Coronary artery disease, also known as atherosclerosis, is the leading cause of death in the United States. It occurs when plaque builds up in the arteries and decreases blood flow to the heart, which can lead to chest pain, heart attack, or heart failure. Some major risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol. Nurses play an important role in educating patients on modifying risks like diet, exercise, and medication adherence to help prevent cardiovascular events.
Angina also known as angina pectoris is a medical condition characterized by chest pain usually left sided due to inadequate blood supply (ischemia) to the heart muscles due to obstruction (like presence of blood clot), narrowing or contraction (vasospasm) of the supplying coronary arteries.
Angina (an-JI-nuh or AN-juh-nuh) is chest pain or discomfort that occurs if an area of your heart muscle doesn't get enough oxygen-rich blood.
Angina may feel like pressure or squeezing in your chest. The pain also can occur in your shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, or back. Angina pain may even feel like indigestion.
Angina isn't a disease; it's a symptom of an underlying heart problem. Angina usually is a symptom of coronary heart disease (CHD).
CHD is the most common type of heart disease in adults. It occurs if a waxy substance called plaque (plak) builds up on the inner walls of your coronary arteries. These arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to your heart.
Plaque Buildup in an Artery
Figure A shows a normal artery with normal blood flow. The inset image shows a cross-section of a normal artery. Figure B shows an artery with plaque buildup. The inset image shows a cross-section of an artery with plaque buildup.
Plaque narrows and stiffens the coronary arteries. This reduces the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, causing chest pain. Plaque buildup also makes it more likely that blood clots will form in your arteries. Blood clots can partially or completely block blood flow, which can cause a heart attack.
Angina also can be a symptom of coronary microvascular disease (MVD). This is heart disease that affects the heart’s smallest coronary arteries. In coronary MVD, plaque doesn't create blockages in the arteries like it does in CHD.
Studies have shown that coronary MVD is more likely to affect women than men. Coronary MVD also is called cardiac syndrome X and nonobstructive CHD.
Types of Angina
The major types of angina are stable, unstable, variant (Prinzmetal's), and microvascular. Knowing how the types differ is important. This is because they have different symptoms and require different treatments.
Stable Angina
Stable angina is the most common type of angina. It occurs when the heart is working harder than usual. Stable angina has a regular pattern. (“Pattern” refers to how often the angina occurs, how severe it is, and what factors trigger it.)
If you have stable angina, you can learn its pattern and predict when the pain will occur. The pain usually goes away a few minutes after you rest or take your angina medicine.
Stable angina isn't a heart attack, but it suggests that a heart attack is more likely to happen in the future.
Unstable Angina
Unstable angina doesn't follow a pattern. It may occur more often and be more severe than stable angina. Unstable angina also can occur with or without physical exertion, and rest or medicine may not relieve the pain.
Unstable angina is very dangerous and requires emergency treatment. This type of angina is a sign that a heart attack may happen soon.
Variant (Prinzmetal's) Angina
Variant angina is rare. A spasm in a coronary artery causes this type of angina. Variant angina usually occurs while you're at rest, and the pain can be severe. It usually hap
Angina also known as angina pectoris is a medical condition characterized by chest pain usually left sided due to inadequate blood supply (ischemia) to the heart muscles due to obstruction (like presence of blood clot), narrowing or contraction (vasospasm) of the supplying coronary arteries.
Angina (an-JI-nuh or AN-juh-nuh) is chest pain or discomfort that occurs if an area of your heart muscle doesn't get enough oxygen-rich blood.
Angina may feel like pressure or squeezing in your chest. The pain also can occur in your shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, or back. Angina pain may even feel like indigestion.
Angina isn't a disease; it's a symptom of an underlying heart problem. Angina usually is a symptom of coronary heart disease (CHD).
CHD is the most common type of heart disease in adults. It occurs if a waxy substance called plaque (plak) builds up on the inner walls of your coronary arteries. These arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to your heart.
Plaque Buildup in an Artery
Figure A shows a normal artery with normal blood flow. The inset image shows a cross-section of a normal artery. Figure B shows an artery with plaque buildup. The inset image shows a cross-section of an artery with plaque buildup.
Plaque narrows and stiffens the coronary arteries. This reduces the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, causing chest pain. Plaque buildup also makes it more likely that blood clots will form in your arteries. Blood clots can partially or completely block blood flow, which can cause a heart attack.
Angina also can be a symptom of coronary microvascular disease (MVD). This is heart disease that affects the heart’s smallest coronary arteries. In coronary MVD, plaque doesn't create blockages in the arteries like it does in CHD.
Studies have shown that coronary MVD is more likely to affect women than men. Coronary MVD also is called cardiac syndrome X and nonobstructive CHD.
Types of Angina
The major types of angina are stable, unstable, variant (Prinzmetal's), and microvascular. Knowing how the types differ is important. This is because they have different symptoms and require different treatments.
Stable Angina
Stable angina is the most common type of angina. It occurs when the heart is working harder than usual. Stable angina has a regular pattern. (“Pattern” refers to how often the angina occurs, how severe it is, and what factors trigger it.)
If you have stable angina, you can learn its pattern and predict when the pain will occur. The pain usually goes away a few minutes after you rest or take your angina medicine.
Stable angina isn't a heart attack, but it suggests that a heart attack is more likely to happen in the future.
Unstable Angina
Unstable angina doesn't follow a pattern. It may occur more often and be more severe than stable angina. Unstable angina also can occur with or without physical exertion, and rest or medicine may not relieve the pain.
Unstable angina is very dangerous and requires emergency treatment. This type of angina is a sign that a heart attack may happen soon.
Variant (Prinzmetal's) Angina
Variant angina is rare. A spasm in a coronary artery causes this type of angina. Variant angina usually occurs while you're at rest, and the pain can be severe. It usually hap
Nusing Management of CAD Symposia (French) presented at Hôpital Sacré Coeur in Milot, Haiti.
CRUDEM’s Education Committee (a subcommittee of the Board of Directors) sponsors one-week medical symposia on specific medical topics, i.e. diabetes, infectious disease. The classes are held at Hôpital Sacré Coeur and doctors and nurses come from all over Haiti to attend.
this article discusses about coronary artery disease, its symptoms, presentations, risk factors, pathophysiology in short and primary prevention. this article is intended to present to a group of physicians in various disciplines other than cardiology.
case presentation on unstable angina in SOAP format. About the disease, etiology, pathophysiology, symptoms, treatments, drugs to be given in angina and lifestyle modifications are included.
Angina is a type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. It is a symptom of coronary artery disease. Angina, which may also be called angina pectoris, is often described as squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness or pain in your chest. Some people with angina symptoms describe angina as feeling like a vise is squeezing their chest or feeling like a heavy weight has been placed on their chest. Angina may be a new pain that needs evaluation by a doctor, or recurring pain that goes away with treatment
Etiopathogenesis and pharmacotherapy of myocardial infraction
a. the pathophysiology of selected disease states and the rationale for drug therapy;
b. the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases;
c. the controversies in drug therapy;
d. the importance of preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis;
e. needs to identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy,
and monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory
indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects);
f. describe the pathophysiology of selected disease states and explain the rationale for
drug therapy;
g. summarise the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases including
reference to the latest available evidence;
h. discuss the controversies in drug therapy;
i. discuss the preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis; and
j. identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy, and
monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects).
Nusing Management of CAD Symposia (French) presented at Hôpital Sacré Coeur in Milot, Haiti.
CRUDEM’s Education Committee (a subcommittee of the Board of Directors) sponsors one-week medical symposia on specific medical topics, i.e. diabetes, infectious disease. The classes are held at Hôpital Sacré Coeur and doctors and nurses come from all over Haiti to attend.
this article discusses about coronary artery disease, its symptoms, presentations, risk factors, pathophysiology in short and primary prevention. this article is intended to present to a group of physicians in various disciplines other than cardiology.
case presentation on unstable angina in SOAP format. About the disease, etiology, pathophysiology, symptoms, treatments, drugs to be given in angina and lifestyle modifications are included.
Angina is a type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. It is a symptom of coronary artery disease. Angina, which may also be called angina pectoris, is often described as squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness or pain in your chest. Some people with angina symptoms describe angina as feeling like a vise is squeezing their chest or feeling like a heavy weight has been placed on their chest. Angina may be a new pain that needs evaluation by a doctor, or recurring pain that goes away with treatment
Etiopathogenesis and pharmacotherapy of myocardial infraction
a. the pathophysiology of selected disease states and the rationale for drug therapy;
b. the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases;
c. the controversies in drug therapy;
d. the importance of preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis;
e. needs to identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy,
and monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory
indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects);
f. describe the pathophysiology of selected disease states and explain the rationale for
drug therapy;
g. summarise the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases including
reference to the latest available evidence;
h. discuss the controversies in drug therapy;
i. discuss the preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis; and
j. identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy, and
monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects).
Coronary artery disease or Ischemic heart disease ANILKUMAR BR
Cardiovascular disease are becoming a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developed countries and they are also emerging as prominent national health problem in developing countries.
Coronary artery disease has become the major cause of early death and disability in the population.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) can also be used interchangeably with the terms atherosclerotic heart disease or ischemic heart disease.
All of these terms imply insufficient perfusion of the coronary arteries from an abnormal narrowing of the vessels, leading to insufficient oxygen delivery to the myocardial tissue.
The term coronary heart disease, also known as coronary artery disease or Ischemic heart disease, is a condition refers to diseases of the heart that result from a decrease in blood supply to the heart muscle.
Non modifiable risk factors
Modifiable risk factors
Contributing risk factors
Etiopathogenesis and pharmacotherapy of CONGESTIVE CARDIAC FAILURE
a. the pathophysiology of selected disease states and the rationale for drug therapy;
b. the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases;
c. the controversies in drug therapy;
d. the importance of preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis;
e. needs to identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy,
and monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory
indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects);
f. describe the pathophysiology of selected disease states and explain the rationale for
drug therapy;
g. summarise the therapeutic approach to management of these diseases including
reference to the latest available evidence;
h. discuss the controversies in drug therapy;
i. discuss the preparation of individualised therapeutic plans based on diagnosis; and
j. identify the patient-specific parameters relevant in initiating drug therapy, and
monitoring therapy (including alternatives, time-course of clinical and laboratory indices of therapeutic response and adverse effects).
CHAPTER 12: Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood
vessels. Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such
as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other
CVDs include stroke, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart
disease, cardiomyopathy, heart arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart
disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic
disease, and venous thrombosis.
The underlying mechanisms vary depending on the disease. Coronary artery
disease, stroke, and peripheral artery disease involve atherosclerosis, which is the
narrowing of the inside of an artery due to the build up of plaque. This may be
caused by high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high
blood cholesterol, poor diet, and excessive alcohol consumption, among others. High
blood pressure results in 13% of CVD deaths, while tobacco results in 9%, diabetes
6%, lack of exercise 6% and obesity 5%. Rheumatic heart disease may follow
untreated strep throat. It is estimated that 90% of CVD is preventable.
Coronary heart disease (CHD), also commonly referred to as just heart disease, is a
common term for the buildup of plaque in the heart’s arteries that could lead to
heart attack. But is there a difference between coronary heart disease and coronary
artery disease? The short answer is often no — health professionals frequently use
the terms interchangeably. However, coronary heart disease, or CHD, is actually a
result of coronary artery disease, or CAD. With coronary artery disease, plaque first
grows within the walls of the coronary arteries until the blood flow to the heart’s
muscle is limited. View an illustration of coronary arteries below:
Coronary Arteries
The Coronary Arteries are the blood vessels that supply blood to your heart. They
branch off of the aorta at its base. The right coronary artery, the left main coronary, the
left anterior descending, and the left circumflex artery, are the four major coronary
arteries. Blockage of these arteries is a common cause of angina, heart disease, heart
attacks and heart failure.
This restriction of the blood supply to the tissues is also called ischemia. It may be
chronic, narrowing of the coronary artery over time and limiting of the blood supply
to part of the muscle. Or it can be acute, resulting from a sudden rupture of a plaque
and formation of a thrombus or blood clot.
Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System
To fully understand Cardiovascular Diseases, it may be helpful to understand the
anatomy of the cardiovascular system. It includes the following:
o Heart: the pump, divided into four chambers (R/L atria, R/L ventricles)
o Arteries: large vessels carrying oxygen-rich blood away from heart; have
thick, muscular wall
o Arterioles: smaller arteries
...
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Seminar Prepared by :-
Ali Abdulazeem
Shilan Adnan Abdulrahman
Alaa Shamil
Guldan Hameed
Internal Medicine
College of Medicine - University of Kirkuk
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
1. Coronary Artery Disease 1
Pathophysiology and Nursing Considerations of Coronary Artery Disease
Lyra Sunshine Rider
Chico State University, Chico
2. Coronary Artery Disease 2
Coronary Artery Disease
Coronary artery disease also known as atherosclerosis or ischemic heart disease is the most
prevalent cause of cardiovascular disease. (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [NHLBI], 2011b).
In America, coronary artery disease (CAD) is the number one cause of death of both men and women
(NHLBI, 2011b). Atherosclerosis is believed to begin in childhood and is thought to progress more
rapidly as you age (NHLBI, 2011b). Atherosclerosis is the build up of lipids or fatty substances inside the
lining of the walls of the arterial blood vessels (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, & Cheever, 2010). This abnormal
lipid accumulation narrows the vessels and impedes blood flow thus limiting oxygen delivery to the heart
and body (Smeltzer et al., 2010). This decrease in blood flow and oxygen delivery can result in angina
pectoris, myocardial ischemia or myocardial infarction . Coronary artery disease over time can also
weaken the heart muscle resulting in heart failure and arrythmias (NHLBI, 2011b).
Coronary Atherosclerosis Pathophysiology
Atherosclerosis begins when fatty streaks of lipids are deposited in the intima of the arterial wall
after a lesion is created (NHLBI, 2011b). Lesions of the intima of the arterial wall may occur from
damage caused by smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes. These lesions initiate an
inflammatory response which stimulates macrophages. Macrophages ingest and transport the lipids into
the arterial walls. These “foam cells” also release biochemicals that irritate and continue to damage the
vascular endothelium. This continuous inflammation of the vascular lining attracts platelets and can
initiate clotting inside the arterial lumen (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
The inflammation initiates smooth muscle cells to begin proliferating which forms a fibrous cap
over the initial lipid filled lesion. These fibrous caps are called atherosclerosis or plaques. Plaques
accumulate and begin to narrow the lumen of the vessel by protruding outward, obstructing flow through
the vessel which decreases blood and oxygen supply to the heart and body. Plaques are classified as stable
or unstable, contingent upon the thickness of the plaque and the degree of inflammation to the vessel.
Stable plaques are usually thick and have a fixed lipid pool that can withstand the pressure and stress of
3. Coronary Artery Disease 3
blood flow and vessel contraction and dilation. Unstable plaques are considered vulnerable because they
have a thin cap and are affected by continued inflammation of the vessel (Smeltzer et al., 2010). If an
unstable plaque has an increase to the lipid core, it may rupture and seep into the outer layer of the plaque
becoming a site for platelets to adhere to the injury. Accumulation of platelets form a thrombus which
can increase the obstruction of blood flow to the heart or completely occlude blood flow (NHLBI,
2011b). The obstruction may result in angina pectoris, acute coronary syndrome, myocardial infarction,
and even death (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Clinical Manifestations
Chest pain is the most common symptom of a plaque or a thrombus decreasing blood flow and
oxygen to the heart and is referred to as angina pectoris (Smeltzer et al., 2010). The heart signals the body
of the unmet myocardial oxygen demand. This often results in a squeezing or pressure felt in the chest
from the myocardial ischemia. Pain may radiate to the jaw, neck, back or shoulders and may also be
mistaken for indigestion (NHLBI, 2011b). If the ischemia lasts for an extended period of time or the
decrease in oxygen is large enough, permanent damage to myocardial cells may result. The damage to
myocardial cells begins scar tissue formation resulting in myocardial dysfunction such as decreased
cardiac output or heart failure. A substantial decrease in blood supply to the heart can also result in
sudden cardiac death (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Patients may also present asymptomatic of chest pain during a coronary event, although the
“epidemiologic study of the people of Framingham, Massachusetts, showed that nearly 15% of men and
women who had coronary events, which included unstable angina, MIs, or sudden cardiac death events,
were totally asymptomatic prior to the coronary event.” (Smeltzer et al., 2010, p.757). Shortness of breath
is often reported as a symptom by older patients and patients with a history of diabetes or heart failure.
Atypical symptoms are generally experienced by women which may include nausea, weakness, and
dyspnea (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
4. Coronary Artery Disease 4
Risk Factors and Patient Education
Risk factors that increase the probability for coronary artery disease are classified into two
categories, modifiable and non modifiable. Modifiable risk factors are those the patient can change by
making adjustments to their lifestyle or by using medications. Non modifiable risk factors are those a
patient has no control over. Some modifiable risk factors include: hyperlipidemia, cigarette use,
hypertension, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, obesity, diet and physical non activity. Non
modifiable risk factors include: family history of CAD, increasing age (men over 45, women over 55) and
race (higher incidence in African Americans). Patients with metabolic syndrome are also at high risk for
heart disease. Metabolic syndrome has the following risk factors: insulin resistance, central obesity,
dyslipidemia, blood pressure higher than 130/85 consistently, pro inflammatory state (high levels c-
reactive protein), and pro thrombotic state (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
The top four modifiable risk factors for CAD are tobacco use, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and
cholesterol abnormalities. Nursing assessment of these risk factors and patient education on risk
modification are very important for improving health in patients suffering from CAD (Smeltzer et al.,
2010).
Cigarette cessation is highly encouraged to decrease the risk of developing CAD. Smoking
contributes to CAD by decreasing the amount of oxygen available to the heart and can also lower cardiac
output. Nicotinic acid in cigarette smoke causes constriction of the coronary vessels and increases heart
rate and blood pressure by stimulating the release of catecholamines which are associated with sudden
cardiac arrest. Cigarette smoking damages the vascular endothelium resulting in an increased number of
plaque and thrombus formations (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Diabetes affects CAD development in various ways and has been known to accelerate heart
disease. Diabetes encourages dyslipidemia, this in turn increases platelet aggregation and thrombus
formation. Treatment and control of hyperglycemia can lead to improved endothelial function and patient
health by reducing the risk of developing plaques (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
5. Coronary Artery Disease 5
The risk of a cardiovascular event increases in people with a blood pressure over 120/80.
Hypertension is a blood pressure that continually exceeds 140/90. Pressures at or above this high level
contribute to increased stiffness of the walls of the vessels (stenosis). Stenosis leads to increased
inflammation, vessel injury, and occlusion. The workload of the left ventricle is increased by
hypertension and this increase causes the heart to hypertrophy and may result in heart failure. Detection
and medical intervention is necessary to decrease this risk (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
In an effort to control cholesterol abnormalities all adults over 20 should have a fasting lipid panel
and then repeat after every 5 years, more often if there are abnormal results. The normal values for this
test are an LDL count less than 100 mg/dl ( less than 70 mg/dl in high risk patients), total cholesterol less
than 200 mg/dl, HDL cholesterol grater then 60 mg/dl, and triglyceride levels less than 150 mg/dl. It is
recommended that patients begin the Therapeutic Lifestyle Diet to help control their cholesterol levels.
This diet sets fat intake at 25-35% of calories, carbohydrates at 50-60% of intake, dietary fiber at 20-30 G
a day, protein at 15% of caloric intake and cholesterol less than 200 mg a day. Patients are encouraged to
increase their physical activity to 30 minutes of moderate exercise a day which increases LDL levels and
decreases triglyceride levels thus decreasing the risk of a coronary event. Lipid lowering medications can
also be prescribed to help the patient control cholesterol (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Angina Pectoris
“Experts believe that nearly 7 million people in the United States suffer from angina. The
condition occurs equally among men and women.” (NHLBI, 2011a, p.1). Angina pectoris is the most
common symptom of coronary artery disease. (NHLBI, 2011a) Atherosclerotic narrowing of vessels is
the main cause of decreased blood flow to the heart resulting in an unmet oxygen demand. This usually
results during an increased myocardial demand for oxygen during exertion or emotional stress (Smeltzer
et al., 2010).
Pathophysiology
There are three main types of angina; stable, unstable, and refractory. Stable angina can be
6. Coronary Artery Disease 6
relieved by rest or nitroglycerin intervention. It normally occurs on exertion and usually follows a
consistent and predictable pattern. Typical stable anginal episodes may be induced by the following:
physical exertion, exposure to cold, consuming a heavy meal, and emotional or physical stress. Unstable
angina is usually not relieved by rest or nitroglycerine. Symptoms continually increase in severity and
frequency and may occur while at rest. Intractable angina consists of severe incapacitating chest pain that
can be resistant to treatment (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Physical symptoms of angina can vary from mild indigestion to severe symptoms such as a feeling
of impending doom. Common symptoms include pressure on the chest, vice like pain, pain deep in the
chest, radiating pain to the jaw or arm, and a strangling sensation. Diabetics may have mild or no pain
due to diabetic neuropathy. Women usually experience asymptomatic pain such as weakness or back
pain. Angina in the elderly also can present atypically due to diminished neurotransmitter responses
normal to the aging process. Many elderly people present only with dyspnea. This type of presentation is
an example of a “silent” CAD event. Other symptoms of angina include anxiety, weakness or numbness
of the upper extremities, diaphoresis, a pale complexion, dizziness, and nausea and vomiting (Smeltzer et
al., 2010).
Assessment and Diagnostics
Assessment of angina begins with a thorough patient history with an in depth focus on the
precipitating events that occurred before the episode. An ECG can show changes of the heart due to
ischemia. Lab tests such as a CRP and cardiac biomarkers can be run to rule out acute coronary
syndrome. A patient may also receive an exercise stress test or pharmacological stress test to help with
diagnosis (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Medical and Pharmacologic Management
Medical management of angina includes both controlling risk factors and pharmacological
therapies. These are usually used in conjunction to decrease the myocardial demand and increase the
oxygen supply to the heart. As a last resort reperfusion procedures may be needed to restore blood flow to
7. Coronary Artery Disease 7
the heart. These may include precutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), Coronary artery
bypass graph (CABG), intracoronary stents, and atherectomy (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Medications that may be prescribed to help control angina include: nitroglycerine, calcium
channel blockers, beta adrenergic blockers, antiplatelet medications and anticoagulants. Nitroglycerine is
a vasodilator which decreases pain and ischemia by decreasing myocardial oxygen demand. Calcium
channel blockers decrease the workload of the heart by slowing heart rate and decreasing the strength of
myocardial contractions. Beta blockers block beta adrenergic stimulation of the heart resulting in a
decrease in myocardial demand for oxygen. Anti platelet medications such as Aspirin and Plavix inhibit
platelet adhesion and thrombosis generation. Anticoagulants that may be prescribed include Heparin and
Fragmin which prevent the formation of new blood clots. Oxygen therapy may also be used to decrease
pain and increase the amount of oxygen available to the heart with target blood oxygen saturation being
above 93% (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Nursing Process
Nursing assessment of angina includes a full patient history with an emphasis on the patient's
symptoms and activities before, during, and after the attack. Questions may include, “Can you rate the
pain?”, “When did the pain begin ?”, “What brings on the pain ?”, “What helps the pain go away ?”
(Smeltzer et al., 2010, p. 766). The nurse also needs to access the patient's risk factors for CAD to
determine an inclusive program of prevention, treatment, and patient education. Nursing diagnoses
pertaining to angina may include: “ineffective cardiac tissue perfusion secondary to CAD as evidenced by
chest pain or other prodromal symptoms.” “Death anxiety related to cardiac symptoms” and “ deficient
knowledge about the underlying disease and methods of avoiding complications” (Smeltzer et al., 2010,
p. 766). Potential complications that may develop are cardiogenic shock, acute coronary syndrome, MI,
dysrhythmias, heart failure, and cardiac death (Smeltzer et al., 2010). Nursing planning goals for angina
include the prevention of future episodes, reduction of anxiety, education regarding the condition and
prescribed treatment, compliance with home care, and absence of complications. Nursing interventions
8. Coronary Artery Disease 8
would include treating angina, reducing anxiety, and preventing pain. Nursing treatment of angina
includes assessment of the current episode to see if the condition is worsening. Assessments may
include: directing the patient to stop all activity and to sit and rest to see if resting helps alleviate the pain
or by obtaining an EKG to assess ST segment and T wave changes. Nitroglycerine may also be
administered and the nurse needs to assess the patients response to interventions and monitor vital signs
continually. Oxygen administration of 2 liters by nasal cannula may also be needed by the patient if their
oxygen saturation is low or if their respiratory rate is increased. Expected patient outcomes after an
angina attack would include prompt resolution of pain, adherence to therapy program, and patient
demonstration of knowledge on how to prevent and recognize future attacks (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Cultural Considerations
Special consideration during nursing assessments need to be give to patients of different cultural
backgrounds. “Native American healing practices vary greatly because there are more than five hundred
Native American Nations (commonly called tribes). There are many tribal differences, so it is not
surprising that healing rituals and beliefs vary a great deal” (American Cancer Society, 2008, p.9). In
Native American culture it is standard practice to utilize the services of shamanic healers or tribal elders
for healing (Department of Integrative Medicine [DIM], 2008). They believe health and disease is a direct
reflection of the patients balance with nature (DIM, 2008).
“A common Native American sense of spirituality includes a sense that each and every part of the
cosmos is imbued with spirit, not only people but everything including animals, plants, rocks, rivers, and
so on (Matheson, 1996).” Trust development with these patients is important for full disclosure of current
health practices (American Cancer Society, 2008). “Historically, outside society has sometimes
misinterpreted Native American culture and beliefs, which may increase this reluctance.” (American
Cancer Society, 2008, p.1).
Native American culture is steeped in ceremonial practice. Herbal remedies used in ceremonial
healing need to be identified due to possible interaction with medications (DIM, 2008). It is also
9. Coronary Artery Disease 9
important to ascertain whether the patient has recently gone through a purification or cleansing ritual
which can alter fluid volume balance and electrolyte levels (American Cancer Society, 2008).
The patients spiritual needs must also be addressed (DIM, 2008). “Prayer is also an essential part
of all Native American healing techniques.” (American Cancer Society, 2008, p.1). A private room may
be necessary to allow the patient privacy for ceremonies and prayer with members from their tribe (DIM,
2008). The burning of herbs and chanting prayers to cleanse and purify the body are common practice
(American Cancer Society, 2008).
Discharge Planning
Before discharge it is the nurses job to educate the patient and family on the disease process, how
to identify complications, how to treat the symptoms when they develop, how to prevent recurrent
episodes of angina, and how to prevent further advancement of CAD by decreasing risk factors by
tangible lifestyle changes. It is imperative for the patient and their family to understand that any pain
unresolved after 15 minutes even after nitroglycerine administration needs to be treated and assessed in
the emergency room immediately (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Acute Coronary Syndrome and Myocardial Infarction
Coronary artery disease also encompasses Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) (American Heart
Association [AHA], 2011). ACS includes both unstable angina and myocardial infarction (MI) both non-
ST-segment elevation MI and ST segment elevation MI (AHA, 2011). Acute coronary syndrome is an
emergent situation in which ischemia to the heart results in permanent damage and even death to
myocardial tissue (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Pathophysiology
Unstable angina is usually a consequence from ischemia to the heart due to atherosclerotic
plaques, this may result in an MI if not treated promptly. In the occurrence of an MI there is a complete
occlusion of the blood flow to the heart. This lack of blood flow results in myocardial injury and death.
Additional causes of an MI include situations where an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply
10. Coronary Artery Disease 10
and demand exists such coronary artery vasospasm, decreased oxygen supply (attributed to anemia
decreased blood pressure or blood loss), and increased myocardial oxygen demand (increased hear rate,
cocaine use, or thyrotoxicosis) (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
The affected area can develop damage very quickly (in minutes) or can develop slowly (over
hours or days). Ischemia develops as the calls are deprived of oxygen and then progresses to cellular
damage and infarction of myocardial cells (Smeltzer et al., 2010). “The expression time is muscle reflects
the urgency of appropriate treatment to improve patient outcomes. Each year in the United States, nearly
1 million people have acute MI's, one fourth of these people die as a result (AHA 2007)” (Smeltzer et al.,
2010, p. 768).
MI's are subcategorized into two categories: non-ST-segment elevation MI (NSTEMI) and ST-
segment elevation MI (STEMI). Signs and symptoms of an MI include chest pain that continues despite
rest and medication, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, indigestion, and anxiety or sense of
“impending doom” (Smeltzer et al., 2010). Cool pale diaphoretic skin, dizziness, increased heart rate,
increased respiratory rate may also be present (AHA, 2011). An electrocardiogram is used to identify the
type and location of MI. Goals of medical intervention for an MI are to minimize and prevent damage to
the heart and to prevent additional complications (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Assessment and Diagnostics
Acute Coronary Syndrome is usually diagnosed with a combination of diagnostic tests and a
physical exam. These tests usually include a 12 lead EKG and a serial cardiac biomarker lab test. An in
depth patient cardiac history is also completed which should include a description of the presenting signs
and symptoms, previous heart health history for self and immediate family, and the patient's risk factors
for heart disease. This combination of tests and physical examination help differentiate whether the
patient has unstable angina, a NSTEMI, or a STEMI (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Diagnosis of unstable angina include the following assessment results. Clinical manifestations of
coronary ischemia are present but the EKG and cardiac biomarker lab tests show no evidence of a current
11. Coronary Artery Disease 11
MI. STEMI diagnosis is contingent upon a 12 lead EKG displaying changes of two contiguous leads.
Significant damage to the myocardium is evidence of an MI. NSTEMI patients have elevated cardiac
biomarkers but no EKG findings showing MI (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
The 12 lead electrocardiogram (EKG) should be obtained within 10 minutes of the patient's arrival
to the hospital. Serial EKG's show changes in the recording of the heart rhythm such as T-wave inversion
due to myocardial ischemia that alters repolarization of cardiac cells. ST segment elevation (1 mm above
isometric line) which is a consequence of myocardial injury. The injured myocardial cells re-polarize
faster than normal cells causing the ST elevation. This elevation in two leads is a main diagnostic finding
of a MI. The development of abnormal Q waves resulting from the absence of depolarization current
from the infarcted myocardial tissue is also a main diagnostic finding of a MI. R wave height may also
decrease after a MI. An echocardiogram may be used for MI diagnosis in conjunction with the EKG. The
echocardiogram evaluates ventricular function and the hearts ejection fraction (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Lab tests to help diagnose an acute MI include myoglobin and troponin cardiac biomarker panels.
Cardiac enzymes such as Creatinine kinase, myoglobin, and troponin are released into the blood upon
cellular cardiac injury and death. An elevated Creatinine Kinase MB is specific to damage to cardiac
cells and only increases when they are damaged thus being an indicator of acute MI (Smeltzer et al.,
2010). The level increases within a few hours of cardiac cellular damage and peaks within 24 hours of a
MI. Myoglobin which is found in both skeletal and heart muscle begins to increase within 1-3 hours of
injury and peaks at approximately 12 hours. Myoglobin level increase is not cardiac specific but the
absence of a level increase helps to rule out a MI. Troponin isomers I and T are specific for cardiac
muscle and are used to diagnose myocardial injury and MI. A Troponin level increase can be detected a
few hours after injury and can remain elevated for as long as 3 weeks (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Medical and Pharmacologic Management
Medical management goals of acute coronary syndrome are to minimize myocardial damage,
preserve function, and prevent further complications. “These goals are facilitated by the use of guidelines
12. Coronary Artery Disease 12
developed by the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the AHA.” (Smeltzer et al., 2010, p.770).
Myocardial damage is reduced by re perfusing the area by PCI or thrombolytic therapy Reducing
myocardial demand and increasing the available oxygen supply via medications, as well as oxygen
therapy and bed rest can also lessen further damage to the myocardial cells (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Pharmacologic therapy for a MI includes Aspirin, nitroglycerine, morphine, IV beta blockers, anti
platelet medication, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDS). Suspected MI patients are given an initial loading dose of a minimum of 162-325 mg dose of
Aspirin as an anti thrombolytic (Hennekens, C.H., Dyken, M.L., & Fuster, V., 2009). Morphine decreases
the workload of the heart by decreasing both preload and after load of the heart while reducing pain and
anxiety, thus making it the first choice in treatment of a MI. ACE inhibitors prevent the conversion of
angiotensin I to angiotensin II, resulting in a decrease in blood pressure and the excretion of sodium and
fluid from the kidneys thereby decreasing the workload and demand on the heart (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Beta blockers such as Metoprolol and Atenolol are used to reduce the myocardial oxygen demand
by blocking the beta adrenergic stimulation of the heart which reduces heart rate by slowing the
conduction of electrical impulses through the heart. Blood pressure reduces as well as myocardial
contractility, helping balance the myocardial supply and demand of oxygen. Beta blockers help prevent
the recurrence of angina and MI by delaying the onset of ischemia (Smeltzer et al., 2010). New
recommendations for the safety of acute usage of beta blockers during an MI have been released.
(Kontos, M.C., Diercks, D.B., Ho, P.M., Wang, T.Y., Chen, A. Y., & Roe, M.T., 2011). In a recent study
from the American College of Cardiology it was found that the emergent use of Beta blockers in MI
patients showed an increase of in hospital complications versus a later use of beta blockers after 24 hours
after MI . The complications included an increase of cardiogenic shock in both STEMI and NSTEMI
patients (Kontos, M.C., Diercks, D.B., Ho, P.M., et al., 2011). “Risk factors for shock are common in
STEMI and NSTEMI patients treated with early BBs. Increasing numbers of risk factors were associated
with increased risk for shock or death in patients treated with BBs. These results are consistent with
13. Coronary Artery Disease 13
current recommendations for avoiding early BB treatment for patients with acute MI.” (Kontos, M.C.,
Diercks, D.B., Ho, P.M., Wang, T.Y., Chen, A. Y., Roe, & M.T., 2011 p. 1).
The most used thrombolytic agent by hospitals is Alteplase (t-pa). Thrombolytics dissolve clot
blockages in coronary arteries therefore increasing perfusion and minimizing the area of infarcted tissue.
Thrombolytics have specific protocols that need to be followed for administration. Thrombolytic patients
should be assessed by a nurse for contraindications to thrombolytic therapy. Some contraindications
include active bleeding, recent surgery, head trauma, and pregnancy. Thrombolytic therapy needs to be
administered 3-6 hours after arrival at the hospital. Nursing considerations for patients on thrombolytic
therapy include minimizing the number of times a patient's skin is punctured, avoid intramuscular
injection, monitor for dysrhythmias and hypotension, check for signs and symptoms of bleeding
(Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Emergent treatment of a STEMI patient may be accomplished by Percutaneous coronary
intervention (PCI). PCI re-perfuses the ischemic myocardial tissue by opening the occluded artery. The
types of PCI vary and include percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), intracoronary
stent implantation, atherectomy, and brachytherapy. Patients should arrive to the cardiac catheter lab
within 60 minutes or less of arriving at the hospital for treatment (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
In PTCA a balloon tipped catheter is inserted into coronary vessels to re perfuse the heart by
reducing the blockage by either compressing the plaque or by breaking it apart. The body initiates an
inflammatory response (restenosis) after a PTCA procedure which causes vasoconstriction of the vessels
and may result in scaring and clot formation. A coronary artery stent may be placed after PTCA to keep
the artery open and provide structural support. Atherectomy is an invasive procedure that removes the
coronary plaque by grinding, cutting, or shaving and may be used in conjunction with PTCA.
Brachytherapy prevents vessel restenosis by gamma or beta radiation which inhibits smooth muscle cell
proliferation (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
ACS patients may undergo coronary artery revascularization procedures such as a coronary artery
14. Coronary Artery Disease 14
bypass graft (CABG). During a CABG a blood vessel is grafted to an occluded artery so that blood can
flow beyond the occlusion and perfuse the heart. “For a patient to be considered for CABG, the coronary
arteries to be bypassed must have 70% occlusion (60% if in the main coronary artery).” (Smeltzer et al.,
2010, p.).Complications of a CABG may include MI, dysrhythmias, and hemorrhage (Smeltzer et al.,
2010).
Nursing Process
The nursing process for a patient with Acute coronary syndrome includes an in depth assessment
to determine the patients baseline condition which enables future analysis of any deviations from the
initial assessment. The assessment includes patient cardiac history of chest pain, dyspnea, palpitations,
diaphoresis, faintness, and palpitations. All symptoms need to be evaluated relating to onset, duration,
and resolution. A physical exam is also essential in determining a baseline of patient health. Two IV's are
usually placed for emergent medication administration (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Nursing diagnosis for acute coronary syndrome includes consideration of clinical manifestations,
history, and diagnostic findings. Some potential nursing diagnoses may include “Ineffective cardiac tissue
perfusion related to reduced coronary blood flow”, “risk for imbalanced fluid volume” and “ death
anxiety related to cardiac event.” (Smeltzer et al., 2010, p.766). Some potential complications may
include acute pulmonary edema, cardiogenic shock, heart failure, dysrhythmias, and cardiac death
(Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Planning and goals for the patient with acute coronary syndrome include the relief of pain,
prevention of myocardial damage, and reduced anxiety. Secondary goals include adherence to therapy
regimen, early recognition or absence of complications, and a decrease in risk factors contributing to
acute coronary syndrome (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Nursing Interventions
Nursing interventions for acute coronary syndrome entail the following: relieve pain, improve
respiratory function, promote adequate tissue perfusion, reduce anxiety, and manage and identify
15. Coronary Artery Disease 15
potential complications. The top priority for an ACS patient is to balance myocardial oxygen supply and
demand. This can be done through oxygen therapy by titrating the oxygen saturation between 96-100%
and administering the prescribed pharmacologic therapy. Vital signs should be assessed frequently along
with the patients pain rating. Bed rest and elevation of the head of the bed also help to decrease dyspnea.
Assessment of fluid volume status improves respiratory function by preventing overloading of the heart
and lungs. Frequent position changes should be encouraged to prevent pooling of fluid in the lungs
(Smeltzer et al., 2010).
Tissue perfusion should be monitored by checking patients skin color, temperature, capillary refill,
and peripheral pule strength. Anxiety reduction and alleviation of fear are important nursing
interventions to reduce the sympathetic stress response, development of trust between nurse and patient
helps to facilitate this. Patient education, a restful environment, and relaxation techniques also help the
patient decrease fear and anxiety. Monitoring the patient carefully for changes in heart rate, rhythm, and
sound help to monitor for potential complications. The nurse also needs to assess respiratory status, pain,
urinary output, blood pressure, and lab values to determine the onset of complications (Smeltzer et al.,
2010).
Discharge
Preparing the ACS patient for discharge and self care at home includes assessing the patients
education needs. The level of understanding of the patient needs to be determined to ensure a successful
discharge. The patients understanding and educational needs should be assessed regarding ACS,
medication use, risk factors, identifying potential complications and when to seek help. Evaluation of the
ACS patient and expected patient outcomes include relief of angina, adequate tissue perfusion, decreased
anxiety, no complications, and patient adheres to self care regimen (Smeltzer et al., 2010).
A case manager or social worker may need to be involved in helping prepare the patient with
CAD for discharge. Arrangements can be made for financial assistance, home health or assisted living,
rehabilitation, dietary, transportation and counseling needs (Smeltzer et al., 2010).