Carbohydrates provide the body with glucose, which is the primary source of energy. Carbohydrates come in simple forms like sugars and complex forms like starches and fibers, with complex carbohydrates being more slowly digested. The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels through the hormones insulin and glucagon to maintain energy homeostasis.
Insulin, glucagon, and diabetes mellitusbigboss716
The pancreas secretes two important hormones, insulin and glucagon, which regulate glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism. Insulin is secreted by beta cells in the pancreas and lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake in muscle and fat cells and stimulating glycogen and fat synthesis in the liver. Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells and raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. Diabetes occurs when there is insufficient insulin secretion or insulin resistance, leading to high blood glucose levels and ketosis due to fat breakdown and acidosis.
Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose which are then absorbed in the small intestine. Glucose accounts for about 80% of absorbed monosaccharides and is actively transported into intestinal cells via sodium-glucose transporters, using the sodium gradient as an energy source. Galactose absorption is similar to glucose while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion without requiring sodium or energy. Absorption rates vary between sugars with galactose absorbing most rapidly, followed by glucose, then fructose and pentoses absorbing slowest. Health of the intestinal mucosa and various hormones can also impact carbohydrate absorption rates.
Carbohydrate digestion is a mechanical and chemical breakdown of polysaccharides into monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and fructose. It involves enzymes that hydrolyze bonds between sugar molecules. Starch and glycogen are broken down by salivary and pancreatic enzymes into smaller molecules as they move through the mouth, stomach and small intestine. Final digestion occurs via disaccharidases in the jejunum wall, absorbing the monosaccharides. Deficiencies in these enzymes can cause osmotic diarrhea due to undigested carbohydrates fermenting in the colon.
A TRIANGULAR GLAND, WHICH HAS BOTH EXOCRINE AND ENDOCRINE CELLS, LOCATED BEHIND THE STOMACHACINAR CELLS PRODUCE AN ENZYME-RICH JUICE USED FOR DIGESTION (EXOCRINE PRODUCT)PANCREATIC ISLETS (ISLETS OF LANGERHANS) PRODUCE HORMONES INVOLVED IN REGULATING FUEL STORAGE AND USE.
The document discusses the functions, sources, and classification of carbohydrates. It describes carbohydrates' primary functions as providing energy, preventing protein from being used as energy, and supporting normal fat metabolism. Carbohydrates are obtained mainly from plants like grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as some animal sources like milk. They are classified as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (polysaccharides) depending on their size and structure.
Insulin, glucagon, and diabetes mellitusbigboss716
The pancreas secretes two important hormones, insulin and glucagon, which regulate glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism. Insulin is secreted by beta cells in the pancreas and lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake in muscle and fat cells and stimulating glycogen and fat synthesis in the liver. Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells and raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. Diabetes occurs when there is insufficient insulin secretion or insulin resistance, leading to high blood glucose levels and ketosis due to fat breakdown and acidosis.
Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose which are then absorbed in the small intestine. Glucose accounts for about 80% of absorbed monosaccharides and is actively transported into intestinal cells via sodium-glucose transporters, using the sodium gradient as an energy source. Galactose absorption is similar to glucose while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion without requiring sodium or energy. Absorption rates vary between sugars with galactose absorbing most rapidly, followed by glucose, then fructose and pentoses absorbing slowest. Health of the intestinal mucosa and various hormones can also impact carbohydrate absorption rates.
Carbohydrate digestion is a mechanical and chemical breakdown of polysaccharides into monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and fructose. It involves enzymes that hydrolyze bonds between sugar molecules. Starch and glycogen are broken down by salivary and pancreatic enzymes into smaller molecules as they move through the mouth, stomach and small intestine. Final digestion occurs via disaccharidases in the jejunum wall, absorbing the monosaccharides. Deficiencies in these enzymes can cause osmotic diarrhea due to undigested carbohydrates fermenting in the colon.
A TRIANGULAR GLAND, WHICH HAS BOTH EXOCRINE AND ENDOCRINE CELLS, LOCATED BEHIND THE STOMACHACINAR CELLS PRODUCE AN ENZYME-RICH JUICE USED FOR DIGESTION (EXOCRINE PRODUCT)PANCREATIC ISLETS (ISLETS OF LANGERHANS) PRODUCE HORMONES INVOLVED IN REGULATING FUEL STORAGE AND USE.
The document discusses the functions, sources, and classification of carbohydrates. It describes carbohydrates' primary functions as providing energy, preventing protein from being used as energy, and supporting normal fat metabolism. Carbohydrates are obtained mainly from plants like grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as some animal sources like milk. They are classified as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (polysaccharides) depending on their size and structure.
This document summarizes carbohydrate digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract. It describes how carbohydrates are broken down into smaller molecules by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharidases and oligosaccharidases. The monosaccharides glucose, fructose and galactose that are produced are then absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine. Glucose absorption is an active process that utilizes sodium-glucose co-transporters, while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion. Factors that can influence carbohydrate absorption such as intestinal health, hormones and vitamins are also discussed.
1. Beta cells in the pancreas produce the hormone insulin which regulates blood sugar levels. Impairment of beta cells leads to diabetes. Studying beta cell development in zebrafish can provide insights into treating diabetes in humans.
2. Zebrafish have similarities to humans in genes associated with disease and drug responses, making them a useful model for studying beta cell development. Their pancreas contains beta cells clustered in islets as well as single beta cells in the tail.
3. Transcription factors like Pdx1 and Ptf1a are involved in early beta cell differentiation and maturation. Understanding their roles and how to generate new beta cells could lead to strategies for treating diabetes.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of proteins in the human body. It discusses that proteins are obtained endogenously from digestive enzymes and cells, as well as exogenously from dietary intake. The stomach contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin to denature and break down proteins. The pancreas secretes trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and other zymogens which are activated and further digest proteins into peptides and amino acids in the small intestine. Aminopeptidases and dipeptidases on intestinal cells complete the digestion. Amino acids are then absorbed via active transport systems involving sodium and ATP. Deficiencies or defects in these digestive processes can impair protein digestion.
The pancreas regulates carbohydrate metabolism through the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes anabolism by stimulating glucose uptake and glycogen/lipid synthesis. Glucagon promotes catabolism by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to maintain blood glucose levels. Disorders like diabetes occur when insulin/glucagon secretion is impaired, leading to chronic high or low blood glucose.
In this section, we describe digestion and absorption of proteins.
Most of the slides are cited from:
1. Lippincott's Illustrated Review Biochemistry
2. U. Satyrana Biochemistry
Dr. Haroon
The document discusses the starve-feed cycle and metabolic interrelationships between tissues. In the well-fed state, glucose, amino acids, and fats from food are metabolized. Glucose goes to the liver and forms glycogen or is used in glycolysis. Amino acids go to the liver or pass through. Chylomicrons containing triglycerides release fatty acids that are stored in adipose tissue. Insulin is released after eating. In early fasting, hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis maintain blood glucose. Later fasting is dependent on hepatic and renal gluconeogenesis using substrates like glycerol and alanine. Tissues like enterocytes, lymphocytes, and the liver interact through metabolic pathways.
Digestion and Absorption of carbohydratesAshok Katta
The document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth where salivary amylase breaks down starches. Digestion pauses in the stomach but continues in the small intestine where pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes break carbohydrates down into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream via facilitated diffusion or active transport using glucose transporters. Undigested carbohydrates like cellulose provide fiber in the diet. Lactose intolerance and sucrase deficiency can occur if enzymes that break down lactose or sucrose are deficient.
- Insulin and glucagon are protein hormones produced by the pancreas that regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin promotes the uptake and storage of glucose, lowering blood sugar. Glucagon has the opposite effect, promoting the release of glucose and raising blood sugar.
- Insulin is composed of two polypeptide chains, A and B, linked by disulfide bonds. It is synthesized as pre-proinsulin and cleaved into proinsulin and then insulin. Glucagon is a 29 amino acid peptide synthesized as preproglucagon and cleaved.
- Insulin promotes glucose uptake and fat/protein synthesis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis and fat breakdown. Glucagon has the opposite effects,
Metabolic effect of pancreatic hormones,insulin glucagon and PPP(PANCREATIC P...Yerukneh Solomon
by yerukneh solomon(chenchaw) glucagon mechanism of action on protiens and carbo, gluccagon, insulin, insulin effect on protiens carbohydrates and fats, insulin synthesis and secretion, pancreatic polypeptide, somatostatin
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their sources, types, digestion, functions, and dietary recommendations. It describes simple and complex carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document also covers fiber, blood glucose regulation, and dietary sweeteners as well as their roles in health and disease.
Pancreatic hormones Insulin and glucagonAchla Jain
i. The pancreas contains exocrine cells that secrete digestive enzymes and endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete hormones like insulin.
ii. Insulin is a protein hormone synthesized and secreted by beta cells in the pancreas in response to increased blood glucose levels. It plays a key role in regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
iii. Other hormones like glucagon, secreted by alpha cells, have opposing effects to insulin and cause increased blood glucose levels. The combined actions of insulin and glucagon maintain normal blood glucose homeostasis.
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates fuel metabolism. It has important anabolic effects, promoting the storage and synthesis of glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins. Insulin secretion is stimulated by increases in blood glucose, amino acids, and gastrointestinal hormones after eating. It works to promote glucose uptake and storage in liver, muscle and fat tissues, while inhibiting glucose production and release. Insulin also increases lipid synthesis and inhibits lipid breakdown to regulate lipid metabolism.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates for Medical SchoolRavi Kiran
- Starch is digested to maltose, maltriose, and glucose by amylase in the small intestine. Brush border enzymes further break down maltose and maltriose to glucose.
- Glucose, galactose, and fructose are absorbed into intestinal epithelial cells through active transporters like SGLT1 or passive transporters like GLUT5.
- The monosaccharides then enter the bloodstream to be used for energy or stored for later use.
This document discusses the physiology of fasting in the human body. It describes how during fasting, the body transitions through different stages as it depletes different fuel stores and metabolic pathways. Specifically, it discusses how fasting impacts various body systems including liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, brain, kidneys, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, sleep, and urinary systems. The key adaptations during fasting include increased fat breakdown and ketone body production by the liver to provide fuel, increased breakdown of glycogen and proteins initially, and increased hormones like growth hormone and glucagon that help mobilize fuels.
This document discusses the chemistry of digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It describes the basic process of digestion as hydrolysis carried out by hydrolase enzymes in the digestive juices. The major digestive juices include saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile, and succus entericus, each produced in a different part of the GIT and containing different enzymes to break down macronutrients. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose which are absorbed via active transport and facilitated diffusion. Proteins are broken down into amino acids and small peptides which are actively absorbed. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids, glycerol, and other products which are absorbed as amphipath
Protein digestion in poultry begins in the proventriculus where pepsinogen is secreted and converted to the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin begins breaking down protein polymers into smaller peptides. The feed then moves to the gizzard where grit aids in further grinding of the feed. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase are secreted and break peptides into dipeptides and free amino acids. Dipeptides and amino acids are then absorbed by the intestinal mucosa and transported to the liver via the portal system for further breakdown and use in protein synthesis, or excretion as uric acid.
The document summarizes the key processes of digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It discusses:
1) The three main stages of digestion - mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, secretion of enzymes and electrolytes to provide optimal conditions for digestion, and transport of nutrients into the bloodstream.
2) The major secretions at each stage - saliva, gastric juices, pancreatic and bile secretions, and secretions from the small intestine.
3) The enzymes and constituents involved in digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and their absorption mechanisms.
4) Some common digestive disorders that can result from enzyme deficiencies or malabsorption.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Carbohydrates play several important biochemical roles in the body. They serve as the body's instant source of energy, being converted into ATP faster than fats or proteins. Carbohydrates are also the primary storage form of energy in the body as glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Additionally, carbohydrates form important conjugated molecules by combining with proteins and lipids, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids which are important for cell structure and communication. Maintaining normal blood glucose levels and consuming the proper amount of carbohydrates is important for health, as deficiencies or excesses can lead to diseases.
Psychopathy is assessed using criteria like the PCL-R and can be classified as Antisocial Personality Disorder. While psychopaths were once seen as untreatable, treatments like "decompression" may help and reducing psychopathy could save societies billions per year. Biological factors like genetics and brain differences in the paralimbic system are thought to contribute to psychopathy.
This document summarizes carbohydrate digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract. It describes how carbohydrates are broken down into smaller molecules by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharidases and oligosaccharidases. The monosaccharides glucose, fructose and galactose that are produced are then absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine. Glucose absorption is an active process that utilizes sodium-glucose co-transporters, while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion. Factors that can influence carbohydrate absorption such as intestinal health, hormones and vitamins are also discussed.
1. Beta cells in the pancreas produce the hormone insulin which regulates blood sugar levels. Impairment of beta cells leads to diabetes. Studying beta cell development in zebrafish can provide insights into treating diabetes in humans.
2. Zebrafish have similarities to humans in genes associated with disease and drug responses, making them a useful model for studying beta cell development. Their pancreas contains beta cells clustered in islets as well as single beta cells in the tail.
3. Transcription factors like Pdx1 and Ptf1a are involved in early beta cell differentiation and maturation. Understanding their roles and how to generate new beta cells could lead to strategies for treating diabetes.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of proteins in the human body. It discusses that proteins are obtained endogenously from digestive enzymes and cells, as well as exogenously from dietary intake. The stomach contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin to denature and break down proteins. The pancreas secretes trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and other zymogens which are activated and further digest proteins into peptides and amino acids in the small intestine. Aminopeptidases and dipeptidases on intestinal cells complete the digestion. Amino acids are then absorbed via active transport systems involving sodium and ATP. Deficiencies or defects in these digestive processes can impair protein digestion.
The pancreas regulates carbohydrate metabolism through the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes anabolism by stimulating glucose uptake and glycogen/lipid synthesis. Glucagon promotes catabolism by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to maintain blood glucose levels. Disorders like diabetes occur when insulin/glucagon secretion is impaired, leading to chronic high or low blood glucose.
In this section, we describe digestion and absorption of proteins.
Most of the slides are cited from:
1. Lippincott's Illustrated Review Biochemistry
2. U. Satyrana Biochemistry
Dr. Haroon
The document discusses the starve-feed cycle and metabolic interrelationships between tissues. In the well-fed state, glucose, amino acids, and fats from food are metabolized. Glucose goes to the liver and forms glycogen or is used in glycolysis. Amino acids go to the liver or pass through. Chylomicrons containing triglycerides release fatty acids that are stored in adipose tissue. Insulin is released after eating. In early fasting, hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis maintain blood glucose. Later fasting is dependent on hepatic and renal gluconeogenesis using substrates like glycerol and alanine. Tissues like enterocytes, lymphocytes, and the liver interact through metabolic pathways.
Digestion and Absorption of carbohydratesAshok Katta
The document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth where salivary amylase breaks down starches. Digestion pauses in the stomach but continues in the small intestine where pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes break carbohydrates down into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream via facilitated diffusion or active transport using glucose transporters. Undigested carbohydrates like cellulose provide fiber in the diet. Lactose intolerance and sucrase deficiency can occur if enzymes that break down lactose or sucrose are deficient.
- Insulin and glucagon are protein hormones produced by the pancreas that regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin promotes the uptake and storage of glucose, lowering blood sugar. Glucagon has the opposite effect, promoting the release of glucose and raising blood sugar.
- Insulin is composed of two polypeptide chains, A and B, linked by disulfide bonds. It is synthesized as pre-proinsulin and cleaved into proinsulin and then insulin. Glucagon is a 29 amino acid peptide synthesized as preproglucagon and cleaved.
- Insulin promotes glucose uptake and fat/protein synthesis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis and fat breakdown. Glucagon has the opposite effects,
Metabolic effect of pancreatic hormones,insulin glucagon and PPP(PANCREATIC P...Yerukneh Solomon
by yerukneh solomon(chenchaw) glucagon mechanism of action on protiens and carbo, gluccagon, insulin, insulin effect on protiens carbohydrates and fats, insulin synthesis and secretion, pancreatic polypeptide, somatostatin
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their sources, types, digestion, functions, and dietary recommendations. It describes simple and complex carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document also covers fiber, blood glucose regulation, and dietary sweeteners as well as their roles in health and disease.
Pancreatic hormones Insulin and glucagonAchla Jain
i. The pancreas contains exocrine cells that secrete digestive enzymes and endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete hormones like insulin.
ii. Insulin is a protein hormone synthesized and secreted by beta cells in the pancreas in response to increased blood glucose levels. It plays a key role in regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
iii. Other hormones like glucagon, secreted by alpha cells, have opposing effects to insulin and cause increased blood glucose levels. The combined actions of insulin and glucagon maintain normal blood glucose homeostasis.
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates fuel metabolism. It has important anabolic effects, promoting the storage and synthesis of glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins. Insulin secretion is stimulated by increases in blood glucose, amino acids, and gastrointestinal hormones after eating. It works to promote glucose uptake and storage in liver, muscle and fat tissues, while inhibiting glucose production and release. Insulin also increases lipid synthesis and inhibits lipid breakdown to regulate lipid metabolism.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates for Medical SchoolRavi Kiran
- Starch is digested to maltose, maltriose, and glucose by amylase in the small intestine. Brush border enzymes further break down maltose and maltriose to glucose.
- Glucose, galactose, and fructose are absorbed into intestinal epithelial cells through active transporters like SGLT1 or passive transporters like GLUT5.
- The monosaccharides then enter the bloodstream to be used for energy or stored for later use.
This document discusses the physiology of fasting in the human body. It describes how during fasting, the body transitions through different stages as it depletes different fuel stores and metabolic pathways. Specifically, it discusses how fasting impacts various body systems including liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, brain, kidneys, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, sleep, and urinary systems. The key adaptations during fasting include increased fat breakdown and ketone body production by the liver to provide fuel, increased breakdown of glycogen and proteins initially, and increased hormones like growth hormone and glucagon that help mobilize fuels.
This document discusses the chemistry of digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It describes the basic process of digestion as hydrolysis carried out by hydrolase enzymes in the digestive juices. The major digestive juices include saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile, and succus entericus, each produced in a different part of the GIT and containing different enzymes to break down macronutrients. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose which are absorbed via active transport and facilitated diffusion. Proteins are broken down into amino acids and small peptides which are actively absorbed. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids, glycerol, and other products which are absorbed as amphipath
Protein digestion in poultry begins in the proventriculus where pepsinogen is secreted and converted to the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin begins breaking down protein polymers into smaller peptides. The feed then moves to the gizzard where grit aids in further grinding of the feed. In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase are secreted and break peptides into dipeptides and free amino acids. Dipeptides and amino acids are then absorbed by the intestinal mucosa and transported to the liver via the portal system for further breakdown and use in protein synthesis, or excretion as uric acid.
The document summarizes the key processes of digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It discusses:
1) The three main stages of digestion - mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, secretion of enzymes and electrolytes to provide optimal conditions for digestion, and transport of nutrients into the bloodstream.
2) The major secretions at each stage - saliva, gastric juices, pancreatic and bile secretions, and secretions from the small intestine.
3) The enzymes and constituents involved in digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and their absorption mechanisms.
4) Some common digestive disorders that can result from enzyme deficiencies or malabsorption.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Carbohydrates play several important biochemical roles in the body. They serve as the body's instant source of energy, being converted into ATP faster than fats or proteins. Carbohydrates are also the primary storage form of energy in the body as glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Additionally, carbohydrates form important conjugated molecules by combining with proteins and lipids, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids which are important for cell structure and communication. Maintaining normal blood glucose levels and consuming the proper amount of carbohydrates is important for health, as deficiencies or excesses can lead to diseases.
Psychopathy is assessed using criteria like the PCL-R and can be classified as Antisocial Personality Disorder. While psychopaths were once seen as untreatable, treatments like "decompression" may help and reducing psychopathy could save societies billions per year. Biological factors like genetics and brain differences in the paralimbic system are thought to contribute to psychopathy.
The document provides a list of 14 topics in Spanish grammar including nationalities, stem changing verbs, indirect object pronouns, gustar, superlatives, reflexives, affirmative and negative commands. It also includes tables with examples of affirmative and negative words, comparisons and superlatives, and ways to sequence events in Spanish.
The document summarizes a study on overgeneral memory in patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). The study examined: (1) whether overgeneral memory (OGM) in BPD is associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnoses or severity levels, and (2) whether the Capture and Rumination, Functional Avoidance, and Impaired Executive Control (CaR-FA-X) model applies to OGM in BPD. The study found that OGM in BPD was associated with age but not MDD, PTSD, BPD severity, trauma exposure, or the CaR-FA-X variables. OGM specificity was higher in B
This short document promotes the creation of presentations using Haiku Deck on SlideShare. It includes photos from stock photo sites credited to SweetOnVeg, doc(q)man, GregPC, and avlxyz to inspire visual presentations. A call to action at the end encourages the reader to get started making their own Haiku Deck presentation.
The document discusses the pancreas, insulin, glucagon, and diabetes mellitus. The pancreas has both digestive and endocrine functions. Its islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream. Insulin regulates carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, promoting storage of glucose and fatty acids. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Diabetes mellitus occurs when insulin secretion is impaired (type 1) or tissues are resistant to insulin (type 2), leading to high blood glucose levels and various complications if not controlled.
This document discusses principles of nutrition, including:
1. Food provides energy and building blocks for cells through metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
2. An adequate diet must supply essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and water.
3. Carbohydrates are the primary energy source and consist of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides that provide energy through various metabolic pathways.
This document summarizes key polysaccharides found in plants and animals. Plant polysaccharides include starch, a storage form found in seeds and grains, and fibers like cellulose which provide structure. Fibers promote gastrointestinal and cardiovascular health. Animal polysaccharides primarily consist of glycogen, the storage form found in liver and muscle tissue. Glycogen provides rapid glucose to working muscles through breakdown and resynthesis regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon in response to blood sugar levels. The document recommends daily carbohydrate intake of 300-600 grams depending on physical activity level to serve as energy fuel.
This document summarizes gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate substrates. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney and involves both cytosolic and mitochondrial enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods without food intake and ensures an adequate glucose supply to the brain and red blood cells. While some of the same enzymes are involved in both gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, gluconeogenesis requires more energy to bypass three irreversible steps in glycolysis.
This document discusses the absorption of monosaccharides in the small intestine. It notes that monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are produced from carbohydrate digestion and absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum. Glucose accounts for 80% of absorbed monosaccharides. Glucose absorption involves sodium-glucose cotransporters, while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion. Factors like thyroid hormones and vitamins can influence absorption rates. Defects in monosaccharide transporters can cause conditions like glucose-galactose malabsorption.
Carbohydrates provide the largest source of calories and include starch, lactose, and sucrose. The small intestine breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides like glucose through digestion by enzymes attached to the intestinal wall. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to tissues like muscle and liver to be used for energy or stored as glycogen for later use.
This document discusses glucose homeostasis and the tightly regulated process of maintaining blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It describes the various sources of blood glucose, including dietary carbohydrates and the body's ability to produce glucose through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis when needed. Key hormones involved in regulating glucose include insulin, released after meals to lower blood glucose levels, and glucagon, released during fasting to raise blood glucose levels and promote glycogen breakdown and glucose production. Precise control of these opposing hormones is critical for metabolic health.
This document discusses how different tissues communicate metabolically through hormones. It summarizes several key metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and gluconeogenesis, and how they are regulated in different organs like the liver, brain, muscle and adipose tissue. It also covers metabolic adaptations during fasting and starvation to maintain blood glucose and preserve proteins, as well as changes during exercise, obesity, diabetes and with ethanol consumption.
This document summarizes key aspects of insulin and glucagon regulation of blood glucose levels. It discusses that insulin and glucagon are polypeptide hormones secreted by the pancreas that have opposing functions. Insulin is produced in response to high blood glucose to promote glucose uptake and storage. Glucagon is produced in response to low blood glucose to promote glucose release from stores. The document also summarizes the different types of diabetes, their causes and treatments.
- Insulin is a hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism. It promotes the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, muscle, and fatty tissue.
- Insulin was first isolated in 1922 which revolutionized treatment for diabetes. It binds to insulin receptors on cells and triggers effects like increasing glucose uptake and glycogen/lipid synthesis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis and lipolysis.
- Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood glucose levels after eating to promote storage of excess glucose. Multiple factors affect its secretion including hormones like glucagon, growth hormone, cortisol, and epinephrine.
The document discusses hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels. It explains that insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine work to keep blood glucose within a narrow range. Insulin is released when glucose is high and signals cells to take up and store glucose. Glucagon is released when glucose is low and signals the liver to produce glucose through gluconeogenesis and glycogen breakdown. Epinephrine prepares the body for activity by stimulating glycogen and fat breakdown. Diabetes results from defects in insulin production or action, leading to high blood glucose and ketone production. Prolonged fasting relies on gluconeogenesis and ketone bodies for fuel. Alcohol excess can cause hypoglycemia by inhibiting gluconeogenesis in the liver.
1. The pancreas contains clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete hormones like insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin allows cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream and lowers blood glucose levels, while glucagon has the opposite effect.
2. In diabetes, the pancreas either produces little or no insulin (type 1 diabetes) or the body develops a resistance to insulin's effects (type 2 diabetes), disrupting the body's ability to regulate blood glucose levels and maintain homeostasis. This leads to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia).
3. Without enough insulin to allow cells to take in glucose, the body begins to breakdown proteins and fats
This document provides an overview of blood glucose regulation and diabetes. It begins with definitions of key terms like blood sugar, normal glucose levels, and hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. The document then discusses the history of diabetes research and discoveries. It explains the normal physiology of glucose regulation including the roles of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones. It also covers alterations in blood glucose levels and the public health impacts of diabetes.
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:-
1. Differentiate simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrate
2. Describe the function of carbohydrates in the body
3. Demonstrate knowledge of health with carbohydrates
The document summarizes the functions of the pancreas and pancreatic hormones. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine and regulates blood sugar levels by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon promotes glucose release from stores. A lack of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus, characterized by high blood sugar and metabolic dysregulation. The document provides details on the metabolic effects of insulin and glucagon on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
Carbohydrates can be classified as simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose and disaccharides like sucrose. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and fiber. The primary function of carbohydrates is to provide energy, but they also spare protein, prevent ketosis, aid gastrointestinal function, and form other compounds. Too many carbohydrates can lead to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, especially if they are refined carbohydrates high in added sugars.
This document summarizes digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It describes how nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are broken down into smaller molecules through hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides, proteins into peptides and amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Absorption occurs through active transport, passive diffusion, and endocytosis across the intestinal epithelium. The small intestine has adaptations like villi and microvilli that increase its surface area for absorption. Water and electrolytes like sodium and chloride are also absorbed through the intestines.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth by salivary amylase and in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes. Monosaccharides like glucose are absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport involving sodium-glucose transporters in the intestinal walls. Glucose is the primary fuel for cells and its uptake is mediated by glucose transporters, especially GLUT2 and GLUT4 which are regulated by insulin. Deficiencies in disaccharide-digesting enzymes can cause issues like lactose intolerance and related symptoms.
The document discusses various topics related to nutrition including macromolecules that provide energy like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It describes the roles of the liver, vitamins, minerals, and enzymes in breaking down nutrients. Specific carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are defined. The document also covers protein structure, fat types, cholesterol, blood sugar regulation, energy requirements, metabolic rate, and eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia.
2. Carbohydrates
glucose provides energy for the brain and ½
of energy for muscles and tissues
glycogen is stored glucose
glucose is immediate energy
glycogen is reserve energy
3. Carbohydrates
all plant food
milk
carbohydrates are not equal
– simple carbohydrates
– complex carbohydrates
10. Disaccharides
pairs of the monosaccharides
– glucose is always present
– 2nd of the pair could be fructose, galactose
or another glucose
– taken apart by hydrolysis
– put together by condensation
– hydrolysis and condensation occur with all
energy nutrients
– maltose, sucrose, lactose
16. Complex Carbohydrates
polysaccharides
– glycogen and starch
built entirely of glucose
– fiber
variety of monosaccharides and other
carbohydrate derivatives
17. Glycogen
limited in meat and not found in plants
– not an important dietary source of
carbohydrate
BUT
– all glucose is stored as glycogen
– long chains allow for
hydrolysis and release
of energy
19. Fiber
structural parts of plants
– found in all plant derived food
bonds of fibers cannot be broken down
during the digestive process
– minimal or no energy available
21. Fiber Characteristics
soluble fibers, viscous, fermentable
– easily digested by bacteria in colon
– associated with protection against heart
disease and diabetes
lower cholesterol and glucose levels
– found in legumes and fruits
22. Fiber
insoluble and not easily fermented
– promote bowel movements
– alleviate constipation
– found in grains and vegetables
23. DRI and Fiber
distinguish fibers by source
– dietary fibers: naturally in intact plants
– functional fibers: extracted from plants or
manufactured
– total fiber: sum of the 2
24. Carbohydrate Digestion
break down into glucose
– body is able to absorb and use
large starch molecules
– extensive breakdown
disaccharides
– broken once
monosaccharides
– don’t need to be broken down
25. Carbohydrate Digestion
begins in mouth
– chewing releases saliva
– enzyme amylase hydrolyzes starch to
polysaccharides and maltose
stomach
– no enzymes available to break down
starch
– acid does some breakdown
– fibers in starch provide feeling of fullness
26. small intestine
– majority of carbohydrate digestion
takes place here
– pancreatic amylase reduces carbs to
glucose chains or disaccharides
– specific enzymes finish the job
maltase
–maltose into 2 glucose
sucrase
–sucrose into glucose and fructose
lactase
–lactose into glucose and
galactose
27. large intestine
– 1-4 hours for sugars and
starches to be digested
– only fibers remain
attract water, which softens
stool
– bacteria ferment some fibers
water, gas, short-chain
fatty acids (used for
energy)
28. Carbohydrate Absorption
glucose can be absorbed in the mouth
majority absorbed in small intestine
– active transport
glucose and galactic
– facilitated diffusion
fructose
smaller rise in blood glucose
29. Lactose Intolerance
more lactose is consumed than can be
digested
– lactose molecules attract water
cause floating, abdominal discomfort,
diarrhea
– intestinal bacteria feed on undigested
lactose
produce acid and gas
30. Lactose Intolerance
age, damage, medication, diarrhea,
malnutrition
management requires dietary change
– 6 grams (1/2 cup) usually tolerable
– take in gradually
– hard cheeses & cottage cheese
– enzyme drops or tablets
lactose free diet is extremely difficult to
accomplish
31.
32. Carbohydrate Metabolism
1/3 of body’s glycogen is stored in liver
– released as glucose to bloodstream
1. eat – intake glucose
2. liver condenses extra glucose to glycogen
3. blood glucose falls
4. liver hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose
Glycogen is bulky, so we store only so much:
short term energy supply
Fat is the long term energy supply.
33. Glucose for Energy
enzymes break apart glucose – yielding
energy
inadequate supply of carbohydrates
– ketone bodies (fat fragments) are an
alternate energy source during starvation
– excess ketones can lead to ketosis:
imbalance of acids in body
minimum of 50 – 100 grams of carbs/day
are needed to avoid ketosis
34. Glucose Homeostasis
maintaining an even balance of glucose is
controlled by insulin and glucagon
– insulin
moves glucose into the blood
– glucagon
brings glucose out of storage
35. maintaining balance
– balanced meals at regular intervals
fiber and some fat slow the digestive
process down
glucose gets into the blood slow and
steady
36. Intestine 1
When a person eats,
Maintaining blood glucose rises.
Blood
Glucose Pancreas
2
High blood glucose stimulates
Homeostasis the pancreas to release insulin.
Insulin
3 Insulin stimulates the uptake of
glucose into cells and storage
as glycogen in the liver and
Liver muscles. Insulin also stimulates
the conversion of excess
glucose into fat for storage.
Fat cell Muscle
4
As the body's cells use
glucose, blood levels decline.
Pancreas 5 Low blood glucose stimulates
the pancreas to release
Glucagon glucagon into the bloodstream.
6 Glucagon stimulates liver
cells to break down glycogen
Glucose and release glucose into the
blood.a
Insulin
Glucagon
Liver
Glycogen
a The stress hormone
epinephrine and other hormones 7 Blood glucose begins to
also bring glucose out of storage. rise.
37. Imbalance
diabetes
– after food intake, blood glucose rises and
is not regulated because insulin is
inadequate
hypoglycemia
– blood glucose drops dramatically
too much insulin, activity, inadequate
food intake, illness
diet adjustment includes fiber-rich carbs
and protein
38. Glycemic Index
way of classifying
food according to
their ability to raise
blood glucose
much controversy
39. Sugar
½ comes from natural sources, ½ from
refined and added
– sucrose, corn syrup, honey
excess can lead to nutrient deficiencies
and tooth decay
– empty calories
– sugar and starch break down in the
mouth
41. Starch and Fiber
diet that includes starch, fiber and natural
sugars
– whole grains, vegetables, legumes, fruits
may protect against heart disease and
stroke
reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes
enhances the health of the large
intestine
can promote weight loss
42. Starch and Fiber
starch intake
– 45-65%
– 225 – 325 grams (DV is 300
grams)
– 900-1300 kcal/2000 kcal
– RDA is 130 grams
fiber intake
– Daily Value is 25 grams/2000
kcal
43.
44.
45. Groceries
grains: 1 serving = 15 grams
vegetables
– ½ cup starchy = 15 grams
– ½ cup nonstarchy = 5 grams
fruit: 1 serving = 15 grams
milk: 1 cup = 12 grams
meat: none or little
legumes: ½ cup = 15 grams
46. Artificial Sweeteners
help keep sugar and energy intake down
anything we eat has FDA approval
– saccharin
– aspartame
– acesulfame potassium
– sucralose
– neotame
47.
48. Sugar Replacers
sugar alcohols
– provide bulk and sweetness
cookies, gum, candy, jelly
– do contain minimal kcal
– low glycemic response
absorbed slowly
– do not cause dental caries