of these
10
11. • Which of the following is an electrolyte?
1. sodium chloride
2. Hydrochloric acid
3. Sodium hydroxide
4. glucose
5. 1,2, and 3
6. All of these
11
12. • Describe the regulation of the major
electrolytes- salts, acids and bases
13. Central Role of Sodium
• Most abundant cation in the ECF
• Sodium salts in the ECF contribute 280 mOsm
of the total 300 mOsm ECF solute
concentration
• Na+ leaks into cells and is pumped out against
its electrochemical gradient
• ECF Na+ concentration remains stable due to
osmosis
14. Central Role of Sodium
• Changes in plasma sodium levels affect
– Plasma volume, blood pressure
– ICF and IF volumes
• Renal acid-base control mechanisms are
coupled to sodium ion transport
• No receptors are known that monitor Na+
levels in body fluids
15. Regulation of Sodium Balance:
Aldosterone
• Na+-water balance is linked to blood pressure
and blood volume control mechanisms
• Na+ reabsorption
– 65% is reabsorbed in the proximal tubules
– 25% is reclaimed in the loops of Henle
• Aldosterone active reabsorption of
remaining Na+
• Water follows Na+ if ADH is present
16. Regulation of Sodium Balance:
Aldosterone
• Renin-angiotensin mechanism is the main
trigger for aldosterone release
–Granular cells of JGA secrete renin in
response to
• Sympathetic nervous system
stimulation
• Filtrate osmolality
• Stretch (due to blood pressure)
17. Regulation of Sodium Balance:
Aldosterone
• Renin catalyzes the production of angiotensin
II, which prompts aldosterone release from the
adrenal cortex
• Aldosterone release is also triggered by
elevated K+ levels in the ECF
• Aldosterone brings about its effects slowly
(hours to days)
19. Regulation of Sodium Balance: ANP
• Released by atrial cells in response to stretch
( blood pressure)
• Effects
• Decreases blood pressure and blood volume:
– ADH, renin and aldosterone production
– Excretion of Na+ and water
– Promotes vasodilation directly and also by
decreasing production of angiotensin II
20. Influence of Other Hormones
• Estrogens: NaCl reabsorption (like
aldosterone)
– H2O retention during menstrual cycles and
pregnancy
• Progesterone: Na+ reabsorption (blocks
aldosterone)
– Promotes Na+ and H2O loss
21. • The most abundant cation in the ECF is:
1. Sodium
2. Potassium
3. Calcium
4. chloride
21
22. • Changes in sodium ion concentration effect:
1. Blood Plasma volume
2. blood pressure
3. ICF volume
4. IF volume
5. All of these
22
23. Cardiovascular System Baroreceptors
• Baroreceptors alert the brain of increases in
blood volume and pressure
– Sympathetic nervous system impulses to the
kidneys decline
– Afferent arterioles dilate
– GFR increases
– Na+ and water output increase
24. Regulation of Potassium Balance
• Importance of potassium:
– Affects RMP in neurons and muscle cells
(especially cardiac muscle)
• ECF [K+] RMP depolarization
reduced excitability
• ECF [K+] hyperpolarization and
nonresponsiveness
25. Regulation of Potassium Balance
• H+ shift in and out of cells
– Leads to corresponding shifts in K+ in the opposite
direction to maintain cation balance
– Interferes with activity of excitable cells
26. Regulation of Potassium Balance
• K+ balance is controlled in the cortical
collecting ducts by changing the amount of
potassium secreted into filtrate
• High K+ content of ECF favors tubule cell
secretion of K+
• When K+ levels are low, cells reabsorb some K+
left in the filtrate
27. Regulation of Potassium Balance
• Influence of aldosterone
–Increased K+ in the adrenal cortex
causes
• Release of aldosterone
• Potassium secretion
28. Regulation of Calcium
• Ca2+ in ECF is important for
–Neuromuscular excitability
–Blood clotting
–Cell membrane permeability
–Secretory activities
29. Regulation of Calcium
• Hypocalcemia- excitability and muscle tetany
• Hypercalcemia- Inhibits neurons and muscle
cells, may cause heart arrhythmias
• Calcium balance is controlled by parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
30. Influence of PTH
• Bones are the largest reservoir for Ca2+ and
phosphates
• PTH promotes increase in calcium levels by
targeting bones, kidneys, and small intestine
(indirectly through vitamin D)
31. Hypocalcemia (low blood Ca2+) stimulates
parathyroid glands to release PTH.
Rising Ca2+ in
blood inhibits
PTH release.
Bone
1 PTH activates
osteoclasts: Ca2+
and PO43S released
into blood.
2 PTH increases Kidney
Ca 2+ reabsorption
in kidney
tubules.
3 PTH promotes
kidney’s activation of vitamin D,
which increases Ca2+ absorption
from food.
Intestine
Ca2+ ions
PTH Molecules Bloodstream
Figure 16.12
32. Regulation of Anions
• Cl– is the major anion in the ECF
– Helps maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood
– 99% of Cl– is reabsorbed under normal pH
conditions
• When acidosis occurs, fewer chloride ions are
reabsorbed
• Other anions have transport maximums and
excesses are excreted in urine
33. • Which ion moves in and out of cells to
maintain cation balance in response to
hydrogen ion shifts?
1. Sodium
2. Potassium
3. Calcium
4. chloride
33
34. • Which hormone will increase sodium
reabsorption?
1. PTH
2. ADH
3. Aldosterone
4. Estrogen
5. Progesterone
6. 3 and 4
34
35. • Describe buffer systems and their role in
acid/base balance. what is a buffer?
36. Acid-Base Balance
• pH affects all functional proteins and
biochemical reactions
• Normal pH of body fluids
– Arterial blood: pH 7.4
– Venous blood and IF fluid: pH 7.35
– ICF: pH 7.0
• Alkalosis or alkalemia: arterial blood pH >7.45
• Acidosis or acidemia: arterial pH < 7.35
37. Acid-Base Balance
• Most H+ is produced by metabolism
–Lactic acid from anaerobic respiration
of glucose
–Fatty acids and ketone bodies from fat
metabolism
–H+ liberated when CO2 is converted to
HCO3– in blood
38. Acid-Base Balance
• Concentration of hydrogen ions is regulated
sequentially by
–Chemical buffer systems: rapid; first line
of defense
–Brain stem respiratory centers: act within
1–3 min
–Renal mechanisms: most potent, but
require hours to days to effect pH changes
39. Acid-Base Balance
• Strong acids dissociate completely in water;
can dramatically affect pH
• Weak acids dissociate partially in water; are
efficient at preventing pH changes
• Strong bases dissociate easily in water; quickly
tie up H+
• Weak bases accept H+ more slowly
40. HCI H2CO3
(a) A strong acid such as (b) A weak acid such as
HCI dissociates H2CO3 does not
completely into its ions. dissociate completely.
Figure 26.11
41. • Something that resists changes in pH is a
1. Strong acid
2. Electrolyte
3. Buffer
4. hormone
41
42. • Which of the following dissociates completely
in water?
1. Strong acid
2. Weak acid
3. Weak base
4. All of these
42
43. Bicarbonate Buffer System
• Mixture of H2CO3 (weak acid) and salts of
HCO3– (e.g., NaHCO3, a weak base)
• Buffers ICF and ECF
• The only important ECF buffer
44. Bicarbonate Buffer System
• If strong acid is added:
– HCO3– ties up H+ and forms H2CO3
• HCl + NaHCO3 H2CO3 + NaCl
– pH decreases only slightly, unless all
available HCO3– (alkaline reserve) is used up
– HCO3– concentration is closely regulated by
the kidneys
45. Bicarbonate Buffer System
• If strong base is added
– It causes H2CO3 to dissociate and donate H+
– H+ ties up the base (e.g. OH–)
• NaOH + H2CO3 NaHCO3 + H2O
– pH rises only slightly
– H2CO3 supply is almost limitless (from CO2 released
by respiration) and is subject to respiratory
controls
46. Phosphate Buffer System
• Action is nearly identical to the bicarbonate
buffer
• Components are sodium salts of:
– Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4–), a weak acid
– Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42–), a weak base
• Effective buffer in urine and ICF, where
phosphate concentrations are high
47. Protein Buffer System
• Intracellular proteins are the
most plentiful and powerful
buffers; plasma proteins are also
important
• Protein molecules are
amphoteric (can function as
both a weak acid and a weak
base)
– When pH rises, organic acid or
carboxyl (COOH) groups release H+
– When pH falls, NH2 groups bind H+
48. • The most important ECF buffer system is:
1. bicarbonate
2. Phosphate
3. Protein
4. plasma
48
49. • The phosphate buffer system functions in:
1. ECF
2. ICF
3. Urine
4. 2 and 3
5. All of these
49
50. Describe the role of the respiratory system in
acid/base balance.
Describe the role of the urinary system in
acid/base balance.
51. Physiological Buffer Systems
• Respiratory and renal systems
– Act more slowly than chemical buffer systems
– Have more capacity than chemical buffer systems
52. Acid-Base Balance
• Chemical buffers cannot eliminate excess acids
or bases from the body
– Lungs eliminate volatile carbonic acid by
eliminating CO2
– Kidneys eliminate other fixed metabolic acids
(phosphoric, uric, and lactic acids and ketones) and
prevent metabolic acidosis
53. Respiratory Regulation of H+
• Respiratory system eliminates CO2
• A reversible equilibrium exists in the blood:
– CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
• During CO2 unloading the reaction shifts to the
left (and H+ is incorporated into H2O)
• During CO2 loading the reaction shifts to the
right (and H+ is buffered by proteins)
55. Respiratory Regulation of H+
• Hypercapnia activates medullary
chemoreceptors
• Rising plasma H+ activates peripheral
chemoreceptors- breathing rate increases
–More CO2 is removed from the blood
–H+ concentration is reduced
–CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
56. Respiratory Regulation of H+
• Alkalosis depresses the respiratory center
– Respiratory rate and depth decrease
– H+ concentration increases
• Respiratory system impairment causes acid-
base imbalances
– Hypoventilation respiratory acidosis
– Hyperventilation respiratory alkalosis
– CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
57. • The advantage of chemical buffer systems is
1. They have a very high capacity
2. Their effects are long lasting
3. Their effects are rapid
4. All of these
57
58. 2/3 of the body’s fluid is located where?
1. ECF
2. ICF
3. IVF
4. IF
58
59. Where is the thirst center?
1. mouth
2. hypothalamus
3. cerebellum
4. medulla
59
60. • What hormone regulates water balance
1. Aldosterone
2. PTH
3. ADH
4. Secretin
5. aquaporin
60
63. • How do the lungs eliminate carbonic acid?
1. Excreting it directly
2. Eliminating carbon dioxide
3. They don’t
4. Sending hormones to the kidneys, which
cause the kidneys to excrete it
63
64. • The advantage of physiological buffer systems
is
1. They have a very high capacity
2. Their effects are short term
3. Their effects are instantaneous
4. All of these
64
65. • Rising plasma H+ concentration will do
what to breathing rate?
1. Increase
2. Decrease
3. Not change
65
66. Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance
• Most important renal mechanisms
–Conserving (reabsorbing) or generating
new HCO3–
–Excreting HCO3–
• Generating or reabsorbing one HCO3– is
the same as losing one H+
• Excreting one HCO3– is the same as
gaining one H+
67. Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance
• Renal regulation of acid-base balance
depends on secretion of H+
• H+ secretion occurs in the PCT and in the
collecting duct:
–The H+ comes from H2CO3 produced in
reactions catalyzed by carbonic
anhydrase inside the renal tubule cells
69. Reabsorption of Bicarbonate
• Tubule cell luminal membranes are
impermeable to HCO3–
– CO2 combines with water in PCT cells,
forming H2CO3, which dissociates
– H+ is secreted, and HCO3– is reabsorbed into
capillary blood
– Secreted H+ unites with HCO3– to form H2CO3
in filtrate, which generates CO2 and H2O
• HCO3– disappears from filtrate at the same rate
that it enters the peritubular capillary blood
71. Bicarbonate Ion Secretion
• When the body is in alkalosis, renal tubule cells
– Secrete HCO3–
– Reclaim H+ and acidify the blood
72. Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance
• Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis
• Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis
73. Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
The most important indicator of respiratory
function is PCO2 level (normally 35–45 mm Hg)
– PCO2 above 45 mm Hg respiratory acidosis
• Most common cause of acid-base imbalances
• Due to decrease in ventilation or gas
exchange
• Characterized by falling blood pH and rising
PCO2
74. Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
• PCO2 below 35 mm Hg respiratory
alkalosis
–A common result of hyperventilation
due to stress or pain
75. Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis
• Any pH imbalance not caused by
abnormal blood CO2 levels
• Indicated by abnormal HCO3– levels
76. Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis
• Causes of metabolic acidosis
–Ingestion of too much alcohol
( acetic acid)
–Excessive loss of HCO3– (e.g., persistent
diarrhea)
–Accumulation of lactic acid, shock, ketosis
in diabetic crisis, starvation, and kidney
failure
77. Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis
• Metabolic alkalosis is much less common
than metabolic acidosis
–Indicated by rising blood pH and HCO3–
–Caused by vomiting of the acid contents
of the stomach or by intake of excess
base (e.g., antacids)
78. Effects of Acidosis and Alkalosis
• Blood pH below 7 depression of CNS
coma death
• Blood pH above 7.8 excitation of
nervous system muscle tetany, extreme
nervousness, convulsions, respiratory
arrest death
79. Respiratory and Renal Compensations
• If acid-base imbalance is due to
malfunction of a physiological buffer
system, the other one compensates
–Respiratory system attempts to correct
metabolic acid-base imbalances
–Kidneys attempt to correct respiratory
acid-base imbalances
80. Respiratory Compensation
In metabolic acidosis
–Blood pH is below 7.35 and HCO3– level is low
–High H+ levels stimulate the respiratory
centers
–Rate and depth of breathing are increased
–As CO2 is eliminated by the respiratory
system, PCO2 falls below normal
81. Respiratory Compensation
• Respiratory compensation for metabolic
alkalosis is revealed by:
–Slow, shallow breathing, allowing CO2
accumulation in the blood
–High pH (over 7.45) and elevated HCO3–
levels
82. Renal Compensation
• Hypoventilation causes elevated PCO2
• (respiratory acidosis)
–Renal compensation is indicated by high
HCO3– levels
• Respiratory alkalosis exhibits low PCO2 and high
pH
–Renal compensation is indicated by
decreasing HCO3– levels
83. • The respiratory system compensates for
metabolic acidosis by
1. Increasing breathing rate
2. Decreasing breathing rate
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
83
84. • The renal system compensates for respiratory
acidosis by
1. absorbing or generating bicarbonate
2. Secreting more bicarbonate
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
84