BUSI 444Case Study InstructionsThe answers to each Case Study mu.docx

BUSI 444Case Study Instructions
The answers to each Case Study must be 3–5 pages and
completed in current APA formatting. Your response must be
written in essay form, including an introduction, body, and
conclusion. Your Case Study response must be supported by at
least 2 scholarly, peer-reviewed articles. These sources must
have been published within the last 5 years. The Noe textbook
must also be incorporated but no other textbooks may be used.
Prompts:
Case Study 3: Module/Week 7: Career Development at
Electronic Applications
Complete "Career Development at Electronic Applications" case
in the Nkomo, Fottler, and McAfee text (#51, p. 157). Answer
the 6 questions (1–6) on p. 158. You may find it useful to use
the topic of the questions (The problem at EA, Relevant
information to be examined, etc.) as section headers in your
paper.
Textbooks for reading:
Human Resource Management Applications: Cases, Exercises,
Incidents, and Skill Builders - 7TH 11
by: Nkomo, Stella M.
https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781305990814/cfi/6/
2[;vnd.vst.idref=M1]!

Employee Training and Development - 7TH 17
by: Noe
https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780077774547/cfi/6/
26!/4/2/6/[email protected]:75.4
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· ■ Describe the purpose of a needs analysis.
· ■ List and describe the steps in conducting a needs analysis.
· ■ Explain what a competency is and why it is useful.
· ■ Differentiate between proactive and reactive needs analysis
approaches, and describe the situations favoring the use of one
over the other.
· ■ Outline the rationale for using performance appraisal
information for a needs analysis, and identify what type of
performance appraisal method is appropriate.
· ■ Describe the relationship between needs analysis and the
design and evaluation of training.
· ■ List four contaminations of a criterion.
CASE DEVELOPING A TRAINING PACKAGE AT WESTCAN
Chris is a human resources (HR) manager at Westcan
Hydraulics, and Irven, the VP of HR, is her boss. One morning
Irven called Chris into his office. “I just saw an old training
film called Meetings Bloody Meetings starring John Cleese,” he
said. “It deals with effective ways of running meetings.” Irven,
a competent and well-liked engineer, had been promoted to VP
of HR three months earlier. Although he had no HR expertise,
he had been an effective production manager, and the president
of the company had hoped that Irven would provide a measure
of credibility to the HR department. In the past, employees saw
the HR department as one that forced its silly ideas on the rest
of the company with little understanding of how to make those
ideas work.

“Well,” said Chris, “I . . .”
“Oh, yes,” Irven interjected, “I talked to a few managers this
morning and they were enthusiastic about it. It’s the first time I
have ever seen managers enthusiastic about any type of training.
Do we have such a training package available?”
“No, I do not believe so,” Chris replied.
“Well,” said Irven, “we need a one-day training session. It must
be interesting, useful, and generalizable to all managers.
Okay?” With that, Irven stood up, signaling that the meeting
was over.
Chris went to work designing the training. She began by going
to the local university and viewing the meetings film her boss
had seen. After examining some books that dealt with meetings,
she decided that she had a good idea of what made meetings
effective. She then called Larry, a friend at Satellite Systems, to
see what he had.
He faxed over a copy of a lecture he had given on the dos and
don’ts of an effective meeting. It was nicely broken down into
three parts: premeeting, meeting, and postmeeting. That
information and a simulated meeting (to provide hands-on
practice) could make up the one-day training program. Chris
had never written a simulation and needed help. She put in a
call to Karen, a subordinate who was fresh out of university and
had majored in HR. Karen would surely be able to help develop
a simulation, Chris thought.
WHY CONDUCT A TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS?
What is wrong with the situation at Westcan? It is a scene that
repeats itself in some form every day. The boss wants some
training, and the HR manager complies. After all, the boss must
know what kind of training the employees need. Right? Maybe
not. Recall from Chapter 1 that a training needs analysis
(TNA) is a systematic method for determining what caused
performance to be less than expected or required. Performance
improvement1 is the focus of training. This is obvious when you
turn to the beginning of the chapter and look at the analysis
phase figure. Note that the “trigger” for doing a needs analysis

occurs when actual organizational performance (AOP) is less
than expected organizational performance (EOP). We refer to
this difference as the organizational performance gap (OPG).
Does an OPG exist at Westcan? Perhaps. In this situation, we
might consider the VP’s suggestion that there is a need for
training as the “trigger” to conduct a needs analysis. Are the
meetings producing less than expected results? To answer this
question, Chris would need to conduct a TNA.
If AOP is less than EOP at Westcan, Chris needs to identify
where these differences exist in terms of the meetings. Once
these are known, other questions need answering. How many
meetings are ineffective? What is causing the problem? Is it the
manager’s knowledge of “how to run an effective meeting,” or
are other issues causing the meetings to be ineffective? How
much do these managers already know about meetings, and how
skillful are they at applying this knowledge? Chris needs to
answer these and other questions by conducting a TNA before
she begins to design the training program for effective
meetings. Instead, Chris assumes that she knows what managers
require and begins to develop the training on the basis of her
assumptions. She does not conduct a TNA to determine exactly
what the deficiencies are. Think about this scenario as we
examine the process of a TNA. Would you want to be in Chris’s
shoes? We refer back to this example throughout the chapter,
and at the end, we give you the rest of the story.
A TNA is important because it helps determine whether training
can correct the performance problem. In some cases, the TNA
indicates that employees lack the necessary knowledge, skills,
and attitudes (KSAs) to do the job and they require training. In
other cases, employees have the KSAs to do the job, but there
are roadblocks that prevent effective performance. These
barriers need to be identified and removed. As a training
professional, you will use the TNA to ensure that you provide
the right training to the right people. Chris at Westcan is
overlooking a critical part of the training process by not
completing a TNA. Instead, she is relying on what Irven says

and jumping directly to the training design phase. If Chris were
to conduct a TNA first, she could accomplish several important
things:
· • Increase the chances that the time and money spent on
training is spent wisely
· • Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training
· • Increase the motivation of participants
· • Align her training activities with the company’s strategic
plan
This is one of the longest chapters in the book and that reflects
its importance in the training process. Unless you get this part
right, the rest of what you do as a trainer won’t make any
difference. After all, why spend thousands of dollars, or more,
on a training program no one needs or which doesn’t fit with the
needs of the organization? With increased concern about costs,
it is important that all departments, including HR and HRD, use
resources wisely. So, what will the TNA do for you?
A TNA will provide a benchmark of the performance levels and
KSAs trainees possess prior to training. These benchmarks will
let you compare performance before and after training. This will
allow you to demonstrate the cost savings or value added as a
result of training.2 We will say more about these evaluation
issues in Chapter 9.
A TNA provides more than just evaluation measures. A good
TNA ensures that only those who need the training attend and
provides the data to show trainees why the training will be
useful to them. Consider the employees who do not need the
training but are sent by their supervisor anyway. Are they going
to take the training seriously? Probably not. In fact, their lack
of interest might be distracting to those who need and want the
training. Worse, they might cause other trainees not to take the
training seriously. Using a TNA also ensures that your training
focuses on KSAs the trainees really need. The needs analysis
allows the trainer to begin by explaining how the training will
be useful. If trainees see the training as relevant, they are more
likely to be interested in attending and maintain interest during

the training.
As noted in Chapter 1, implementing a strategic plan requires
careful analysis of the organization’s HR capabilities. A TNA is
one process for determining the degree to which employees
possess the necessary KSAs to carry out the strategies. Training
can then be designed in alignment with the strategic plan. The
TNA also provides the human resources department (HRD) with
information as to the relevance of training to the strategic plan.
This information is helpful in determining which training needs
are more important.
WHEN TO CONDUCT A TNA
In spite of the compelling arguements in the preceding section,
there are times when a TNA might not be necessary. For
example, if the organization is trying to communicate a new
vision or address legal concerns, it might be advisable to train
all employees. Suppose the company has concerns regarding
sexual harassment. Everyone should be aware of how seriously
top management considers breaches of their “sexual
harassment” policy. Here, company-wide training on the issue
might be necessary. Sending everyone to a workshop on sexual
harassment
ensures that management’s expectations regarding this issue are
clear. It also demonstrates an employer’s position on sexual
harassment to the courts, should an employee consider a sexual
harassment lawsuit.
Another situation in which a TNA might not be necessary is if a
team requires team-building skills. In this instance, the goal of
training is to build the dynamics of the team so that the
members work together cohesively and effectively, and also to
provide the relevant KSAs. In this case, everyone on the team
should be part of the training, even though they already might
possess many team KSAs.
For most types of training, however, a needs analysis is

beneficial and will increase the relevance and effectiveness of
training. For example, team building for teams that have been
working together for a while would benefit from a TNA. In this
case, the needs analysis focus is on the team itself, not the
individuals in the team. Only teams that demonstrate problems
in effectiveness or cohesion would go through a TNA to
determine if training is necessary. Teams already functioning
effectively would not need to attend, so the overall cost of
training is reduced.THE TNA MODEL
Examine the model at the start of the chapter. The first part of
the model is the triggering event that initiates the TNA. For
example, when a key decision maker suggests that there is a
performance problem now or in the future, a TNA is triggered.
The next step in the TNA model is the input, which consists of
an organizational analysis, an operational analysis, and a person
analysis. The organizational analysisis an examination of an
organization’s strategy, its goals and objectives, and the
systems and practices in place to determine how they affect
employee performance. An operational analysis is the
examination of specific jobs to determine the requirements, in
terms of the tasks required to be carried out and the KSAs
required to get the job done. It is analogous to a job analysis, or
a task analysis, as it is sometimes called. A person analysis is
the examination of the employees in the jobs to determine
whether they have the required KSAs to perform at the expected
level.
In the process phase, the operational analysis provides
information on expected performance (EP). Expected
performance is the level of performance expected in a particular
job.
The person analysis provides information on actual performance
(AP). Actual performance is the current level of performance by
an individual on a particular job. When AP is lower than EP, a
more specific performance gap (PG) is identified. As noted in
the model, this specific performance gap* is the difference
between EP and the employee’s AP.

The “output” phase is your conclusion as to whether the PG
indicates either training or nontraining needs, and in some
cases, both. This will be explained later.
So, as you can see from the model, a TNA is conducted when a
key decision maker in the company notes an OPG (AOP is, or
will be, less than EOP). A reactive TNA focuses on current
performance problems (the OPG currently exists). A proactive
TNAfocuses on performance problems in the future (the OPG
will exist at some point in the future). Let’s look at an example
of each.
A current OPG triggers a reactive TNA. For example, if the
expected number of widgets produced per week is 5,000 and
actual production is only 4,300, you need to investigate this
gap.
As an example of the proactive approach, consider an
organization’s decision to implement statistical process control
(SPC) to improve the quality of its widgets. Sometime in the
near future, the employees producing widgets will begin using
SPC methods. Potential for a future OPG exists (the trigger)
because if the employees do not have the appropriate KSAs for
SPC, they will have a PG that will lead to an OPG. This
potential gap triggers a proactive TNA to determine whether
employees will be able to perform as needed when the
organization implements SPC. You conduct an assessment of
employees’ capabilities regarding SPC and find that they are not
able to perform the arithmetic needed in the use of SPC. This
PG will need to be addressed before SPC can be implemented.
As this example illustrates, when you expect an OPG to occur at
some point in the future, you should conduct a proactive TNA to
verify that the gap will exist and identify the specific KSAs that
need to be developed.
*Note that for the TNA trigger, the difference between actual
organizational performance and expected performance is called
an “organizational” performance gap. The difference between
actual and expected performance obtained from the operational
and person analysis of the TNA is simply termed a

“performance gap.”
An OPG may occur for many reasons (see Figure 4-1), only one
of which is a lack of KSAs. You need to conduct the TNA to
discover why the gap exists and what can be done to correct it.
Consider the problem at a regional telephone company a few
years back. Sales revenue did not meet expected levels (AOP
was less than EOP), triggering a TNA. The TNA identified that
sales were indeed below expectations. The TNA narrowed the
source of the less-than-expected sales to the installation and
repair unit. The phone company had hoped to increase revenue
by having their installation and repair employees make sales
pitches to customers for additional services when on a service
call. However, data on sales indicated that few such sales took
place, so AP was less than EP. Note in Figure 4-1 that several
possible causes of a PG are listed. If the cause is not a gap in
required KSAs, then some nontraining solution is required to
alleviate the PG.
FIGURE 4-1 Model of Process When a Performance Gap Is
Identified.
What caused the PG? It was not a KSA deficiency. Installation
and repair employees’ performance was based on the time it
took them to complete a call. They had a certain amount of time
to complete each call. If they took longer than the time allotted
for a number of calls, their performance was rated as below
average. The time allotment was not changed, even though
employees were now expected to stick around and try to sell
their products and services. So, most employees simply did not
spend any time selling. In this example, performance
consequence incongruities leading to low motivation were what
caused the PG. We return to examine Figure 4-1in more detail
later, but now let’s examine where we look for PGs.WHERE TO
LOOK FOR OPGs
There are numerous places to look for information related to
OPGs. A company’s archival data, such as its profitability,
market share, grievance levels, productivity, and quality
measures, provide indicators of how it is operating. These are

included in Table 4-1, which provides a list of sources for
gathering data related to potential PGs. Let’s examine a few to
see how the process works. The first data source, organizational
goals and objectives and budgets, provides standards against
which unit performance can be measured. Suppose, for example,
that the triggering event was a loss in profitability because of
excessive costs related to warranty work. A reactive TNA is
implemented, which might lead you to examine the quality
standard for rejects in the production department. The standard
(EP) is less than 1 per thousand, but you see that the AP is 12
per thousand.
The process is similar when you expect future performance to
be less than what it should be. Here, a proactive TNA is
initiated. Suppose the company’s new strategic plan indicates a
substantial modernization of the plant, including new
computerized machinery. There is no OPG now, but the plant
manager believes there will be when the new machinery arrives.
This possible OPG in the future prompts a “proactive” TNA. As
part of this TNA, the HRD department will need to assess the
employees’ current level of KSAs for operating the new
machinery. If these current KSAs are not sufficient, a gap exists
for the future.
The second data source, labor inventory, is also useful to
determine an OPG in the future and the types of training
necessary to prevent such a gap from occurring. Knowing that a
number of senior engineers are retiring over the next few years
can trigger the HRD department to start training those in line
for promotion to maintain the necessary skills. Not being aware
of these retiring employees could lead to an OPG because the
company would lack enough senior engineers to manage the
expected number of projects.
Finally, let’s examine the third data source, organizational
climate indicators. Identification of high absenteeism in a
particular area, or an increasing accident rate, provides you with
early signs of problems. The quicker you are able to identify
problems, the quicker you will be able to find and implement

solutions. This is one secret to an effective HRD department.
Cindy Baerman, the human resource development officer of
Miller Brewing Company, provides an example for this. She
began attending production meetings a few years back. She
received funny looks, as the meetings were held to focus on
production problems. Why would HRD want to be there? As
Cindy pointed out, “What better place to learn of the type of
performance problems the line manager is having?”3 For her,
the focus was on performance management. Being able to react
quickly to maintain and improve performance is the first step in
a continuous performance improvement framework, which is so
important in today’s environment.4THE FRAMEWORK FOR
CONDUCTING A TNA
Recall from Figure 1-3 (on page 7 in Chapter 1) that all five
phases of the training model have an input, a process, and an
output component. The “input” for the analysis phase, as shown
in the figure at the start of this chapter, is made up of
organizational, operational, and person analysis. The “process”
is where we determine the specific nature of any PGs and their
causes. The “output” provides us with either training or
nontraining needs—and in some cases, both. So, once a trigger
has set a TNA in motion, the three levels of analysis—
organizational, operational, and person—need to be
completed.5 In the section that follows, we provide an overview
of the three TNA inputs. Following this, we provide a detailed
examination of each area.TABLE 4-1 Recommended Data
Sources for Investigating Gaps in Performance
Sources of Data
Implications for Training Needs
Examples
1.
Organizational Goals
This source suggests where training emphasis should be placed.
Maintain a quality standard of no more than one reject per
thousand.

Objectives and Budget
This source provides information on both standards and
direction.
Achieve a goal to become ISO certified and allow $90,000 for
this effort.
2.
Labor Inventory
This source helps HRD identify where training is needed
because of retirement turnover, age, etc.
30 percent of our truck drivers will retire over the next four
years.
3.
Organizational Climate Indicators
These “quality of working life” indicators at the organization
level provide indicators of organizational performance gaps.
· a. Labor-management data, strikes, lockouts, etc.
These indicators relate to work participation or productivity and
are useful in PG analysis and in helping management set a value
on the behaviors it wishes to improve through training.
· b. Grievances
70 percent of the grievances are related to the behaviors of six
supervisors.
· c. Turnover
· d. Absenteeism
High absenteeism for clerical staff.

· e. Suggestions
· f. Productivity
· g. Accidents
Accident rate for line workers increasing.
· h. Short-term sickness
Line workers’ attitude toward teamwork is poor.
· i. Attitude surveys
Surveys are good for locating discrepancies between
organizational expectations and perceived results.
4.
Analysis of Efficiency Indexes
· a. Costs of labor
Labor costs have increased by 8 percent in the last year.
· b. Quality of product
Number of rejects has increased by 30 percent since the new
batch of workers began.
· c. Waste

Wasted steel has increased by 14 percent since the company
began using part-time workers.
5.
Changes in System or Subsystem
New or changed equipment may require training.
The line has shut down about once per day since the new
machinery was installed.
6.
Management Requests or Management Interrogation
One of the most common techniques of identification of
performance discrepancies.
Production manager indicates a drop in quality since the
layoffs.
7.
MBO or Work Planning and Review Systems
Provides actual baseline performance data on a continuous
basis. From these measures, the company is able to determine
improvement or deterioration of performance.
Source: References for all at these methods can be found in M.
Moore, P. Dutton (1978). Training Needs Analysis: Review
Critique. Academy of Management Review 3, pp. 532–545.
Organizational analysis looks at the internal environment of the
organization—influences that could affect employee
performance—to determine its fit with organizational goals and
objectives. It is this analysis that provides identification of the
OPG at the organizational level. Imagine that company ABC
decides one of its goals is to become team oriented in its
production operation. Examining the various policies of the
organization reveals an incentive system that pays up to 15
percent of base pay for individual productivity above quota.
This focus on individual productivity is not in line with the new
goals of a team approach and could cause team members to be
more concerned with their individual performance. It needs to
be removed or changed to align with the goals of a team-based
approach. The organizational analysis is also an examination of

how the internal environment affects job performance. In the
ABC example, if both Bill and Mary again do not come to the
team meeting, does it mean they are not interested? Perhaps, but
it is more likely that they are working on beating their quotas so
they will receive the bonus pay. Finally, the organizational
analysis identifies constraints on training. Consider the small-
business owner who employs unskilled assembly-line workers
who are unable to read well. He wishes to move to a more team-
oriented approach. The owner does not have the funds or time to
develop a remedial reading course. This presents an
organizational constraint and leads to the development of
training that does not require reading.
Operational analysis examines specific jobs to determine the
requirements (KSAs) necessary to get the job done (i.e.,
expected job performance). This process is generally called
a job analysis, or task analysis, and it requires an extensive
analysis of a job to determine all the tasks necessary to perform
the job at the expected level. After all tasks are identified, the
next step is to determine the KSAs necessary to perform each of
the tasks. Each task needs to be examined by asking the
question “What KSAs are necessary to be able to perform this
task at the expected level?” The KSAs obtained from the
analysis are the ones that an incumbent must have to perform at
the expected level. There are several ways to obtain this
information, such as interviewing incumbents and their
supervisors, observing the job, and so forth.
Finally, person analysis examines those who occupy the jobs to
see whether they possess the required KSAs necessary to do the
job. Here we measure the actual job performance of those on the
job to see whether they are performing at an acceptable level.
This might seem easy enough: Simply look at the supervisor’s
appraisal of the incumbents. As you will see later, however,
many problems can arise with performance appraisals completed
by supervisors, such as halo, leniency, and other effects. In
addition, an employee’s low performance doesn’t necessarily
mean he doesn’t have the KSAs. So, as a result, other methods

are also used to obtain this type of information. For example,
asking incumbents themselves and asking coworkers are two
other methods. Using job knowledge, behavioral and attitudinal
tests are also ways to determine the employee’s KSAs. All
methods have strengths and weaknesses that will be discussed
later.
These “inputs” (organizational, operational, and personal
analyses) are conceptually distinct, but in practice, much of the
information is gathered around the same time and is closely
interrelated. For example, information related to all three types
of analyses can be collected from the job incumbents. Questions
would include, “Do any particular organizational policies or
procedures that you must follow negatively affect your job
performance?” (organizational analysis); “Describe for me the
tasks you perform when you first arrive at work” (operational
analysis); and “Do you believe you are lacking any skills that, if
you had them, might enhance your ability to perform at a higher
level?” (person analysis). Additionally, the process moves back
and forth between the different types. For example, once you
find out that the incumbents believe there are organizational
impediments, you need to go back to examine if these are real
or simply perceptual distortions. Now that you have an
overview of these TNA input factors, let’s examine each in
more detail. Then we will look at some specific issues
surrounding the two types of TNA, proactive and reactive.4-1
Training in Action Incongruities in the Organizational
Environment
Often bank managers will send their tellers to training
workshops about the products and services the bank offers. The
idea is to give the tellers an understanding of the products and
services so they can provide that information to customers who
come into the bank. The belief is that this will increase the
number of products and services sold. There are numerous
accounts of banks providing this type of training, but not seeing
any increase in sales. Why is this? Is it just bad training?
Analysis shows that when tellers return from training, they also

return to the same performance system (appraisals, salary
increases and so on) that had been in place before the training.
If the performance system focuses mainly on the number of
customers the teller is able to process through the day, what do
you think the tellers will focus on? Why would a teller risk
receiving a low performance rating to spend time telling
customers about the products and services being offered by the
bank?Organizational Analysis
An organizational analysis focuses on the strategies of the
organization, the resources in the organization, the allocation of
these resources,6 and the total internal environment.7 The
internal environment includes an examination of structures,
policies and procedures, job design, workflow processes, and
other factors that facilitate or inhibit an employee’s ability to
meet job performance expectations.
An organizational analysis is necessary to help identify the
cause of OPGs and, specifically, to determine whether OPGs
are, in fact, correctable through training. According to Nancy
Gordon, a TNA analyst at Ameritech, about 85 percent of all
requests for training turned out to be related to issues that could
not be addressed by training. They were, instead, motivational
problems (situations where performance consequences were
incongruent with desired performance), which of course,
inhibited or prevented the appropriate work behaviors. Training
in Action 4-1provides an example of where this is the case. As
you can see in this example, the bank manager neglected to
consider the need to align the tellers’ performance appraisal
with the goals of the new training. So, even if the KSAs were
learned, there was no incentive to use them. In fact, tellers
would be penalized under the existing performance appraisal
system.
An organizational analysis, then, should be able to provide
information about the following:
· • The mission and strategies of an organization.
· • The resources and allocation of the resources, given the
objectives.

· • Any factors in the internal environment that might be
causing the problem.
· • The effect of any of the above on developing, providing, and
transferring the KSAs to the job if training is the chosen
solution to the OPG. These would be considered to be
organizational constraints. Should training become one of the
solutions for the OPG, you will need to revisit these to
determine how the training will be designed to deal with them.
We will discuss this in more depth in Chapter 5.MISSION AND
STRATEGIES
The organizational analysis helps the analyst align the training
with the organization’s mission and strategies. Consider the
Windsor Ford Engine Plant mission statement: “Our mission is
to continually improve our products and services to meet our
customers’ needs, allowing us to prosper as a business and
provide a reasonable return to our stockholders.” A strategy
arising from that mission statement was to focus on the team
approach for continuous improvement. Two types of training
traditionally used to support this strategy are training in
problem solving and negotiations. But what if the workers in the
plant are offered training in traditional negotiation skills? Is
this in line with the team approach? Perhaps not. Problem-
solving training requires openness and trust to be effective.
Traditional negotiations training often teaches that it is useful
not to reveal all your information but instead to hold back and
attempt to get the best deal that you can for yourself or your
department. To offer such training would, at best, not reinforce
an environment of openness and trust, and at worst, would
impede it.
A company’s mission and strategies also indicate priorities for
training. Training resources are always finite, so decisions must
be made as to where to spend the training budget. If, for
example, “Quality is job one” at Ford, the analyst knows that
development of KSAs relating to quality should receive priority.
Thinking back to the Westcan case, can you identify how that
company’s priorities would be related to the need for effective

meetings?Capital Resources
A company’s finances, equipment, and facilities are considered
to be capital resources. During strategic planning, decisions are
made as to where money should be spent. If a large expenditure
is made on new equipment for the machinists, or toward
becoming ISO 9000 certified, these strategic decisions will help
determine the priorities for the HRD department. In the case of
purchasing new equipment for machinists, HRD’s priority
would be the machinists’ positions. You would need to assess
the machinists’ level of KSAs to determine whether they need
training to operate the new machinery. This decision to focus on
the machinist is based on the financial decisions made at the
strategic level. Likewise, the strategic choice of becoming ISO
9000 certified should indicate to you that support in that area is
needed. After all, significant company resources will be
directed toward these strategic initiatives. If the employees
cannot operate the new equipment or engage in the tasks
required for ISO certification, the money put toward those
initiatives will be wasted.
Another concern for HRD is its own budget. Decisions about
how to provide the required training are a function of the money
that HRD has available for training. The decision whether to use
external consultants or internal staff depends on a number of
issues, not the least of which is cost. In the Westcan case, Chris
decided to develop the training herself. Hiring a consultant to
provide the training might get better results, but Chris would
have to weigh that decision against other training needs at
Westcan, given her limited budget.Human Resources
The other area of resources that needs to be addressed is human
resources. Examination of the KSAs in HR occurs at two levels.
It includes a general strategic needs assessment and a more
specific training needs assessment. First, at the strategic level,
HRD provides top management with an assessment of the
current employees’ ability and potential to support various
strategies. With this information, top management knows its
employees’ capabilities and can factor those capabilities into its

strategic decision making. Heinz Canada’s Leamington plant
decided several years ago that its strategic plan was to improve
efficiency in producing ketchup. Heinz wanted to purchase a
state-of-the-art automated ketchup maker. The HRD department
provided top management with information on the KSAs of the
current workforce. This information indicated that no one had
the skills necessary, and, in fact, many had reading difficulties
such that operating computer-controlled machinery might be a
concern. Because the strategic planning group knew this
information early in the strategic planning phase, they were able
to make an informed decision about how to proceed. They
considered the following choices:
· • Abandon the idea of purchasing such equipment, and
consider alternative strategic plans.
· • Hire employees who have the skills to operate such
machinery.
· • Train current employees to operate the machinery.
Heinz chose to move forward with the plan and train the current
employees. Since they addressed the issue early, Heinz had
plenty of time to do this.
HRD’s strategic needs assessment is more proactive and
provides a great deal of information about the capabilities of the
workforce to carry out various strategic alternatives. This
information helps decision makers decide which strategic
alternatives will be followed. Once managers approve a
strategic plan, HRD can focus on areas where priorities are
identified from the strategic plan.
At the second level, HRD focuses on those employees who are
identified to be working in areas contributing to OPGs. This is
really part of the person analysis, but an example will help
clarify the difference. In our earlier example, it would be the
machinist who had to learn to use the new computerized
machinery. What about in the Heinz example? Recall that none
of the Heinz employees has the required KSAs to operate the
new ketchup equipment. As a result, although they are effective
employees now, an OPG will develop when the new equipment

arrives. The HRD department’s priority is to provide the
employees with the requisite KSAs so that when the ketchup
machine arrives, they will be able to operate it
effectively.Organizational Environment
Another key objective of the organizational analysis is to
examine the organizational environment. The organizational
environment is made up of various structures (e.g., mechanistic
or organic) and designs (e.g., workflow, division of labor, pay
system, and reward policies). The environmental analysis tells
you whether these structures are aligned with the performance
objectives of the unit in which OPGs have been identified. A
misalignment of the structure or design of the unit will mean
that even if the employees have the KSAs to eliminate the
performance gap, they will not use them. Identifying this lack
of alignment early and aligning the environmental factors with
the objectives of training will help ensure that when training is
complete, the new skills will transfer to the job.
· Consider two organizations:
Organization A decides to adopt a more team-oriented approach.
The company’s mission and objectives reflect this recent change
in company policy. Present procedures include the use of a
suggestion box and provide rewards for individual suggestions
that improve the company’s performance.
In this scenario, do you believe that the individual incentive
system would reinforce or hinder the team approach? If, after
training and implementing the team approach, teams were not
producing innovative ideas, would that mean that the training
was not effective? You cannot really tell. The skills might be
learned but not transferred to the job. Consider the motivation
problems (see Figure 4-1) that occur when rewarding for
individual ideas (suggestion box) while expecting a team
approach (which means sharing ideas with the team). If you can
get a reward for your idea by putting it in the suggestion box,
why would you want to freely share it with the team?
Identifying this incongruence between rewards and desired
behavior and removing it before instituting the team approach

would facilitate transfer of the training. If you did this and also
implemented a team-incentive system, you would have aligned
the unit’s reward system with the team approach.
· Organization B’s mission and objectives can be summed up as
“quality is most important.” A misalignment occurs in this
organization because one of its policies is that performance
appraisals for first-line management provide a measure of how
well these managers meet productivity quotas, but measure
nothing related to quality of the product.
In this scenario, would you expect training these managers in
quality improvement to result in improved quality? It might be
possible that they already have the quality KSAs and simply
redesigning the appraisal system to emphasize quality will close
the performance gap. As in the first example, providing the
KSAs will not translate into changes in job behavior unless the
organizational systems are aligned to support that behavior.
These examples illustrate the value of conducting an
organizational analysis into the structures, systems and policies
as they relate to performance gaps. Obviously, the analysis at
the environmental level can’t be conducted until you have an
idea of what organizational units and jobs are targeted either for
their performance problems or because of future changes. This
targeting allows for a certain degree of focus when you are
conducting the analysis; you gather data that are relevant only
to those jobs. Otherwise, you end up gathering an enormous
amount of information on jobs that do not have any current or
future problems. This is not only a waste of your time, but also
the company’s valuable resources.
To summarize, before looking at the individuals whose work is
causing performance gaps, you need to examine the
organization. Data gathered from the organizational analysis
must be examined to determine if organizational systems,
structures, and policies are aligned with the behavior that is
desired. In almost all cases where training is needed, there are
some environmental factors that need to be realigned to support
the new behavior that training will be focused on. If they are

not, transfer of the training to the job is highly
unlikely.8WHERE TO COLLECT DATA
Table 4-2 identifies potential individuals to be interviewed and
points to raise with them. Once a gap in performance is
identified in a specific department or location, the cause of the
gap needs to be determined. You should not assume that
training is required to alleviate the gap. Do not forget Nancy
Gordon’s words: “About 85 percent of training requests turn out
to be solvable without training.”Operational AnalysisTABLE 4-
2 What Do You Ask and of Whom?
What to Ask About
Who to Ask
Mission Goals and Objectives
What are the goals and objectives of the organization?
Top management
How much money has been allocated to new initiatives?
Relevant department managers, supervisors, and incumbents
Is there general understanding of these objectives?
Social Influences
What is the general feeling in the organization regarding
meeting goals and objectives?
Top management
What is the social pressure in the department regarding these
goals and objectives, and regarding productivity?
Reward Systems
What are the rewards, and how are they distributed?
Top management
Are there incentives tied to the goals and objectives?
What specifically do high performers get as rewards?

Job Design
How are the jobs organized?
Relevant supervisors and incumbents, and perhaps relevant
department managers
Where does their work/material/information come from and
where do they send it when done?
Does the design of the job in any way inhibit incumbents from
being high performers?
Job Performance
How do employees know what level of performance is
acceptable?
Relevant supervisors and incumbents
How do they find out if their level of performance is
acceptable?
Is there a formal feedback process (performance appraisal for
example)?
Are there opportunities for help if required?
Methods and Practices
What are the policies/procedures/rules in the organization? Do
any inhibit performance?
When an OPG is identified, an operational analysis is conducted
in conjunction with the organizational analysis to fully
understand the nature of the OPG. The operational analysis
determines exactly what is required of employees for them to be
effective. The typical technique for obtaining the task and KSA
data that are required to meet expected job performance
standards is the job analysis. Table 4-3shows sources for

operational analysis data. The most frequently used process
includes questioning employees doing the job and their
supervisors. Let’s now examine this process of analyzing a job
and the issues to consider.TABLE 4-3 Recommended Data
Sources for Operational Analysis
Sources for Obtaining Job Data
Training Need Implications
Practical Concerns
· 1. Job Descriptions
This source outlines the job’s typical duties and responsibilities
but is not meant to be all inclusive.
Need to determine how developed. Often written up quickly by
supervisor or incumbent with little understanding of what is
required
· 2. Job Specifications
These are specified tasks required for each job. More specific
than job descriptions and may include judgments of required
KSAs.
May be product of the job description and suffer from the same
problems
· 3. Performance Standards
This source provides objectives related to the tasks required and
their standards in terms of performance.
Very useful if available, and accurate, but often organizations
do not have formal performance standards
· 4. Ask Questions About the Job
· a. Of the job holders
· b. Of the supervisor
Asking both job holder and relevant supervisors provides
accurate data.
Must be done correctly to be of valueANALYZING THE JOB
HR employees need to know how to conduct an effective job
analysis. The following steps are useful in doing this.What Is
the Job?
The first step is to determine exactly what job is going to be

analyzed. In today’s environment, a common job title can mask
real differences in the tasks that are carried out. An extreme
example is at Honda Canada Manufacturing, where everyone
from line workers to top management has the job title of
“Associate.” Other organizations use the same job title for
employees who do different tasks because they work in different
departments and geographical locations.Where to Collect Data?
As Table 4-3 indicates, data can be gathered from a number of
sources. Job descriptions and specifications are one source of
data for understanding the job and its basic requirements. If this
information was gathered through a job analysis, you can be
confident of its value. Even if it was not, it provides a basic
understanding of the job and is useful to have before starting to
ask questions of these employees.Who to Ask?
When analyzing a job, the incumbent needs to provide relevant
information about the job; after all, she is the expert regarding
how the job is done. Data should also be gathered from the
incumbent’s supervisor because of the following reasons:
· • This information provides a different perspective and helps
yield a well-rounded concept of exactly what is required.
· • When discrepancies are noted between what the supervisor
and the incumbents say, an investigation into the reason for the
discrepancy can provide useful information.
We have suggested that trainers need organizational
development (OD) skills. In this instance, those skills provide
an effective way of resolving differences between incumbents
and supervisors regarding how the job should be performed. A
more proactive approach is to avoid conflicting beliefs between
subordinates and supervisors in the first place by
implementing the job expectation technique.9 This technique
includes facilitating a meeting between subordinates and
supervisors to discuss the job responsibilities of the
subordinates. The goal here is to clarify job expectations. This
process may sound simplistic, but it requires trust and respect
between supervisors and their subordinates. In reality, many job
incumbents learn about their job through working with other

incumbents and through trial and error.Who Should Select
Incumbents?
The selection process should be carried out by the job analyst,
not the supervisor or manager. If you let supervisors make the
decision, they might choose on the basis of who is available at
the time or to whom they prefer to give the opportunity, or any
other reasons that quite likely would result in a biased sample.
Perhaps more important, however, is that the incumbents might
question the real purpose of the assessment and provide
inaccurate data.How Many to Ask?
Different jobs in any organization are filled with different
numbers of incumbents. Exactly how many to ask is determined
by your method of data gathering and the amount of time
available. Let’s say that a job has five classification levels with
20 incumbents in each level, for a total of 100 incumbents. You
have chosen to interview in small groups. You might have four
interview sessions, each with five incumbents—one from each
level. If time and resources allowed, you might want to double
the sessions to eight for increased participation and a more
representative sample.How to Select?
The best way to select the participants is through representative
sampling of all those incumbents who are performing
“adequately or better” on the job. The incumbents need to be
placed into subgroups on the basis of relevant characteristics,
such as their level in the job (e.g., mechanic 1, mechanic 2).
Once the categories are developed within the job, the job
analyst should choose within these categories on the basis of
other factors, such as years in the category, performance level,
gender, and so on, to ensure that different views of the job are
obtained. Note that we do not advocate random sampling.
Random sampling is effective only when you have large
numbers of incumbents who are similar, which is seldom the
case in a particular job. One other issue needs to be considered.
What if the number of incumbents is large and they are
scattered across the country? Table 4-4 provides the process
used to identify the tasks and KSAs for salespeople at a large

computer firm in the United States with offices across the
country. Because of the breadth of the job—many different
types of equipment (hardware) were sold—and the many
different locations, the needs analysis was a major undertaking.
The effort was worthwhile, however, because important
information was obtained. For example, it was determined that
irrespective of the type of hardware sold (cash register or
computer), similar tasks and identical KSAs were required. It
was also determined that the job was the same in Los Angeles as
it was in Detroit. Finally, from the importance scale, it was
determined that a number of tasks and KSAs, although
performed, were not critical to effective job performance. For
example, knowledge of computer operations, and program
language, as well as the ability to write simple computer
programs were beneficial but not necessary because it was
possible to obtain such support in the field.
From these data, the company was able to refocus its selection
procedures to include the KSAs necessary at the time of hire
and to provide its training department with a clear picture of the
training necessary after the salespeople were hired.What to Ask
About?
Several job analysis techniques are available for gathering
information about a job. The two main categories are worker-
oriented and task-oriented approaches. A worker-oriented job
analysis focuses on the KSAs that are required on the job rather
than on the tasks or behaviors. Incumbents are asked to rate
how important a list of KSAs (e.g., far visual differentiation—
the ability to differentiate details at distances beyond arm’s
length—use of precision tools, use of measuring devices) is to
the job (see Figure 4-2). A drawback of this approach is that
task statements are not available to show how the KSAs are
linked to the tasks. Such a link not only provides justification
for the KSA requirements but also can be used to develop
scenarios for use in the actual training.TABLE 4-4 Assessment
Procedure Followed by a Large U.S. Computer Firm
· 1. Define the job in question. The analyst met with

management to discuss the scope of the assessment. It was
determined that the assessment would include all salespeople in
the company.
· 2. Who to ask. Because of possible differences between what
was being done in offices in different states, incumbents who
work in each state would need to provide input. Furthermore,
because of the different types of equipment being sold by
different salespeople, it would be necessary to have a
representative number of incumbents from these subgroups.
· 3. What method to use. Because of the need to include a large
number of incumbents who were located in different
geographical regions and sold different equipment, the
questionnaire method was chosen. This allowed a large number
of incumbents to provide input that could be easily analyzed.
· 4. Develop a questionnaire. To develop a questionnaire
relevant to the job, the analyst obtained job descriptions from
the various locations and for the different types of hardware
being sold. He then met with incumbents (in small groups) and
with supervisors (in separate small groups) to obtain input on
what tasks were done. After the tasks were identified, he asked
them to indicate the KSAs that they believed were necessary to
do the tasks. The small-group interviews were scheduled so that
out-of-state incumbents who were to be at the head office for
other reasons could attend, thus providing input from the
various states.
· 5. Rate importance of tasks and KSAs. The questionnaire
included all the tasks and KSAs that had been identified. Two
ratings were requested for each task and KSA. The first related
to how important the task (KSA) was to successful job
performance (see “How Important Is the Task?”).
How Important Is the Task?
· 1Not Very Important Poor performance on this task will not
affect the overall performance of the job.
· 2Somewhat Important Poor performance on this task will have
a moderate effect on the overall performance of the job.
· 3Important Poor performance on this task will have an effect

on the overall performance of the job.
· 4Very Important Poor performance on this task will have a
serious effect on the overall performance of the job.
· 6. Rate task importance for new hires. The other rating was
related to how important it was to be able to do the task
successfully at the time of hire. The following scale is used for
that rating.
Importance at the Time of Hire
· 1Not Important A person requires no specific capability in this
area when hired. Training will be provided for an individual to
become proficient in this area.
· 2Somewhat Important A person must have only a basic
capability in this area when hired. Experience on the job or
training is the primary method for becoming proficient in this
area.
· 3Important A person must show considerable proficiency in
this area when hired. There is time or training available only to
provide “fine tuning” once the person is on the job.
· 4Very Important A person must be completely proficient in
this area when hired. There is no time or training procedure
available to help an individual become proficient in this area
after being placed on the job.
· 7. Send out questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to all
incumbents and their immediate supervisors.
· 8. Analyze data. Returned data were analyzed to determine if
there were any differences between states and between
salespeople who sold different hardware.
· 9. Display analysis data. Those tasks that came up with a mean
rating of 2.5 and above were placed in the relevant quadrants
(see the following chart).
FIGURE 4-2 Worker Oriented Approach
The task-oriented job analysis, as the name implies, identifies
the various work activities (tasks) required to perform the job.
After the tasks are identified, systematically examine these
tasks to determine the KSAs necessary to perform them. Now

you have justification for the KSAs and potential ideas for
developing training. That is why this approach is preferred for a
TNA.
One example of the task-oriented approach is the job–duty–task
method, depicted in Figure 4-3. Note that the job is identified
first, and then each of the duties is written out. The writing out
of the duties provides a stimulus to generate tasks and subtasks
for each of these duties. From the duties, identify the relevant
tasks and any subtasks each of these tasks might have. Once all
the tasks are identified, identify the relevant KSAs required to
perform each of these tasks. This provides the justification for
requiring these KSAs. It is possible to list all duties first,
followed by tasks and subtasks for each duty, and then go back
and identify the KSAs for each of the tasks and subtasks. It is
equally appropriate to go through each duty, determine the
subtasks, and then identify the required KSAs before moving to
the next duty.
Determining what the incumbents do in the job identifies the
duties, tasks, and subtasks. This information is generally
obtained by interviewing several incumbents and their
supervisors. The list of tasks necessary to do the job is
developed by systematically examining each duty and inquiring
about the tasks. Identifying the required KSAs is carried out
through the examination of each task and asking the question,
“What KSAs are necessary to perform a particular task?”
Figure 4-4 depicts an example of a completed job–duty–task
method for the job of a HR professional.
Another step in the process is to determine how critical each of
the tasks is and how important it is to be able to perform the
task at the time of hire. By determining this aspect, you can
identify those tasks that new employees will be expected to be
able to perform at the time of hire and those that new employees
will not need at the time of hire (those that will require
training). To obtain this information, ask those providing
information to rate each of the tasks on a scale such as the one
depicted in Table 4-4. This step not only documents the

importance of the tasks but also provides valuable evidence for
which KSAs will be used in selecting employees and which will
not (and therefore require training). Finally, the KSAs
necessary to perform each of the important tasks and subtasks
are identified. These aspects should also be rated for importance
to the job and importance at the time of hire.
FIGURE 4-3 Example of Form for Recording Job-Duty-Task
Data
FIGURE 4-4 Example of Applying the Job-Duty-Task Analysis
to an HRD JobAnother step in the process is to determine how
critical each of the tasks is and how important it is to be able to
perform the task at the time of hire. By determining this aspect,
you can identify those tasks that new employees will be
expected to be able to perform at the time of hire and those that
new employees will not need at the time of hire (those that will
require training). To obtain this information, ask those
providing information to rate each of the tasks on a scale such
as the one depicted in Table 4-4. This step not only documents
the importance of the tasks but also provides valuable evidence
for which KSAs will be used in selecting employees and which
will not (and therefore require training). Finally, the KSAs
necessary to perform each of the important tasks and subtasks
are identified. These aspects should also be rated for importance
to the job and importance at the time of hire.FIGURE 4-
3 Example of Form for Recording Job-Duty-Task DataTABLE
4-5 A Comparison of the Outcomes for Worker- and Task-
Oriented Approaches to Job Analysis
Job
Task-Oriented Approach
Worker-Oriented Approach
Garage Attendant
Checks tire pressure
Obtains information from visual displays
Machinist
Checks thickness of crankshaft
Use of a measuring device

Dentist
Drills out decay from teeth
Use of precision instruments
Forklift Driver
Loads pallets of washers onto trucks
High level of eye-hand coordination
To understand the difference between the worker-oriented and
task-oriented approaches, note the different results obtained
using each of these methods, as depicted in Table 4-5.If There
Are No Incumbents Available
Incumbents are a critical group for obtaining information about
the job in a job analysis. But what if no incumbents are
available? In today’s environment of fast-changing technology,
jobs are constantly changing. In some cases, new technology
creates a job that requires skills distinctly different from the job
it is replacing. In the example cited earlier in this chapter,
management at the Heinz plant in Leamington ordered a state-
of-the-art ketchup machine. Previously, ketchup was made with
low-technology equipment. This new machine required new
skills, so the issue was to figure out how to perform a job
analysis for a job that did not exist. Dr. Mitchell Fields was
approached by Heinz Canada to assist in determining the
selection and training requirements for the new job. Table 4-
6 describes how Dr. Fields did this.WHAT YOU SHOULD GET
FROM THE JOB ANALYSIS (EP)
Using the task-oriented approach yields both the tasks and
KSAs required to perform the job. KSAs are important, as it is
the KSAs that need to be trained. But the tasks are also
important for the following reasons:
· • Identifying the expected behavior that needs to be performed
on the job and performance gaps
· • Developing actual training programs
· • Making subsequent evaluations of the training.10
Knowing all the tasks that are necessary to be effective in a
particular job provides justification for the KSAs that
employees are expected to have. In the ketchup machine

example, the machine operator was required to watch a video
display (which is two-dimensional) and make decisions about
the assembly line (which is three-dimensional). This justifies
the need for spatial relations skills as a job requirement.
A list of job-related tasks would also help develop training.
Once the tasks to be performed are known, training that closely
resembles the real job can be developed. Consider the job of a
customer service representative. We determined that one of the
important tasks is to “deal with irate customers.” We used this
task to help develop role-plays that closely emulate the real job.
The use of real-task behaviors in training makes the training
more relevant and interesting to trainees and assists in the
transfer of training.
Finally, we can use task information to develop tests that are
reflective not only of the training but also of the job. These
tests can be used in the person analysis phase to identify those
with training needs and can also serve to evaluate the
effectiveness of training.* Task identification leads to
identification of the KSAs necessary to do the job.Knowledge
All jobs require some type of knowledge. The job analysis
should provide a list of tasks that, when examined, will point to
the knowledge requirements necessary to be successful. For
example, if one of the tasks identified is to edit manuscripts
using Microsoft Word, then an inferred declarative knowledge
requirement would be knowledge of Microsoft Word edit
functions. Going back to our customer service job, we find that
knowledge of “steps in a conflict resolution model” would be
important.
*More will be said about how to develop tests in the person
analysis section later.TABLE 4-6 Job Analysis When There Are
No Incumbents
The H. J. Heinz Company in Leamington, Ontario, Canada, is
unionized. The union contract stipulates that new jobs go to
existing employees. The company was purchasing a new
machine for making ketchup and wanted to be sure that those
selected for this new job would have the KSAs to do the job. A

person analysis indicated that most employees did not have
much formal education and had very low reading levels. An
operational analysis (job analysis) is necessary to determine
future KSAs needed. But how do you do a job analysis when
there are no incumbents, as the job does not exist? Dr. Fields
outlines how he did the job analysis.
· 1. I contacted the manufacturer of the new equipment and
asked if that or similar equipment was being used elsewhere, so
that job analysis data could be obtained from another company.
In this case, no other application existed.
· 2. I obtained specifications and operating manuals for the new
machinery. The manuals were incomplete and difficult to
understand. In fact, they were more complex than they needed
to be. As a result, initially I thought that a high level of reading
comprehension would be necessary.
· 3. I interviewed engineers who were responsible for designing
the new machinery. This is where I received important
information as to its operation. However, the engineers tended
to overestimate the level of aptitude required. They believed
that operators would be making modifications to the
programming software. Further discussions revealed that for the
operator’s job, reading requirements were minimal. Operating
manuals were needed only for maintenance and repair.
· 4. I obtained blueprints and layouts of the physical equipment
and flowcharts of the operating software. This material
indicated that the operators would be required to interface with
a user-friendly, icon-driven software package (far less than the
complex programming tasks envisioned by the engineers).
· 5. I identified two main tasks. First, the operators would be
required to keep track of the mechanical operations of a number
of different (but integrated) assembly operations. I determined,
therefore, that mechanical aptitude was necessary. Second, the
operators had to look at a two-dimensional video display
terminal (VDT) and make decisions about the three-dimensional
assembly-line operation. Having skill in spatial relations,
therefore, would also be important.

· 6. On the basis of the skills identified, I suggested two
subtests of the Differential Aptitude Test for use in selection of
employees: mechanical comprehension and spatial relations
tests. All operators were selected from current employees. The
major advantage to these two tests is that reading level (which
was determined not to be important) is not a factor.
Assessing the need for declarative knowledge is possible using
traditional methods of job analysis, as just discussed. However,
some jobs will have knowledge requirements at the procedural
or strategic levels.11 The concern is that if the job is reduced to
individual tasks, the interrelatedness and complexity of the job
is lost.
The operational analysis for higher levels of knowledge would
be accomplished by examining the mental models of experts.
Here an “expert” could be a high-performing incumbent or
someone who performs the same job in another context (e.g.,
computer programmer). These types of analysis would be useful
when more advanced training is required. Techniques such as
multidimensional scaling and link-weighted methods can be
used to identify such structures.12 Space does not permit us to
explore this area in detail, but those interested in this approach
should consult more advanced texts and research papers.13Skill
The job analysis should also provide a list of all skills required
to successfully perform the job. Consider again our customer
service representative’s task of “dealing with an irate
customer.” This task requires conflict resolution skills. The
skills should be identified as to the level of mastery required
(e.g., compilation vs. automaticity). A completed job analysis
will identify a complete list of required KSAs for the
job.Attitude
What are the attitudinal outcomes from the job analysis? Many
job analysts do not incorporate attitudes into their model of job
analysis.14 The job analysis gives an understanding of the tasks
that must be carried out. For each task required, knowledge and
skills are inferred. However, many analysts stop here, and that
is not a good idea. We believe that attitudes are important. They

surface in our behavior, so an employee with a poor attitude
toward customers is inattentive to customer needs.15 To
determine attitudes of importance to the job, simply ask the
question, “Can you think of any attitudes or feelings a person
could have that might facilitate or inhibit an employee from
doing any part of this job well?”
What attitudes should a customer service representative have to
be successful? Would a positive attitude toward helping people
be useful? What about a job that requires working in teams?
Here, a person should have a positive attitude toward the team
approach or perhaps have a positive attitude toward working
with others. Such data provide the analyst with information on
what should be addressed in training. Just such an issue was of
concern in the new Ford assembly plant (see Training in Action
4-2). In this instance, the incumbents were unavailable because
the plant was not yet open. So the needs analysis was conducted
using their supervisors, who were brought on board early to
prepare the plant for opening.COMPETENCY MODELING
Another approach to conducting an operational analysis is to
identify key competencies of the job. Businesses are
increasingly adopting competency models, as they have proven
their value as an HR management tool.16
A competency is a cluster of related KSAs that differentiates
high performers from average performers.17 This definition is
specific to North America. Other countries, such as the United
Kingdom and Australia, define competencies as simply “what
someone needs to be doing to be competent at their job.”184-2
Training in Action Changing Attitudes Toward the Team
Approach
The Ford production plants have moved toward a team
approach. The team approach is part of the “Ford Production
System.” The Windsor Engine Plant was new, and there was an
agreement with the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) stipulating
that employees from other plants had first choice of the new
jobs.
Employees transferred from other plants for many reasons:

cleaner plant, closer to home, old job being phased out, and so
forth. Few transferred to work in a team environment. In fact, it
is well known that the CAW traditionally opposes such efforts.
They made an exception in the case of the Windsor Engine
Plant.
In the determination of the skills needed, it became evident that
many of the employees would be older, and the concern was that
they would be set in their ways and generally against the team
approach. The training consisted of team skills such as
communication, effective meeting, and problem-solving skills.
Also, a component was added to influence attitudes toward the
team approach.
This “component” consisted of an orientation to the team
process. Modules were designed to show the advantages of
teams for the company and workers. An exercise called “Best
Job/Worst Job” allowed trainees to describe what they
considered to be a “best job.” Then trainees were asked to
consider what teamwork provided in terms of what they would
do. Trainees discovered that their own description of a “best
job” looked quite similar to what their job would look like in a
team environment. The training also provided a six-hour session
on individual growth and self-fulfillment. It was assumed that
helping employees to focus on these issues would improve their
attitudes toward the team approach.
Did the training have a significant impact on attitudes? No one
knows for sure. After all the time and money spent on the
training, there was no formal evaluation of the process. This
omission should not be a surprise, as you will see in Chapter
9 on evaluation.
Some disagreement arises as to whether deriving competencies
is a process different from job analysis. Some experts in the HR
field indicate that the process is the same, but the many have
suggested that it is different.19 The major difference is that
traditional job analysis identifies the “tasks” (or the “what”)
that are done on the job, leading to the determination of
knowledge and skills but not attitudes. A competency-based

approach focuses on all the characteristics that underlie
successful performance,20 not just on the knowledge and skills
required for the tasks. Competencies place equal weight on
attitudes, and motivation, in addition to knowledge and skills.
Because we incorporate attitudes into our job analysis model,
we are more in line with this approach. The process for
determining competencies is similar to the typical job analysis.
Before discussing the “how-to” regarding competencies, let’s
look at the makeup of one.
Consider the competency “time management” for a manager.
Skills for this competency include delegating work, prioritizing
assignments, and making to-do lists. The knowledge required is
“knowledge of the value of a manager’s time.” For example, if
the manager knew that she was valued at $120 per hour, it
would help her see the value of determining what she does and
what she should delegate. Attitudes reflecting “I have no one I
can trust to do this,” “I cannot say no,” or “It is quicker if I do
it myself” all get in the way of effective delegation, which in
turn affects time management. So, in order for a manager to be
effective in this competency (time management) she will need
to develop new attitudes, such as “It may take more time now
delegate this task and show the person what needs to be done,
but in the long run it will save me time,” and “I know my boss
will be disappointed if I say no to this request, but she will be
more disappointed if I say yes and don’t get higher priority
work completed.” These attitudes will support the manager’s
motivation to delegate tasks which will lead to more effective
time management.Why Competencies?
When compared with KSAs, competencies
· • are more general in nature.
· • create a common vocabulary to discuss successful
performance.
· • help employees better understand how to target their efforts.
· • promote dialogue between managers and employees that
focuses on performance.
· • have a longer-term fit.

· • include knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motivation.
· • tie into corporate goals.21
Development of competency models helps companies
understand the key factors required for high performance.
Competencies identify capabilities and, therefore, are applicable
to more than one job. In some cases, competencies are
applicable to everyone at a particular level no matter what
department, such as all first-line supervisors, or even multiple
levels of a job, such as all managers. Table 4-7 provides an
example of a competency that is used for all levels of
management. Note that while the competency remains the same
for different levels of management, the behaviors expected are
different. In this way, the focus is always on the same set of key
competencies but with different behaviors required, depending
on the management level.
In today’s environment, jobs are always changing. Even shop-
floor jobs are under constant change, in many cases requiring
more decision-making and other new responsibilities. This
constant evolving means that the specifics obtained in job
analysis can become dated. A more general focus of
competencies is advantageous to such ever-changing jobs.22
Using competencies makes it easier to identify the emotional
aspects of work performance. For example, organizations
increasingly focus on issues such as “meeting customer
expectations.” This area of the job, which requires dealing with
people rather than producing goods, requires a broad view of
good performance. Many argue that this broad view is easier to
obtain using competency models.
Finally, in the process of developing the job competencies, a
great deal of effort is made to understand the business context
and competitive strategy. Competencies are then developed with
a focus on these broader goals of the organization in
conjunction with the specific job in question.23TABLE 4-7
Demonstration of the Competency
Competency

First Level
Mid Level
Senior Level
Customer Orientation
Develops customer consciousness in others
Communicates and resolves conflict
Ensures work (own and team) exceeds customer expectations
Understands customer needs and translates to the goals of the
organization
Fosters process improvement and change with linkages to
customer groups
Instills and maintains customer focus of work unit
Establishes a relationship at the strategic level
Gains trust of customers
Formulates strategies to meet identified and anticipated
requirements
Is considered by customers to be an extension of the
organizationHow You Develop Competencies
Several methods have been used to develop competency
models.24 According to Maxine Dalton of the Center for
Creative Leadership, some are not very effective. She indicated
that about 70 percent of competency models are just a list of
positive attributes obtained in a half-day meeting with senior
management.25
Generally, more methodologically sound procedures entail the
following process:
· • Meet with upper management to
· • determine strategies, goals, specific challenges, or specific
focus, and
· • generate some tentative competencies.
· • Identify specific jobs.
· • Meet with high performers of those jobs and their
supervisors to
· • determine critical incidents that make “high performers”
different from average performers,
· • focus on the aspects that tie into the strategic direction of the

company, and
· • formulate some tentative competencies.
· • Determine the competencies that overlap with upper-
management competencies.
· • Verify the preceding information with another group of high
performers and their supervisors.
· • Link this information to job analysis information obtained
from the job to articulate specific KSAs that make up the
competency.
Regarding the last point, competency models are more general
and fit several jobs. Linking these competencies to the KSAs of
the job will ensure that the competencies are not only valid but
also able to stand up in court. This linkage also provides the
information needed to develop training. Having the KSAs that
make up the competency helps determine what the training
should look like.Issues Related to Competencies
When carried out correctly, a job analysis is scientific and
defendable in court. It reflects what is required to do the job,
thus making selection, training, and performance appraisal
relevant and valid. However, sometimes organizations develop
competency models with little understanding of the process
outlined above (see Training in Action 4-3). This can lead to the
identification of inappropriate competencies and possible
problems should they be challenged in legal proceedings.
Competency models continue to be developed, particularly for
training and development, for the following reasons:
· • Training based only on task analysis can become dated
quickly as the nature of work undergoes constant dynamic
change.
· • Hourly paid employees are expected to participate much
more in decision making and ensure customer satisfaction,
rather than simply produce a product.4-3 Training in
Action Development of Competencies
The consultant was discussing a training need with a client. As
they finished, the client said “I’d like to ask you a question
about competencies? The consultant said OK and the client

indicated that she had just completed a survey of her company’s
managers, asking them to identify the competencies that would
be required for the various manager positions. She indicated
that so far she had gathered over 50 and wondered if the
consultant would mind looking at them. “Perhaps,” she said,
“you might be able to think of some important ones that they
had not thought of.” The consultant, whose training firm deals
with these issues all the time, thought it might be useful to
provide her with a mini lecture on what competencies are and
are not. He suggested that rather than go through the list they
go for coffee and discuss it. Once they sat down with their
coffee, the consultant began, “The problem is that most
managers and many trainers do not understand what a
competency is.” When managers are asked to think of all the
competencies necessary to be effective in their job, often what
is obtained is a list of what managers believe is important to
effective performance. The managers usually identify things
like initiative, decisiveness, leadership, analytical ability and so
forth. In fact, the list really ends up being what you would like
a person to be like and not what is required to be effective on
the job, which of course is the problem. Too often determining
competencies is not done in a methodologically sound way to
obtain the information you really want; and so you get wish lists
of traits, characteristics, skills, and attitudes with little
organization to them. “Well,” said the client, “I guess we better
talk a bit more about this.”
· • Corporate downsizing forces a move away from tight job
design to more flexible job design.
· • Competencies help the HRD department focus its training.
This latter point is particularly important. Competencies not
only are related to each managerial level in the organization but
also are tied to the strategic direction of the organization.
Furthermore, by definition, competencies are what separate high
performers from others. With limited resources, decisions
related to what needs to be provided in the way of management
training are clear.

In very well run organizations, the HR department has a human
resource information system (HRIS). This system provides
information on individual managers in terms of what positions
they have held, what training they have received, their
performance levels related to the competencies, and, of specific
interest to the HRD department, required competency training
for managers. This system makes the task of identifying what
training needs to be offered much easier. Examination of the
HRIS tells the HRD manager how many need training in each of
the competencies. Use of competencies also makes it easier for
managers to identify employee strengths and weaknesses,
thereby facilitating employees’ developmental goals. The easier
and clearer the process is, the more likely managers will take
the time to do it.26
Some concern might be raised that competencies are not
developed with the rigor of job analysis, and the lack of
specificity might not be able to withstand possible court
challenges. We argue that as with any tool, proper methodology
will result in relevant and definable competencies.
Organizations that decide to use competencies should not
abandon job analysis, but use its methodology to demonstrate
the link between the relevant KSAs and key competencies of the
job.
Now let’s go back and consider the total operational analysis
process, whether KSAs or competencies are used. Data related
to the job are gathered to determine standards for acceptable
performance. From these standards, criteria are developed.
Developing criteria is an important but complex process, so an
examination of the issues involved in criterion development is
presented in Appendix 4.1. Understanding this information will
also help you understand the criterion issues related to
evaluation presented in Chapter 9.Person Analysis
There is a long-standing rule in carpentry that says “measure
twice, cut once.” The point of this is that if you don’t have your
measurements right, then you just waste your time and
material.

The same applies to the person analysis. If you don’t measure
your KSAs well, you will waste time and resources. The
operational analysis determines the tasks (or competencies) and
KSAs necessary to reach or exceed EP. It is also where the
measures for these things are created. A person analysis will
identify those incumbents who are not meeting the performance
requirements and will determine why. Those not meeting
performance requirements are relatively easy to identify. What
is more difficult is determining whether they have KSAs needed
to meet EP. Here, each employee is examined to determine if
they have the necessary KSAs to meet performance
expectations. Imagine that the EOP for a department that
assembles widgets is five rejects per month. This department’s
AOP is 20 rejects per month. This triggers a TNA. The
operational analysis identifies the KSAs necessary to build the
widgets properly. A person analysis is conducted to identify
those not meeting the EP and to determine which, if any, of the
employees do not have the required KSAs. Those employees
will be sent to training. Recall from the needs analysis model at
the beginning of the chapter that the formula for a PG is:
Expected performance − Actual performance = Performance
gap*
A PG is most often thought of in the reactive sense, as the
difference between EP and AP. For example, assume that the
standard number of snowmobile trailers that a “Builder Class 2”
is expected to produce is 1.5 per day. For the last three weeks,
three employees in this class are averaging 0.6 trailers per day.
The PG is 0.9 trailers per day (1.5 − .6 = .9).
In the proactive analysis, the EOP is what is needed in the
future and AOP is the likely performance level with current
KSAs. Suppose that the trailer manufacturer in the preceding
example decides to purchase equipment that will bend the trailer
frame to the correct shape, eliminating several welds. The
engineering studies indicate that this change in production
process will increase the “Builder Class 2” output to three

trailers per day. At the present KSA level, “Builder Class 2”
employees are expected to produce 1.5 trailers per day. Here,
the PG is the “future” required performance level (three trailers
per day) minus their predicted performance level in the future,
given their current level of KSAs. This PG will be 1.5 trailers
per day. In addition to collecting information regarding the PG,
you should also examine individual differences that might be
present in the trainee population, which might affect the type of
training you offer. Self-efficacy of trainees, for example, has
been shown to be an important variable related to successful
completion of training. Refer back to Figure 3-6 (page 77) for a
number of areas to consider related to individual
differences.WHERE TO COLLECT DATA (AP)
Table 4-8 shows sources for person analysis information. The
decision of what to measure and how to measure it is made in
the Operational Analysis. Once these decisions are made the
measures themselves need to be developed. The development of
the measures also occurs in the Operational Analysis. We
discuss them here in the Person Analysis because of the close
connection between what evaluative measures are used and what
is learned about the people who are evaluated.
We will discuss two of the more commonly used sources,
performance appraisal and proficiency tests, in some detail. We
will also address the less commonly used attitude
survey.Performance Appraisal
Supervisors are the ones who most often complete performance
appraisals.27 If supervisory ratings actually provided an
accurate assessment of an employee’s performance gaps, other
assessment tools would hardly be necessary. But these ratings
often suffer from a lack of reliability and validity for a number
of reasons:
· • Lack of supervisor training on how to use appraisals
· • Lack of opportunity for the supervisor to see substantial
amounts of a subordinate’s performance
*Recall that this “performance gap” is different from the
“organizational performance gap” in that it is obtained through

comparing the operational analysis (what is required) with the
person analysis (how the person actually performs). It is the
combination of PGs that create the OPG.TABLE 4-8 Data
Sources for Person Analysis
Sources for Obtaining Data
Training Need Implications
Remarks
· 1.Supervisor Performance Appraisals
Useful if done specifically for TNA.
Supervisor ratings often not just for TNA, and often not done
well.
· 2.Performance Data
· a. Productivity
· b. Absenteeism and tardiness
· c. Accidents
· d. Grievances
· e. Waste
· f. Product quality
· g. Downtime
· h. Customer complaints
Shows who is not meeting performance standards, but not why.
Useful, easy to analyze and quantify for the purposes of
determining actual performance.
· 3.Observation—Work Sampling
More subjective technique but provides both employee behavior
and results of the behavior.
This is done effectively in some situations such as customer
service where employees know that the telephone calls
employees answer from customers can be monitored.
· 4.Interviews/Questionnaires
Used here to focus on employee’s perception of her training
needs and attitudes. Also involvement in TNA motivates
employees to learn.
Need to be sure employee believes it is in her best interest to be
honest; otherwise, she may not be forthcoming as you would
like. Also she may not know what her needs are.

· 5.Job Knowledge Tests
Shows specific KSA levels.
Care in the development of tests and scoring keys is important
and difficult to do if not trained in the process. Can be tailor-
made or standardized.
· 6.Skills Tests
Simulations
· • Role-play
· • Case study
· • Business games
· • In basket
Certain knowledge, skills, and or attitudes are demonstrated in
these techniques.
Care must be taken so that they measure job-related qualities.
Useful, but again, care in development of scoring criteria is
important.
· 7.Assessment Centers
Combination of several of the above techniques into an
intensive assessment program.
Although expensive, these are very good as they use multiple
raters and exercises to assess employees. Also, criteria for
performance are well developed.
· 8.Coaches
Have extensive interactions with trainee and can get a good feel
for gaps in competencies.
Coaches must be competent to assess training needs.
· 9.Individual’s objectives
Shows the relationship between performance data and the
individuals’ goals.
Good process when implemented properly.
· • Rater errors such as bias and halo and leniency effects,
among others
· • Poorly developed appraisals and appraisal processes
If appraisal instruments are developed properly and the process
of completing them is followed conscientiously, performance
appraisals can be a valuable source of employee training needs.

The literature, however, suggests that this is not often the case.
Supervisor ratings provide less-than-accurate assessments of the
incumbent’s KSAs for both political and interpersonal
reasons.28 This inaccuracy is less likely to occur if performance
appraisal information is gathered specifically for employee
development, where the climate in the organization fosters such
development.29
Several things can be done to minimize problems with
supervisor ratings, such as:
· • Have the appraisal system be relevant to the job. Sometimes
appraisals are too generic to meet specific needs. Also, they
need to be acceptable to both supervisor and employee.30
· • Be sure that the supervisor has access to relevant
information to make accurate appraisals. As noted earlier, in
some cases, supervisors are not in contact with subordinates
often enough on the job to be aware of their performance.31
· • Provide incentives for supervisors to complete accurate
ratings. One way to do this is to use the performance appraisal
for the TNA only. As Murphy and Cleveland note,
· “It is likely that a supervisor experiences little conflict when
information from a performance appraisal is being used for
providing feedback to employees on their strengths and
weaknesses and to recommend employees to training
programs.”32
One way to obtain better supervisor assessments is to provide
training on how to complete such appraisals. Training should
address how to avoid various types of rater bias, such as
halo33 and leniency34 effects.
Another concern is that for some jobs, such as teaching and
sales, supervisors do not often get to see the employee in
action. Sometimes the supervisor is unfamiliar with the job
details. Perhaps the best way to deal with these concerns is
similar to the method suggested for dealing with gathering job
analysis data: The more the perspectives, the better the picture.
For this reason, it is useful to consider additional potential
raters of employee performance.Self-Ratings

A possible way to determine employee needs is through self-
ratings. Much of the research on self-ratings suggests that the
individual tends to overrate her capabilities. However, evidence
also indicates that the inflated ratings are a function of the
rating instruments rather than the individual attempting to
sound better.35Also, when self-raters understand the
performance system, they are more likely to agree with
supervisor ratings.36 These findings suggest that self-ratings
are accurate if subordinates are more involved in the
development of the appraisal process.
McEnery and McEnery examined self-ratings and supervisory
ratings gathered for a needs analysis related to training.37 They
noted that self-ratings were inflated but were also more
discriminating in identifying different needs than were
supervisory ratings. Furthermore, the results suggested that
supervisory assessment of “subordinate needs” more closely
resembled the needs of the raters themselves. More recent
research noted that self-ratings actually have lower
measurement errors than supervisor ratings on some
performance dimensions.38 In short, self-ratings are an
important part of any needs assessment.
Generally, the more sources used to gather information, the
higher the reliability and validity of the results. This tendency
supports use of the 360-degree performance review, by which an
employee rates himself on a number of dimensions and receives
ratings on these dimensions from his supervisor, peers,
subordinates, and sometimes even customers.39 This
information is fed back to the individual. This broader view
takes pressure off the supervisor, especially when others in the
loop agree more with the supervisor than with the individual.
Such data provide a springboard for dialogue between the
supervisor and the subordinate regarding the subordinate’s
needs. Also, there is evidence that those being appraised view
this process more positively than they do the traditional
methods of appraisal.40
The advantages of this process are that the various groups see

the person under different conditions, maintain different
relationships with the individual, and also have different
expectations regarding performance. Evidence indicates that
ratees find feedback from peers and subordinates particularly
useful in planning their developmental goals.41 As noted
before, the more the sources of such information, the better. The
disadvantages of the 360-degree performance
review are the amount of time it takes and the cost of
implementation. If not properly integrated into the company’s
HR system, it can also lead to negative results.42 So, for it to
be effective, a supportive climate is necessary for development
in general,43 and, as always, support from top management is
helpful.44
4-4 Training in Action
Most managers at United Parcel Service (UPS) participate in a
360-degree feedback process. They are measured on a number
of critical skills such as “customer focus,” “people skills,”
“business values,” and so forth. To be effective, however,
managers need to understand why this 360 degree feedback is
useful, and how it will work. To assure this happens, HR
trainers hold short training sessions to explain the purpose and
process of 360-degree feedback to all involved, as well as to
provide them with training in feedback skills.
Each manager that has received the training will then begin to
rate peers, supervisors and subordinates as well as be rated by
their peers supervisors and subordinates on a semiannual basis.
After receiving their ratings, the managers and their supervisors
will have a discussion about the feedback. Objectives for
improvement over the next six months are set, and the manager
has the option of attending programs that provide skills training
and practice in areas identified as requiring improvement. This
process is repeated every six months to determine where
improvement has occurred and setting new objectives based on
the new 360 degree feedback data. What has been the reaction
by those being rated? According to one of the trainers at UPS

most employees have responded very positively. But the trainer
goes on to say that an important part of the implementation was
making sure all those affected understood the purpose of the
process and were given appropriate training in how to give and
receive feedback.
To summarize, performance assessments designed to focus on
development are more likely to provide accurate data than are
more generic or all-purpose appraisals. Also, to determine
developmental needs, both supervisory ratings and self-ratings
should be gathered. Both parties need to be involved in the
assessment process. As McEnery and McEnery suggest, the
supervisor provides a valuable perspective on the subordinate’s
needs. The subordinate gains insight into his needs through
discussion with the supervisor. This process will also improve
communication between the supervisor and the subordinate and
will serve to improve the accuracy of the assessment. The 360-
degree feedback data are also very useful in determining an
employee’s needs. These data will allow for an examination of
the performance from a broader perspective. It is important,
however, that if 360-degree feedback is being used, it must be
incorporated properly into the organization. United Parcel
Service, in Training in Action 4-4, seems to be doing it
properly.
Rather than rely on ratings of job performance an alternative is
to test individuals under controlled conditions. Testing can
measure either knowledge (cognitive) or skills ((behavior).
Job Knowledge (Cognitive) Tests
A cognitive test measures a person’s knowledge. Every job has
a knowledge component. Plumbers need to understand
government regulations for installing water and drainage
systems in a house, supervisors need to understand the
procedures for assigning overtime, and salespeople need to
understand the procedures for accepting returned merchandise.
A cognitive test to measure that job knowledge can be
developed or found in the marketplace. For example, there are
paper and pencil tests that are available in the public domain.

The Mental Measurements Yearbook,™ a publication produced
by the Buros Institute of Mental Measurements at the University
of Nebraska, provides users with a comprehensive guide to over
2,700 contemporary testing instruments. Typically, the type of
knowledge examined in the TNA is declarative knowledge. But
remember that there are also two higher-level knowledge
outcomes: procedural and strategic. One final note about
cognitive (and other) tests: A common belief holds that a
specific time limit needs to be given for a test. Understand that
speed tests provide different information than power
tests.45 Speed tests should be given only if speed in retrieving
and using information is an important job characteristic. If,
however, the critical component is accuracy of retrieval and use
of the knowledge, time limits should not be used. In general,
however, power tests do need some sort of time limit, as
without one, some trainees will remain for twice the time
of others to check and recheck their answers. A good approach
is to indicate a general time limit (e.g., about one hour). When
the time is up, ask, “How much time do you need to finish?”
This question is usually enough incentive for those who are
simply reluctant to hand the test in.
Declarative Knowledge Tests
If the job requires some sort of factual knowledge, such as
“rules covering search and seizure” or “understanding the type
of question that cannot be asked in an interview,” a test can be
developed to determine whether trainees have this declarative
knowledge. Paper-and-pencil tests such as the multiple-choice
test are often used. One concern in using such tests is that they
might reflect the reading level of the participant when reading
is not an important skill for the job. If you are concerned about
the knowledge level of incumbents and reading is not a required
KSA, paper-and-pencil tests would not be appropriate. In such
cases, these tests could be given orally.
Multiple-choice tests offer many advantages. They can assess
the knowledge of a large number of employees at a lower cost
than most other forms of measurement. They are easy to

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