BUSI 444Case Study InstructionsThe answers to each Case Study mu.docx

BUSI 444Case Study Instructions
The answers to each Case Study must be 3–5 pages and
completed in current APA formatting. Your response must be
written in essay form, including an introduction, body, and
conclusion. Your Case Study response must be supported by at
least 2 scholarly, peer-reviewed articles. These sources must
have been published within the last 5 years. The Noe textbook
must also be incorporated but no other textbooks may be used.
Prompts:
Case Study 3: Module/Week 7: Career Development at
Electronic Applications
Complete "Career Development at Electronic Applications" case
in the Nkomo, Fottler, and McAfee text (#51, p. 157). Answer
the 6 questions (1–6) on p. 158. You may find it useful to use
the topic of the questions (The problem at EA, Relevant
information to be examined, etc.) as section headers in your
paper.
Textbooks for reading:
Human Resource Management Applications: Cases, Exercises,
Incidents, and Skill Builders - 7TH 11
by: Nkomo, Stella M.
https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781305990814/cfi/6/
2[;vnd.vst.idref=M1]!

Employee Training and Development - 7TH 17
by: Noe
https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780077774547/cfi/6/
26!/4/2/6/[email protected]:75.4
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
· ■ Describe the purpose of a needs analysis.
· ■ List and describe the steps in conducting a needs analysis.
· ■ Explain what a competency is and why it is useful.
· ■ Differentiate between proactive and reactive needs analysis
approaches, and describe the situations favoring the use of one
over the other.
· ■ Outline the rationale for using performance appraisal
information for a needs analysis, and identify what type of
performance appraisal method is appropriate.
· ■ Describe the relationship between needs analysis and the
design and evaluation of training.
· ■ List four contaminations of a criterion.
CASE DEVELOPING A TRAINING PACKAGE AT WESTCAN
Chris is a human resources (HR) manager at Westcan
Hydraulics, and Irven, the VP of HR, is her boss. One morning
Irven called Chris into his office. “I just saw an old training
film called Meetings Bloody Meetings starring John Cleese,” he
said. “It deals with effective ways of running meetings.” Irven,
a competent and well-liked engineer, had been promoted to VP
of HR three months earlier. Although he had no HR expertise,
he had been an effective production manager, and the president
of the company had hoped that Irven would provide a measure
of credibility to the HR department. In the past, employees saw
the HR department as one that forced its silly ideas on the rest
of the company with little understanding of how to make those
ideas work.

“Well,” said Chris, “I . . .”
“Oh, yes,” Irven interjected, “I talked to a few managers this
morning and they were enthusiastic about it. It’s the first time I
have ever seen managers enthusiastic about any type of training.
Do we have such a training package available?”
“No, I do not believe so,” Chris replied.
“Well,” said Irven, “we need a one-day training session. It must
be interesting, useful, and generalizable to all managers.
Okay?” With that, Irven stood up, signaling that the meeting
was over.
Chris went to work designing the training. She began by going
to the local university and viewing the meetings film her boss
had seen. After examining some books that dealt with meetings,
she decided that she had a good idea of what made meetings
effective. She then called Larry, a friend at Satellite Systems, to
see what he had.
He faxed over a copy of a lecture he had given on the dos and
don’ts of an effective meeting. It was nicely broken down into
three parts: premeeting, meeting, and postmeeting. That
information and a simulated meeting (to provide hands-on
practice) could make up the one-day training program. Chris
had never written a simulation and needed help. She put in a
call to Karen, a subordinate who was fresh out of university and
had majored in HR. Karen would surely be able to help develop
a simulation, Chris thought.
WHY CONDUCT A TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS?
What is wrong with the situation at Westcan? It is a scene that
repeats itself in some form every day. The boss wants some
training, and the HR manager complies. After all, the boss must
know what kind of training the employees need. Right? Maybe
not. Recall from Chapter 1 that a training needs analysis
(TNA) is a systematic method for determining what caused
performance to be less than expected or required. Performance
improvement1 is the focus of training. This is obvious when you
turn to the beginning of the chapter and look at the analysis
phase figure. Note that the “trigger” for doing a needs analysis

occurs when actual organizational performance (AOP) is less
than expected organizational performance (EOP). We refer to
this difference as the organizational performance gap (OPG).
Does an OPG exist at Westcan? Perhaps. In this situation, we
might consider the VP’s suggestion that there is a need for
training as the “trigger” to conduct a needs analysis. Are the
meetings producing less than expected results? To answer this
question, Chris would need to conduct a TNA.
If AOP is less than EOP at Westcan, Chris needs to identify
where these differences exist in terms of the meetings. Once
these are known, other questions need answering. How many
meetings are ineffective? What is causing the problem? Is it the
manager’s knowledge of “how to run an effective meeting,” or
are other issues causing the meetings to be ineffective? How
much do these managers already know about meetings, and how
skillful are they at applying this knowledge? Chris needs to
answer these and other questions by conducting a TNA before
she begins to design the training program for effective
meetings. Instead, Chris assumes that she knows what managers
require and begins to develop the training on the basis of her
assumptions. She does not conduct a TNA to determine exactly
what the deficiencies are. Think about this scenario as we
examine the process of a TNA. Would you want to be in Chris’s
shoes? We refer back to this example throughout the chapter,
and at the end, we give you the rest of the story.
A TNA is important because it helps determine whether training
can correct the performance problem. In some cases, the TNA
indicates that employees lack the necessary knowledge, skills,
and attitudes (KSAs) to do the job and they require training. In
other cases, employees have the KSAs to do the job, but there
are roadblocks that prevent effective performance. These
barriers need to be identified and removed. As a training
professional, you will use the TNA to ensure that you provide
the right training to the right people. Chris at Westcan is
overlooking a critical part of the training process by not
completing a TNA. Instead, she is relying on what Irven says

and jumping directly to the training design phase. If Chris were
to conduct a TNA first, she could accomplish several important
things:
· • Increase the chances that the time and money spent on
training is spent wisely
· • Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training
· • Increase the motivation of participants
· • Align her training activities with the company’s strategic
plan
This is one of the longest chapters in the book and that reflects
its importance in the training process. Unless you get this part
right, the rest of what you do as a trainer won’t make any
difference. After all, why spend thousands of dollars, or more,
on a training program no one needs or which doesn’t fit with the
needs of the organization? With increased concern about costs,
it is important that all departments, including HR and HRD, use
resources wisely. So, what will the TNA do for you?
A TNA will provide a benchmark of the performance levels and
KSAs trainees possess prior to training. These benchmarks will
let you compare performance before and after training. This will
allow you to demonstrate the cost savings or value added as a
result of training.2 We will say more about these evaluation
issues in Chapter 9.
A TNA provides more than just evaluation measures. A good
TNA ensures that only those who need the training attend and
provides the data to show trainees why the training will be
useful to them. Consider the employees who do not need the
training but are sent by their supervisor anyway. Are they going
to take the training seriously? Probably not. In fact, their lack
of interest might be distracting to those who need and want the
training. Worse, they might cause other trainees not to take the
training seriously. Using a TNA also ensures that your training
focuses on KSAs the trainees really need. The needs analysis
allows the trainer to begin by explaining how the training will
be useful. If trainees see the training as relevant, they are more
likely to be interested in attending and maintain interest during

the training.
As noted in Chapter 1, implementing a strategic plan requires
careful analysis of the organization’s HR capabilities. A TNA is
one process for determining the degree to which employees
possess the necessary KSAs to carry out the strategies. Training
can then be designed in alignment with the strategic plan. The
TNA also provides the human resources department (HRD) with
information as to the relevance of training to the strategic plan.
This information is helpful in determining which training needs
are more important.
WHEN TO CONDUCT A TNA
In spite of the compelling arguements in the preceding section,
there are times when a TNA might not be necessary. For
example, if the organization is trying to communicate a new
vision or address legal concerns, it might be advisable to train
all employees. Suppose the company has concerns regarding
sexual harassment. Everyone should be aware of how seriously
top management considers breaches of their “sexual
harassment” policy. Here, company-wide training on the issue
might be necessary. Sending everyone to a workshop on sexual
harassment
ensures that management’s expectations regarding this issue are
clear. It also demonstrates an employer’s position on sexual
harassment to the courts, should an employee consider a sexual
harassment lawsuit.
Another situation in which a TNA might not be necessary is if a
team requires team-building skills. In this instance, the goal of
training is to build the dynamics of the team so that the
members work together cohesively and effectively, and also to
provide the relevant KSAs. In this case, everyone on the team
should be part of the training, even though they already might
possess many team KSAs.
For most types of training, however, a needs analysis is

beneficial and will increase the relevance and effectiveness of
training. For example, team building for teams that have been
working together for a while would benefit from a TNA. In this
case, the needs analysis focus is on the team itself, not the
individuals in the team. Only teams that demonstrate problems
in effectiveness or cohesion would go through a TNA to
determine if training is necessary. Teams already functioning
effectively would not need to attend, so the overall cost of
training is reduced.THE TNA MODEL
Examine the model at the start of the chapter. The first part of
the model is the triggering event that initiates the TNA. For
example, when a key decision maker suggests that there is a
performance problem now or in the future, a TNA is triggered.
The next step in the TNA model is the input, which consists of
an organizational analysis, an operational analysis, and a person
analysis. The organizational analysisis an examination of an
organization’s strategy, its goals and objectives, and the
systems and practices in place to determine how they affect
employee performance. An operational analysis is the
examination of specific jobs to determine the requirements, in
terms of the tasks required to be carried out and the KSAs
required to get the job done. It is analogous to a job analysis, or
a task analysis, as it is sometimes called. A person analysis is
the examination of the employees in the jobs to determine
whether they have the required KSAs to perform at the expected
level.
In the process phase, the operational analysis provides
information on expected performance (EP). Expected
performance is the level of performance expected in a particular
job.
The person analysis provides information on actual performance
(AP). Actual performance is the current level of performance by
an individual on a particular job. When AP is lower than EP, a
more specific performance gap (PG) is identified. As noted in
the model, this specific performance gap* is the difference
between EP and the employee’s AP.

The “output” phase is your conclusion as to whether the PG
indicates either training or nontraining needs, and in some
cases, both. This will be explained later.
So, as you can see from the model, a TNA is conducted when a
key decision maker in the company notes an OPG (AOP is, or
will be, less than EOP). A reactive TNA focuses on current
performance problems (the OPG currently exists). A proactive
TNAfocuses on performance problems in the future (the OPG
will exist at some point in the future). Let’s look at an example
of each.
A current OPG triggers a reactive TNA. For example, if the
expected number of widgets produced per week is 5,000 and
actual production is only 4,300, you need to investigate this
gap.
As an example of the proactive approach, consider an
organization’s decision to implement statistical process control
(SPC) to improve the quality of its widgets. Sometime in the
near future, the employees producing widgets will begin using
SPC methods. Potential for a future OPG exists (the trigger)
because if the employees do not have the appropriate KSAs for
SPC, they will have a PG that will lead to an OPG. This
potential gap triggers a proactive TNA to determine whether
employees will be able to perform as needed when the
organization implements SPC. You conduct an assessment of
employees’ capabilities regarding SPC and find that they are not
able to perform the arithmetic needed in the use of SPC. This
PG will need to be addressed before SPC can be implemented.
As this example illustrates, when you expect an OPG to occur at
some point in the future, you should conduct a proactive TNA to
verify that the gap will exist and identify the specific KSAs that
need to be developed.
*Note that for the TNA trigger, the difference between actual
organizational performance and expected performance is called
an “organizational” performance gap. The difference between
actual and expected performance obtained from the operational
and person analysis of the TNA is simply termed a

“performance gap.”
An OPG may occur for many reasons (see Figure 4-1), only one
of which is a lack of KSAs. You need to conduct the TNA to
discover why the gap exists and what can be done to correct it.
Consider the problem at a regional telephone company a few
years back. Sales revenue did not meet expected levels (AOP
was less than EOP), triggering a TNA. The TNA identified that
sales were indeed below expectations. The TNA narrowed the
source of the less-than-expected sales to the installation and
repair unit. The phone company had hoped to increase revenue
by having their installation and repair employees make sales
pitches to customers for additional services when on a service
call. However, data on sales indicated that few such sales took
place, so AP was less than EP. Note in Figure 4-1 that several
possible causes of a PG are listed. If the cause is not a gap in
required KSAs, then some nontraining solution is required to
alleviate the PG.
FIGURE 4-1 Model of Process When a Performance Gap Is
Identified.
What caused the PG? It was not a KSA deficiency. Installation
and repair employees’ performance was based on the time it
took them to complete a call. They had a certain amount of time
to complete each call. If they took longer than the time allotted
for a number of calls, their performance was rated as below
average. The time allotment was not changed, even though
employees were now expected to stick around and try to sell
their products and services. So, most employees simply did not
spend any time selling. In this example, performance
consequence incongruities leading to low motivation were what
caused the PG. We return to examine Figure 4-1in more detail
later, but now let’s examine where we look for PGs.WHERE TO
LOOK FOR OPGs
There are numerous places to look for information related to
OPGs. A company’s archival data, such as its profitability,
market share, grievance levels, productivity, and quality
measures, provide indicators of how it is operating. These are

included in Table 4-1, which provides a list of sources for
gathering data related to potential PGs. Let’s examine a few to
see how the process works. The first data source, organizational
goals and objectives and budgets, provides standards against
which unit performance can be measured. Suppose, for example,
that the triggering event was a loss in profitability because of
excessive costs related to warranty work. A reactive TNA is
implemented, which might lead you to examine the quality
standard for rejects in the production department. The standard
(EP) is less than 1 per thousand, but you see that the AP is 12
per thousand.
The process is similar when you expect future performance to
be less than what it should be. Here, a proactive TNA is
initiated. Suppose the company’s new strategic plan indicates a
substantial modernization of the plant, including new
computerized machinery. There is no OPG now, but the plant
manager believes there will be when the new machinery arrives.
This possible OPG in the future prompts a “proactive” TNA. As
part of this TNA, the HRD department will need to assess the
employees’ current level of KSAs for operating the new
machinery. If these current KSAs are not sufficient, a gap exists
for the future.
The second data source, labor inventory, is also useful to
determine an OPG in the future and the types of training
necessary to prevent such a gap from occurring. Knowing that a
number of senior engineers are retiring over the next few years
can trigger the HRD department to start training those in line
for promotion to maintain the necessary skills. Not being aware
of these retiring employees could lead to an OPG because the
company would lack enough senior engineers to manage the
expected number of projects.
Finally, let’s examine the third data source, organizational
climate indicators. Identification of high absenteeism in a
particular area, or an increasing accident rate, provides you with
early signs of problems. The quicker you are able to identify
problems, the quicker you will be able to find and implement

solutions. This is one secret to an effective HRD department.
Cindy Baerman, the human resource development officer of
Miller Brewing Company, provides an example for this. She
began attending production meetings a few years back. She
received funny looks, as the meetings were held to focus on
production problems. Why would HRD want to be there? As
Cindy pointed out, “What better place to learn of the type of
performance problems the line manager is having?”3 For her,
the focus was on performance management. Being able to react
quickly to maintain and improve performance is the first step in
a continuous performance improvement framework, which is so
important in today’s environment.4THE FRAMEWORK FOR
CONDUCTING A TNA
Recall from Figure 1-3 (on page 7 in Chapter 1) that all five
phases of the training model have an input, a process, and an
output component. The “input” for the analysis phase, as shown
in the figure at the start of this chapter, is made up of
organizational, operational, and person analysis. The “process”
is where we determine the specific nature of any PGs and their
causes. The “output” provides us with either training or
nontraining needs—and in some cases, both. So, once a trigger
has set a TNA in motion, the three levels of analysis—
organizational, operational, and person—need to be
completed.5 In the section that follows, we provide an overview
of the three TNA inputs. Following this, we provide a detailed
examination of each area.TABLE 4-1 Recommended Data
Sources for Investigating Gaps in Performance
Sources of Data
Implications for Training Needs
Examples
1.
Organizational Goals
This source suggests where training emphasis should be placed.
Maintain a quality standard of no more than one reject per
thousand.

Objectives and Budget
This source provides information on both standards and
direction.
Achieve a goal to become ISO certified and allow $90,000 for
this effort.
2.
Labor Inventory
This source helps HRD identify where training is needed
because of retirement turnover, age, etc.
30 percent of our truck drivers will retire over the next four
years.
3.
Organizational Climate Indicators
These “quality of working life” indicators at the organization
level provide indicators of organizational performance gaps.
· a. Labor-management data, strikes, lockouts, etc.
These indicators relate to work participation or productivity and
are useful in PG analysis and in helping management set a value
on the behaviors it wishes to improve through training.
· b. Grievances
70 percent of the grievances are related to the behaviors of six
supervisors.
· c. Turnover
· d. Absenteeism
High absenteeism for clerical staff.

· e. Suggestions
· f. Productivity
· g. Accidents
Accident rate for line workers increasing.
· h. Short-term sickness
Line workers’ attitude toward teamwork is poor.
· i. Attitude surveys
Surveys are good for locating discrepancies between
organizational expectations and perceived results.
4.
Analysis of Efficiency Indexes
· a. Costs of labor
Labor costs have increased by 8 percent in the last year.
· b. Quality of product
Number of rejects has increased by 30 percent since the new
batch of workers began.
· c. Waste

Wasted steel has increased by 14 percent since the company
began using part-time workers.
5.
Changes in System or Subsystem
New or changed equipment may require training.
The line has shut down about once per day since the new
machinery was installed.
6.
Management Requests or Management Interrogation
One of the most common techniques of identification of
performance discrepancies.
Production manager indicates a drop in quality since the
layoffs.
7.
MBO or Work Planning and Review Systems
Provides actual baseline performance data on a continuous
basis. From these measures, the company is able to determine
improvement or deterioration of performance.
Source: References for all at these methods can be found in M.
Moore, P. Dutton (1978). Training Needs Analysis: Review
Critique. Academy of Management Review 3, pp. 532–545.
Organizational analysis looks at the internal environment of the
organization—influences that could affect employee
performance—to determine its fit with organizational goals and
objectives. It is this analysis that provides identification of the
OPG at the organizational level. Imagine that company ABC
decides one of its goals is to become team oriented in its
production operation. Examining the various policies of the
organization reveals an incentive system that pays up to 15
percent of base pay for individual productivity above quota.
This focus on individual productivity is not in line with the new
goals of a team approach and could cause team members to be
more concerned with their individual performance. It needs to
be removed or changed to align with the goals of a team-based
approach. The organizational analysis is also an examination of

how the internal environment affects job performance. In the
ABC example, if both Bill and Mary again do not come to the
team meeting, does it mean they are not interested? Perhaps, but
it is more likely that they are working on beating their quotas so
they will receive the bonus pay. Finally, the organizational
analysis identifies constraints on training. Consider the small-
business owner who employs unskilled assembly-line workers
who are unable to read well. He wishes to move to a more team-
oriented approach. The owner does not have the funds or time to
develop a remedial reading course. This presents an
organizational constraint and leads to the development of
training that does not require reading.
Operational analysis examines specific jobs to determine the
requirements (KSAs) necessary to get the job done (i.e.,
expected job performance). This process is generally called
a job analysis, or task analysis, and it requires an extensive
analysis of a job to determine all the tasks necessary to perform
the job at the expected level. After all tasks are identified, the
next step is to determine the KSAs necessary to perform each of
the tasks. Each task needs to be examined by asking the
question “What KSAs are necessary to be able to perform this
task at the expected level?” The KSAs obtained from the
analysis are the ones that an incumbent must have to perform at
the expected level. There are several ways to obtain this
information, such as interviewing incumbents and their
supervisors, observing the job, and so forth.
Finally, person analysis examines those who occupy the jobs to
see whether they possess the required KSAs necessary to do the
job. Here we measure the actual job performance of those on the
job to see whether they are performing at an acceptable level.
This might seem easy enough: Simply look at the supervisor’s
appraisal of the incumbents. As you will see later, however,
many problems can arise with performance appraisals completed
by supervisors, such as halo, leniency, and other effects. In
addition, an employee’s low performance doesn’t necessarily
mean he doesn’t have the KSAs. So, as a result, other methods

are also used to obtain this type of information. For example,
asking incumbents themselves and asking coworkers are two
other methods. Using job knowledge, behavioral and attitudinal
tests are also ways to determine the employee’s KSAs. All
methods have strengths and weaknesses that will be discussed
later.
These “inputs” (organizational, operational, and personal
analyses) are conceptually distinct, but in practice, much of the
information is gathered around the same time and is closely
interrelated. For example, information related to all three types
of analyses can be collected from the job incumbents. Questions
would include, “Do any particular organizational policies or
procedures that you must follow negatively affect your job
performance?” (organizational analysis); “Describe for me the
tasks you perform when you first arrive at work” (operational
analysis); and “Do you believe you are lacking any skills that, if
you had them, might enhance your ability to perform at a higher
level?” (person analysis). Additionally, the process moves back
and forth between the different types. For example, once you
find out that the incumbents believe there are organizational
impediments, you need to go back to examine if these are real
or simply perceptual distortions. Now that you have an
overview of these TNA input factors, let’s examine each in
more detail. Then we will look at some specific issues
surrounding the two types of TNA, proactive and reactive.4-1
Training in Action Incongruities in the Organizational
Environment
Often bank managers will send their tellers to training
workshops about the products and services the bank offers. The
idea is to give the tellers an understanding of the products and
services so they can provide that information to customers who
come into the bank. The belief is that this will increase the
number of products and services sold. There are numerous
accounts of banks providing this type of training, but not seeing
any increase in sales. Why is this? Is it just bad training?
Analysis shows that when tellers return from training, they also

return to the same performance system (appraisals, salary
increases and so on) that had been in place before the training.
If the performance system focuses mainly on the number of
customers the teller is able to process through the day, what do
you think the tellers will focus on? Why would a teller risk
receiving a low performance rating to spend time telling
customers about the products and services being offered by the
bank?Organizational Analysis
An organizational analysis focuses on the strategies of the
organization, the resources in the organization, the allocation of
these resources,6 and the total internal environment.7 The
internal environment includes an examination of structures,
policies and procedures, job design, workflow processes, and
other factors that facilitate or inhibit an employee’s ability to
meet job performance expectations.
An organizational analysis is necessary to help identify the
cause of OPGs and, specifically, to determine whether OPGs
are, in fact, correctable through training. According to Nancy
Gordon, a TNA analyst at Ameritech, about 85 percent of all
requests for training turned out to be related to issues that could
not be addressed by training. They were, instead, motivational
problems (situations where performance consequences were
incongruent with desired performance), which of course,
inhibited or prevented the appropriate work behaviors. Training
in Action 4-1provides an example of where this is the case. As
you can see in this example, the bank manager neglected to
consider the need to align the tellers’ performance appraisal
with the goals of the new training. So, even if the KSAs were
learned, there was no incentive to use them. In fact, tellers
would be penalized under the existing performance appraisal
system.
An organizational analysis, then, should be able to provide
information about the following:
· • The mission and strategies of an organization.
· • The resources and allocation of the resources, given the
objectives.

· • Any factors in the internal environment that might be
causing the problem.
· • The effect of any of the above on developing, providing, and
transferring the KSAs to the job if training is the chosen
solution to the OPG. These would be considered to be
organizational constraints. Should training become one of the
solutions for the OPG, you will need to revisit these to
determine how the training will be designed to deal with them.
We will discuss this in more depth in Chapter 5.MISSION AND
STRATEGIES
The organizational analysis helps the analyst align the training
with the organization’s mission and strategies. Consider the
Windsor Ford Engine Plant mission statement: “Our mission is
to continually improve our products and services to meet our
customers’ needs, allowing us to prosper as a business and
provide a reasonable return to our stockholders.” A strategy
arising from that mission statement was to focus on the team
approach for continuous improvement. Two types of training
traditionally used to support this strategy are training in
problem solving and negotiations. But what if the workers in the
plant are offered training in traditional negotiation skills? Is
this in line with the team approach? Perhaps not. Problem-
solving training requires openness and trust to be effective.
Traditional negotiations training often teaches that it is useful
not to reveal all your information but instead to hold back and
attempt to get the best deal that you can for yourself or your
department. To offer such training would, at best, not reinforce
an environment of openness and trust, and at worst, would
impede it.
A company’s mission and strategies also indicate priorities for
training. Training resources are always finite, so decisions must
be made as to where to spend the training budget. If, for
example, “Quality is job one” at Ford, the analyst knows that
development of KSAs relating to quality should receive priority.
Thinking back to the Westcan case, can you identify how that
company’s priorities would be related to the need for effective

meetings?Capital Resources
A company’s finances, equipment, and facilities are considered
to be capital resources. During strategic planning, decisions are
made as to where money should be spent. If a large expenditure
is made on new equipment for the machinists, or toward
becoming ISO 9000 certified, these strategic decisions will help
determine the priorities for the HRD department. In the case of
purchasing new equipment for machinists, HRD’s priority
would be the machinists’ positions. You would need to assess
the machinists’ level of KSAs to determine whether they need
training to operate the new machinery. This decision to focus on
the machinist is based on the financial decisions made at the
strategic level. Likewise, the strategic choice of becoming ISO
9000 certified should indicate to you that support in that area is
needed. After all, significant company resources will be
directed toward these strategic initiatives. If the employees
cannot operate the new equipment or engage in the tasks
required for ISO certification, the money put toward those
initiatives will be wasted.
Another concern for HRD is its own budget. Decisions about
how to provide the required training are a function of the money
that HRD has available for training. The decision whether to use
external consultants or internal staff depends on a number of
issues, not the least of which is cost. In the Westcan case, Chris
decided to develop the training herself. Hiring a consultant to
provide the training might get better results, but Chris would
have to weigh that decision against other training needs at
Westcan, given her limited budget.Human Resources
The other area of resources that needs to be addressed is human
resources. Examination of the KSAs in HR occurs at two levels.
It includes a general strategic needs assessment and a more
specific training needs assessment. First, at the strategic level,
HRD provides top management with an assessment of the
current employees’ ability and potential to support various
strategies. With this information, top management knows its
employees’ capabilities and can factor those capabilities into its

strategic decision making. Heinz Canada’s Leamington plant
decided several years ago that its strategic plan was to improve
efficiency in producing ketchup. Heinz wanted to purchase a
state-of-the-art automated ketchup maker. The HRD department
provided top management with information on the KSAs of the
current workforce. This information indicated that no one had
the skills necessary, and, in fact, many had reading difficulties
such that operating computer-controlled machinery might be a
concern. Because the strategic planning group knew this
information early in the strategic planning phase, they were able
to make an informed decision about how to proceed. They
considered the following choices:
· • Abandon the idea of purchasing such equipment, and
consider alternative strategic plans.
· • Hire employees who have the skills to operate such
machinery.
· • Train current employees to operate the machinery.
Heinz chose to move forward with the plan and train the current
employees. Since they addressed the issue early, Heinz had
plenty of time to do this.
HRD’s strategic needs assessment is more proactive and
provides a great deal of information about the capabilities of the
workforce to carry out various strategic alternatives. This
information helps decision makers decide which strategic
alternatives will be followed. Once managers approve a
strategic plan, HRD can focus on areas where priorities are
identified from the strategic plan.
At the second level, HRD focuses on those employees who are
identified to be working in areas contributing to OPGs. This is
really part of the person analysis, but an example will help
clarify the difference. In our earlier example, it would be the
machinist who had to learn to use the new computerized
machinery. What about in the Heinz example? Recall that none
of the Heinz employees has the required KSAs to operate the
new ketchup equipment. As a result, although they are effective
employees now, an OPG will develop when the new equipment

arrives. The HRD department’s priority is to provide the
employees with the requisite KSAs so that when the ketchup
machine arrives, they will be able to operate it
effectively.Organizational Environment
Another key objective of the organizational analysis is to
examine the organizational environment. The organizational
environment is made up of various structures (e.g., mechanistic
or organic) and designs (e.g., workflow, division of labor, pay
system, and reward policies). The environmental analysis tells
you whether these structures are aligned with the performance
objectives of the unit in which OPGs have been identified. A
misalignment of the structure or design of the unit will mean
that even if the employees have the KSAs to eliminate the
performance gap, they will not use them. Identifying this lack
of alignment early and aligning the environmental factors with
the objectives of training will help ensure that when training is
complete, the new skills will transfer to the job.
· Consider two organizations:
Organization A decides to adopt a more team-oriented approach.
The company’s mission and objectives reflect this recent change
in company policy. Present procedures include the use of a
suggestion box and provide rewards for individual suggestions
that improve the company’s performance.
In this scenario, do you believe that the individual incentive
system would reinforce or hinder the team approach? If, after
training and implementing the team approach, teams were not
producing innovative ideas, would that mean that the training
was not effective? You cannot really tell. The skills might be
learned but not transferred to the job. Consider the motivation
problems (see Figure 4-1) that occur when rewarding for
individual ideas (suggestion box) while expecting a team
approach (which means sharing ideas with the team). If you can
get a reward for your idea by putting it in the suggestion box,
why would you want to freely share it with the team?
Identifying this incongruence between rewards and desired
behavior and removing it before instituting the team approach

would facilitate transfer of the training. If you did this and also
implemented a team-incentive system, you would have aligned
the unit’s reward system with the team approach.
· Organization B’s mission and objectives can be summed up as
“quality is most important.” A misalignment occurs in this
organization because one of its policies is that performance
appraisals for first-line management provide a measure of how
well these managers meet productivity quotas, but measure
nothing related to quality of the product.
In this scenario, would you expect training these managers in
quality improvement to result in improved quality? It might be
possible that they already have the quality KSAs and simply
redesigning the appraisal system to emphasize quality will close
the performance gap. As in the first example, providing the
KSAs will not translate into changes in job behavior unless the
organizational systems are aligned to support that behavior.
These examples illustrate the value of conducting an
organizational analysis into the structures, systems and policies
as they relate to performance gaps. Obviously, the analysis at
the environmental level can’t be conducted until you have an
idea of what organizational units and jobs are targeted either for
their performance problems or because of future changes. This
targeting allows for a certain degree of focus when you are
conducting the analysis; you gather data that are relevant only
to those jobs. Otherwise, you end up gathering an enormous
amount of information on jobs that do not have any current or
future problems. This is not only a waste of your time, but also
the company’s valuable resources.
To summarize, before looking at the individuals whose work is
causing performance gaps, you need to examine the
organization. Data gathered from the organizational analysis
must be examined to determine if organizational systems,
structures, and policies are aligned with the behavior that is
desired. In almost all cases where training is needed, there are
some environmental factors that need to be realigned to support
the new behavior that training will be focused on. If they are

not, transfer of the training to the job is highly
unlikely.8WHERE TO COLLECT DATA
Table 4-2 identifies potential individuals to be interviewed and
points to raise with them. Once a gap in performance is
identified in a specific department or location, the cause of the
gap needs to be determined. You should not assume that
training is required to alleviate the gap. Do not forget Nancy
Gordon’s words: “About 85 percent of training requests turn out
to be solvable without training.”Operational AnalysisTABLE 4-
2 What Do You Ask and of Whom?
What to Ask About
Who to Ask
Mission Goals and Objectives
What are the goals and objectives of the organization?
Top management
How much money has been allocated to new initiatives?
Relevant department managers, supervisors, and incumbents
Is there general understanding of these objectives?
Social Influences
What is the general feeling in the organization regarding
meeting goals and objectives?
Top management
What is the social pressure in the department regarding these
goals and objectives, and regarding productivity?
Reward Systems
What are the rewards, and how are they distributed?
Top management
Are there incentives tied to the goals and objectives?
What specifically do high performers get as rewards?

Job Design
How are the jobs organized?
Relevant supervisors and incumbents, and perhaps relevant
department managers
Where does their work/material/information come from and
where do they send it when done?
Does the design of the job in any way inhibit incumbents from
being high performers?
Job Performance
How do employees know what level of performance is
acceptable?
Relevant supervisors and incumbents
How do they find out if their level of performance is
acceptable?
Is there a formal feedback process (performance appraisal for
example)?
Are there opportunities for help if required?
Methods and Practices
What are the policies/procedures/rules in the organization? Do
any inhibit performance?
When an OPG is identified, an operational analysis is conducted
in conjunction with the organizational analysis to fully
understand the nature of the OPG. The operational analysis
determines exactly what is required of employees for them to be
effective. The typical technique for obtaining the task and KSA
data that are required to meet expected job performance
standards is the job analysis. Table 4-3shows sources for

operational analysis data. The most frequently used process
includes questioning employees doing the job and their
supervisors. Let’s now examine this process of analyzing a job
and the issues to consider.TABLE 4-3 Recommended Data
Sources for Operational Analysis
Sources for Obtaining Job Data
Training Need Implications
Practical Concerns
· 1. Job Descriptions
This source outlines the job’s typical duties and responsibilities
but is not meant to be all inclusive.
Need to determine how developed. Often written up quickly by
supervisor or incumbent with little understanding of what is
required
· 2. Job Specifications
These are specified tasks required for each job. More specific
than job descriptions and may include judgments of required
KSAs.
May be product of the job description and suffer from the same
problems
· 3. Performance Standards
This source provides objectives related to the tasks required and
their standards in terms of performance.
Very useful if available, and accurate, but often organizations
do not have formal performance standards
· 4. Ask Questions About the Job
· a. Of the job holders
· b. Of the supervisor
Asking both job holder and relevant supervisors provides
accurate data.
Must be done correctly to be of valueANALYZING THE JOB
HR employees need to know how to conduct an effective job
analysis. The following steps are useful in doing this.What Is
the Job?
The first step is to determine exactly what job is going to be

analyzed. In today’s environment, a common job title can mask
real differences in the tasks that are carried out. An extreme
example is at Honda Canada Manufacturing, where everyone
from line workers to top management has the job title of
“Associate.” Other organizations use the same job title for
employees who do different tasks because they work in different
departments and geographical locations.Where to Collect Data?
As Table 4-3 indicates, data can be gathered from a number of
sources. Job descriptions and specifications are one source of
data for understanding the job and its basic requirements. If this
information was gathered through a job analysis, you can be
confident of its value. Even if it was not, it provides a basic
understanding of the job and is useful to have before starting to
ask questions of these employees.Who to Ask?
When analyzing a job, the incumbent needs to provide relevant
information about the job; after all, she is the expert regarding
how the job is done. Data should also be gathered from the
incumbent’s supervisor because of the following reasons:
· • This information provides a different perspective and helps
yield a well-rounded concept of exactly what is required.
· • When discrepancies are noted between what the supervisor
and the incumbents say, an investigation into the reason for the
discrepancy can provide useful information.
We have suggested that trainers need organizational
development (OD) skills. In this instance, those skills provide
an effective way of resolving differences between incumbents
and supervisors regarding how the job should be performed. A
more proactive approach is to avoid conflicting beliefs between
subordinates and supervisors in the first place by
implementing the job expectation technique.9 This technique
includes facilitating a meeting between subordinates and
supervisors to discuss the job responsibilities of the
subordinates. The goal here is to clarify job expectations. This
process may sound simplistic, but it requires trust and respect
between supervisors and their subordinates. In reality, many job
incumbents learn about their job through working with other

incumbents and through trial and error.Who Should Select
Incumbents?
The selection process should be carried out by the job analyst,
not the supervisor or manager. If you let supervisors make the
decision, they might choose on the basis of who is available at
the time or to whom they prefer to give the opportunity, or any
other reasons that quite likely would result in a biased sample.
Perhaps more important, however, is that the incumbents might
question the real purpose of the assessment and provide
inaccurate data.How Many to Ask?
Different jobs in any organization are filled with different
numbers of incumbents. Exactly how many to ask is determined
by your method of data gathering and the amount of time
available. Let’s say that a job has five classification levels with
20 incumbents in each level, for a total of 100 incumbents. You
have chosen to interview in small groups. You might have four
interview sessions, each with five incumbents—one from each
level. If time and resources allowed, you might want to double
the sessions to eight for increased participation and a more
representative sample.How to Select?
The best way to select the participants is through representative
sampling of all those incumbents who are performing
“adequately or better” on the job. The incumbents need to be
placed into subgroups on the basis of relevant characteristics,
such as their level in the job (e.g., mechanic 1, mechanic 2).
Once the categories are developed within the job, the job
analyst should choose within these categories on the basis of
other factors, such as years in the category, performance level,
gender, and so on, to ensure that different views of the job are
obtained. Note that we do not advocate random sampling.
Random sampling is effective only when you have large
numbers of incumbents who are similar, which is seldom the
case in a particular job. One other issue needs to be considered.
What if the number of incumbents is large and they are
scattered across the country? Table 4-4 provides the process
used to identify the tasks and KSAs for salespeople at a large

computer firm in the United States with offices across the
country. Because of the breadth of the job—many different
types of equipment (hardware) were sold—and the many
different locations, the needs analysis was a major undertaking.
The effort was worthwhile, however, because important
information was obtained. For example, it was determined that
irrespective of the type of hardware sold (cash register or
computer), similar tasks and identical KSAs were required. It
was also determined that the job was the same in Los Angeles as
it was in Detroit. Finally, from the importance scale, it was
determined that a number of tasks and KSAs, although
performed, were not critical to effective job performance. For
example, knowledge of computer operations, and program
language, as well as the ability to write simple computer
programs were beneficial but not necessary because it was
possible to obtain such support in the field.
From these data, the company was able to refocus its selection
procedures to include the KSAs necessary at the time of hire
and to provide its training department with a clear picture of the
training necessary after the salespeople were hired.What to Ask
About?
Several job analysis techniques are available for gathering
information about a job. The two main categories are worker-
oriented and task-oriented approaches. A worker-oriented job
analysis focuses on the KSAs that are required on the job rather
than on the tasks or behaviors. Incumbents are asked to rate
how important a list of KSAs (e.g., far visual differentiation—
the ability to differentiate details at distances beyond arm’s
length—use of precision tools, use of measuring devices) is to
the job (see Figure 4-2). A drawback of this approach is that
task statements are not available to show how the KSAs are
linked to the tasks. Such a link not only provides justification
for the KSA requirements but also can be used to develop
scenarios for use in the actual training.TABLE 4-4 Assessment
Procedure Followed by a Large U.S. Computer Firm
· 1. Define the job in question. The analyst met with

management to discuss the scope of the assessment. It was
determined that the assessment would include all salespeople in
the company.
· 2. Who to ask. Because of possible differences between what
was being done in offices in different states, incumbents who
work in each state would need to provide input. Furthermore,
because of the different types of equipment being sold by
different salespeople, it would be necessary to have a
representative number of incumbents from these subgroups.
· 3. What method to use. Because of the need to include a large
number of incumbents who were located in different
geographical regions and sold different equipment, the
questionnaire method was chosen. This allowed a large number
of incumbents to provide input that could be easily analyzed.
· 4. Develop a questionnaire. To develop a questionnaire
relevant to the job, the analyst obtained job descriptions from
the various locations and for the different types of hardware
being sold. He then met with incumbents (in small groups) and
with supervisors (in separate small groups) to obtain input on
what tasks were done. After the tasks were identified, he asked
them to indicate the KSAs that they believed were necessary to
do the tasks. The small-group interviews were scheduled so that
out-of-state incumbents who were to be at the head office for
other reasons could attend, thus providing input from the
various states.
· 5. Rate importance of tasks and KSAs. The questionnaire
included all the tasks and KSAs that had been identified. Two
ratings were requested for each task and KSA. The first related
to how important the task (KSA) was to successful job
performance (see “How Important Is the Task?”).
How Important Is the Task?
· 1Not Very Important Poor performance on this task will not
affect the overall performance of the job.
· 2Somewhat Important Poor performance on this task will have
a moderate effect on the overall performance of the job.
· 3Important Poor performance on this task will have an effect

on the overall performance of the job.
· 4Very Important Poor performance on this task will have a
serious effect on the overall performance of the job.
· 6. Rate task importance for new hires. The other rating was
related to how important it was to be able to do the task
successfully at the time of hire. The following scale is used for
that rating.
Importance at the Time of Hire
· 1Not Important A person requires no specific capability in this
area when hired. Training will be provided for an individual to
become proficient in this area.
· 2Somewhat Important A person must have only a basic
capability in this area when hired. Experience on the job or
training is the primary method for becoming proficient in this
area.
· 3Important A person must show considerable proficiency in
this area when hired. There is time or training available only to
provide “fine tuning” once the person is on the job.
· 4Very Important A person must be completely proficient in
this area when hired. There is no time or training procedure
available to help an individual become proficient in this area
after being placed on the job.
· 7. Send out questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to all
incumbents and their immediate supervisors.
· 8. Analyze data. Returned data were analyzed to determine if
there were any differences between states and between
salespeople who sold different hardware.
· 9. Display analysis data. Those tasks that came up with a mean
rating of 2.5 and above were placed in the relevant quadrants
(see the following chart).
FIGURE 4-2 Worker Oriented Approach
The task-oriented job analysis, as the name implies, identifies
the various work activities (tasks) required to perform the job.
After the tasks are identified, systematically examine these
tasks to determine the KSAs necessary to perform them. Now

you have justification for the KSAs and potential ideas for
developing training. That is why this approach is preferred for a
TNA.
One example of the task-oriented approach is the job–duty–task
method, depicted in Figure 4-3. Note that the job is identified
first, and then each of the duties is written out. The writing out
of the duties provides a stimulus to generate tasks and subtasks
for each of these duties. From the duties, identify the relevant
tasks and any subtasks each of these tasks might have. Once all
the tasks are identified, identify the relevant KSAs required to
perform each of these tasks. This provides the justification for
requiring these KSAs. It is possible to list all duties first,
followed by tasks and subtasks for each duty, and then go back
and identify the KSAs for each of the tasks and subtasks. It is
equally appropriate to go through each duty, determine the
subtasks, and then identify the required KSAs before moving to
the next duty.
Determining what the incumbents do in the job identifies the
duties, tasks, and subtasks. This information is generally
obtained by interviewing several incumbents and their
supervisors. The list of tasks necessary to do the job is
developed by systematically examining each duty and inquiring
about the tasks. Identifying the required KSAs is carried out
through the examination of each task and asking the question,
“What KSAs are necessary to perform a particular task?”
Figure 4-4 depicts an example of a completed job–duty–task
method for the job of a HR professional.
Another step in the process is to determine how critical each of
the tasks is and how important it is to be able to perform the
task at the time of hire. By determining this aspect, you can
identify those tasks that new employees will be expected to be
able to perform at the time of hire and those that new employees
will not need at the time of hire (those that will require
training). To obtain this information, ask those providing
information to rate each of the tasks on a scale such as the one
depicted in Table 4-4. This step not only documents the

importance of the tasks but also provides valuable evidence for
which KSAs will be used in selecting employees and which will
not (and therefore require training). Finally, the KSAs
necessary to perform each of the important tasks and subtasks
are identified. These aspects should also be rated for importance
to the job and importance at the time of hire.
FIGURE 4-3 Example of Form for Recording Job-Duty-Task
Data
FIGURE 4-4 Example of Applying the Job-Duty-Task Analysis
to an HRD JobAnother step in the process is to determine how
critical each of the tasks is and how important it is to be able to
perform the task at the time of hire. By determining this aspect,
you can identify those tasks that new employees will be
expected to be able to perform at the time of hire and those that
new employees will not need at the time of hire (those that will
require training). To obtain this information, ask those
providing information to rate each of the tasks on a scale such
as the one depicted in Table 4-4. This step not only documents
the importance of the tasks but also provides valuable evidence
for which KSAs will be used in selecting employees and which
will not (and therefore require training). Finally, the KSAs
necessary to perform each of the important tasks and subtasks
are identified. These aspects should also be rated for importance
to the job and importance at the time of hire.FIGURE 4-
3 Example of Form for Recording Job-Duty-Task DataTABLE
4-5 A Comparison of the Outcomes for Worker- and Task-
Oriented Approaches to Job Analysis
Job
Task-Oriented Approach
Worker-Oriented Approach
Garage Attendant
Checks tire pressure
Obtains information from visual displays
Machinist
Checks thickness of crankshaft
Use of a measuring device

Dentist
Drills out decay from teeth
Use of precision instruments
Forklift Driver
Loads pallets of washers onto trucks
High level of eye-hand coordination
To understand the difference between the worker-oriented and
task-oriented approaches, note the different results obtained
using each of these methods, as depicted in Table 4-5.If There
Are No Incumbents Available
Incumbents are a critical group for obtaining information about
the job in a job analysis. But what if no incumbents are
available? In today’s environment of fast-changing technology,
jobs are constantly changing. In some cases, new technology
creates a job that requires skills distinctly different from the job
it is replacing. In the example cited earlier in this chapter,
management at the Heinz plant in Leamington ordered a state-
of-the-art ketchup machine. Previously, ketchup was made with
low-technology equipment. This new machine required new
skills, so the issue was to figure out how to perform a job
analysis for a job that did not exist. Dr. Mitchell Fields was
approached by Heinz Canada to assist in determining the
selection and training requirements for the new job. Table 4-
6 describes how Dr. Fields did this.WHAT YOU SHOULD GET
FROM THE JOB ANALYSIS (EP)
Using the task-oriented approach yields both the tasks and
KSAs required to perform the job. KSAs are important, as it is
the KSAs that need to be trained. But the tasks are also
important for the following reasons:
· • Identifying the expected behavior that needs to be performed
on the job and performance gaps
· • Developing actual training programs
· • Making subsequent evaluations of the training.10
Knowing all the tasks that are necessary to be effective in a
particular job provides justification for the KSAs that
employees are expected to have. In the ketchup machine

example, the machine operator was required to watch a video
display (which is two-dimensional) and make decisions about
the assembly line (which is three-dimensional). This justifies
the need for spatial relations skills as a job requirement.
A list of job-related tasks would also help develop training.
Once the tasks to be performed are known, training that closely
resembles the real job can be developed. Consider the job of a
customer service representative. We determined that one of the
important tasks is to “deal with irate customers.” We used this
task to help develop role-plays that closely emulate the real job.
The use of real-task behaviors in training makes the training
more relevant and interesting to trainees and assists in the
transfer of training.
Finally, we can use task information to develop tests that are
reflective not only of the training but also of the job. These
tests can be used in the person analysis phase to identify those
with training needs and can also serve to evaluate the
effectiveness of training.* Task identification leads to
identification of the KSAs necessary to do the job.Knowledge
All jobs require some type of knowledge. The job analysis
should provide a list of tasks that, when examined, will point to
the knowledge requirements necessary to be successful. For
example, if one of the tasks identified is to edit manuscripts
using Microsoft Word, then an inferred declarative knowledge
requirement would be knowledge of Microsoft Word edit
functions. Going back to our customer service job, we find that
knowledge of “steps in a conflict resolution model” would be
important.
*More will be said about how to develop tests in the person
analysis section later.TABLE 4-6 Job Analysis When There Are
No Incumbents
The H. J. Heinz Company in Leamington, Ontario, Canada, is
unionized. The union contract stipulates that new jobs go to
existing employees. The company was purchasing a new
machine for making ketchup and wanted to be sure that those
selected for this new job would have the KSAs to do the job. A

person analysis indicated that most employees did not have
much formal education and had very low reading levels. An
operational analysis (job analysis) is necessary to determine
future KSAs needed. But how do you do a job analysis when
there are no incumbents, as the job does not exist? Dr. Fields
outlines how he did the job analysis.
· 1. I contacted the manufacturer of the new equipment and
asked if that or similar equipment was being used elsewhere, so
that job analysis data could be obtained from another company.
In this case, no other application existed.
· 2. I obtained specifications and operating manuals for the new
machinery. The manuals were incomplete and difficult to
understand. In fact, they were more complex than they needed
to be. As a result, initially I thought that a high level of reading
comprehension would be necessary.
· 3. I interviewed engineers who were responsible for designing
the new machinery. This is where I received important
information as to its operation. However, the engineers tended
to overestimate the level of aptitude required. They believed
that operators would be making modifications to the
programming software. Further discussions revealed that for the
operator’s job, reading requirements were minimal. Operating
manuals were needed only for maintenance and repair.
· 4. I obtained blueprints and layouts of the physical equipment
and flowcharts of the operating software. This material
indicated that the operators would be required to interface with
a user-friendly, icon-driven software package (far less than the
complex programming tasks envisioned by the engineers).
· 5. I identified two main tasks. First, the operators would be
required to keep track of the mechanical operations of a number
of different (but integrated) assembly operations. I determined,
therefore, that mechanical aptitude was necessary. Second, the
operators had to look at a two-dimensional video display
terminal (VDT) and make decisions about the three-dimensional
assembly-line operation. Having skill in spatial relations,
therefore, would also be important.

· 6. On the basis of the skills identified, I suggested two
subtests of the Differential Aptitude Test for use in selection of
employees: mechanical comprehension and spatial relations
tests. All operators were selected from current employees. The
major advantage to these two tests is that reading level (which
was determined not to be important) is not a factor.
Assessing the need for declarative knowledge is possible using
traditional methods of job analysis, as just discussed. However,
some jobs will have knowledge requirements at the procedural
or strategic levels.11 The concern is that if the job is reduced to
individual tasks, the interrelatedness and complexity of the job
is lost.
The operational analysis for higher levels of knowledge would
be accomplished by examining the mental models of experts.
Here an “expert” could be a high-performing incumbent or
someone who performs the same job in another context (e.g.,
computer programmer). These types of analysis would be useful
when more advanced training is required. Techniques such as
multidimensional scaling and link-weighted methods can be
used to identify such structures.12 Space does not permit us to
explore this area in detail, but those interested in this approach
should consult more advanced texts and research papers.13Skill
The job analysis should also provide a list of all skills required
to successfully perform the job. Consider again our customer
service representative’s task of “dealing with an irate
customer.” This task requires conflict resolution skills. The
skills should be identified as to the level of mastery required
(e.g., compilation vs. automaticity). A completed job analysis
will identify a complete list of required KSAs for the
job.Attitude
What are the attitudinal outcomes from the job analysis? Many
job analysts do not incorporate attitudes into their model of job
analysis.14 The job analysis gives an understanding of the tasks
that must be carried out. For each task required, knowledge and
skills are inferred. However, many analysts stop here, and that
is not a good idea. We believe that attitudes are important. They

surface in our behavior, so an employee with a poor attitude
toward customers is inattentive to customer needs.15 To
determine attitudes of importance to the job, simply ask the
question, “Can you think of any attitudes or feelings a person
could have that might facilitate or inhibit an employee from
doing any part of this job well?”
What attitudes should a customer service representative have to
be successful? Would a positive attitude toward helping people
be useful? What about a job that requires working in teams?
Here, a person should have a positive attitude toward the team
approach or perhaps have a positive attitude toward working
with others. Such data provide the analyst with information on
what should be addressed in training. Just such an issue was of
concern in the new Ford assembly plant (see Training in Action
4-2). In this instance, the incumbents were unavailable because
the plant was not yet open. So the needs analysis was conducted
using their supervisors, who were brought on board early to
prepare the plant for opening.COMPETENCY MODELING
Another approach to conducting an operational analysis is to
identify key competencies of the job. Businesses are
increasingly adopting competency models, as they have proven
their value as an HR management tool.16
A competency is a cluster of related KSAs that differentiates
high performers from average performers.17 This definition is
specific to North America. Other countries, such as the United
Kingdom and Australia, define competencies as simply “what
someone needs to be doing to be competent at their job.”184-2
Training in Action Changing Attitudes Toward the Team
Approach
The Ford production plants have moved toward a team
approach. The team approach is part of the “Ford Production
System.” The Windsor Engine Plant was new, and there was an
agreement with the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) stipulating
that employees from other plants had first choice of the new
jobs.
Employees transferred from other plants for many reasons:

cleaner plant, closer to home, old job being phased out, and so
forth. Few transferred to work in a team environment. In fact, it
is well known that the CAW traditionally opposes such efforts.
They made an exception in the case of the Windsor Engine
Plant.
In the determination of the skills needed, it became evident that
many of the employees would be older, and the concern was that
they would be set in their ways and generally against the team
approach. The training consisted of team skills such as
communication, effective meeting, and problem-solving skills.
Also, a component was added to influence attitudes toward the
team approach.
This “component” consisted of an orientation to the team
process. Modules were designed to show the advantages of
teams for the company and workers. An exercise called “Best
Job/Worst Job” allowed trainees to describe what they
considered to be a “best job.” Then trainees were asked to
consider what teamwork provided in terms of what they would
do. Trainees discovered that their own description of a “best
job” looked quite similar to what their job would look like in a
team environment. The training also provided a six-hour session
on individual growth and self-fulfillment. It was assumed that
helping employees to focus on these issues would improve their
attitudes toward the team approach.
Did the training have a significant impact on attitudes? No one
knows for sure. After all the time and money spent on the
training, there was no formal evaluation of the process. This
omission should not be a surprise, as you will see in Chapter
9 on evaluation.
Some disagreement arises as to whether deriving competencies
is a process different from job analysis. Some experts in the HR
field indicate that the process is the same, but the many have
suggested that it is different.19 The major difference is that
traditional job analysis identifies the “tasks” (or the “what”)
that are done on the job, leading to the determination of
knowledge and skills but not attitudes. A competency-based

approach focuses on all the characteristics that underlie
successful performance,20 not just on the knowledge and skills
required for the tasks. Competencies place equal weight on
attitudes, and motivation, in addition to knowledge and skills.
Because we incorporate attitudes into our job analysis model,
we are more in line with this approach. The process for
determining competencies is similar to the typical job analysis.
Before discussing the “how-to” regarding competencies, let’s
look at the makeup of one.
Consider the competency “time management” for a manager.
Skills for this competency include delegating work, prioritizing
assignments, and making to-do lists. The knowledge required is
“knowledge of the value of a manager’s time.” For example, if
the manager knew that she was valued at $120 per hour, it
would help her see the value of determining what she does and
what she should delegate. Attitudes reflecting “I have no one I
can trust to do this,” “I cannot say no,” or “It is quicker if I do
it myself” all get in the way of effective delegation, which in
turn affects time management. So, in order for a manager to be
effective in this competency (time management) she will need
to develop new attitudes, such as “It may take more time now
delegate this task and show the person what needs to be done,
but in the long run it will save me time,” and “I know my boss
will be disappointed if I say no to this request, but she will be
more disappointed if I say yes and don’t get higher priority
work completed.” These attitudes will support the manager’s
motivation to delegate tasks which will lead to more effective
time management.Why Competencies?
When compared with KSAs, competencies
· • are more general in nature.
· • create a common vocabulary to discuss successful
performance.
· • help employees better understand how to target their efforts.
· • promote dialogue between managers and employees that
focuses on performance.
· • have a longer-term fit.

· • include knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motivation.
· • tie into corporate goals.21
Development of competency models helps companies
understand the key factors required for high performance.
Competencies identify capabilities and, therefore, are applicable
to more than one job. In some cases, competencies are
applicable to everyone at a particular level no matter what
department, such as all first-line supervisors, or even multiple
levels of a job, such as all managers. Table 4-7 provides an
example of a competency that is used for all levels of
management. Note that while the competency remains the same
for different levels of management, the behaviors expected are
different. In this way, the focus is always on the same set of key
competencies but with different behaviors required, depending
on the management level.
In today’s environment, jobs are always changing. Even shop-
floor jobs are under constant change, in many cases requiring
more decision-making and other new responsibilities. This
constant evolving means that the specifics obtained in job
analysis can become dated. A more general focus of
competencies is advantageous to such ever-changing jobs.22
Using competencies makes it easier to identify the emotional
aspects of work performance. For example, organizations
increasingly focus on issues such as “meeting customer
expectations.” This area of the job, which requires dealing with
people rather than producing goods, requires a broad view of
good performance. Many argue that this broad view is easier to
obtain using competency models.
Finally, in the process of developing the job competencies, a
great deal of effort is made to understand the business context
and competitive strategy. Competencies are then developed with
a focus on these broader goals of the organization in
conjunction with the specific job in question.23TABLE 4-7
Demonstration of the Competency
Competency

First Level
Mid Level
Senior Level
Customer Orientation
Develops customer consciousness in others
Communicates and resolves conflict
Ensures work (own and team) exceeds customer expectations
Understands customer needs and translates to the goals of the
organization
Fosters process improvement and change with linkages to
customer groups
Instills and maintains customer focus of work unit
Establishes a relationship at the strategic level
Gains trust of customers
Formulates strategies to meet identified and anticipated
requirements
Is considered by customers to be an extension of the
organizationHow You Develop Competencies
Several methods have been used to develop competency
models.24 According to Maxine Dalton of the Center for
Creative Leadership, some are not very effective. She indicated
that about 70 percent of competency models are just a list of
positive attributes obtained in a half-day meeting with senior
management.25
Generally, more methodologically sound procedures entail the
following process:
· • Meet with upper management to
· • determine strategies, goals, specific challenges, or specific
focus, and
· • generate some tentative competencies.
· • Identify specific jobs.
· • Meet with high performers of those jobs and their
supervisors to
· • determine critical incidents that make “high performers”
different from average performers,
· • focus on the aspects that tie into the strategic direction of the

company, and
· • formulate some tentative competencies.
· • Determine the competencies that overlap with upper-
management competencies.
· • Verify the preceding information with another group of high
performers and their supervisors.
· • Link this information to job analysis information obtained
from the job to articulate specific KSAs that make up the
competency.
Regarding the last point, competency models are more general
and fit several jobs. Linking these competencies to the KSAs of
the job will ensure that the competencies are not only valid but
also able to stand up in court. This linkage also provides the
information needed to develop training. Having the KSAs that
make up the competency helps determine what the training
should look like.Issues Related to Competencies
When carried out correctly, a job analysis is scientific and
defendable in court. It reflects what is required to do the job,
thus making selection, training, and performance appraisal
relevant and valid. However, sometimes organizations develop
competency models with little understanding of the process
outlined above (see Training in Action 4-3). This can lead to the
identification of inappropriate competencies and possible
problems should they be challenged in legal proceedings.
Competency models continue to be developed, particularly for
training and development, for the following reasons:
· • Training based only on task analysis can become dated
quickly as the nature of work undergoes constant dynamic
change.
· • Hourly paid employees are expected to participate much
more in decision making and ensure customer satisfaction,
rather than simply produce a product.4-3 Training in
Action Development of Competencies
The consultant was discussing a training need with a client. As
they finished, the client said “I’d like to ask you a question
about competencies? The consultant said OK and the client

indicated that she had just completed a survey of her company’s
managers, asking them to identify the competencies that would
be required for the various manager positions. She indicated
that so far she had gathered over 50 and wondered if the
consultant would mind looking at them. “Perhaps,” she said,
“you might be able to think of some important ones that they
had not thought of.” The consultant, whose training firm deals
with these issues all the time, thought it might be useful to
provide her with a mini lecture on what competencies are and
are not. He suggested that rather than go through the list they
go for coffee and discuss it. Once they sat down with their
coffee, the consultant began, “The problem is that most
managers and many trainers do not understand what a
competency is.” When managers are asked to think of all the
competencies necessary to be effective in their job, often what
is obtained is a list of what managers believe is important to
effective performance. The managers usually identify things
like initiative, decisiveness, leadership, analytical ability and so
forth. In fact, the list really ends up being what you would like
a person to be like and not what is required to be effective on
the job, which of course is the problem. Too often determining
competencies is not done in a methodologically sound way to
obtain the information you really want; and so you get wish lists
of traits, characteristics, skills, and attitudes with little
organization to them. “Well,” said the client, “I guess we better
talk a bit more about this.”
· • Corporate downsizing forces a move away from tight job
design to more flexible job design.
· • Competencies help the HRD department focus its training.
This latter point is particularly important. Competencies not
only are related to each managerial level in the organization but
also are tied to the strategic direction of the organization.
Furthermore, by definition, competencies are what separate high
performers from others. With limited resources, decisions
related to what needs to be provided in the way of management
training are clear.

In very well run organizations, the HR department has a human
resource information system (HRIS). This system provides
information on individual managers in terms of what positions
they have held, what training they have received, their
performance levels related to the competencies, and, of specific
interest to the HRD department, required competency training
for managers. This system makes the task of identifying what
training needs to be offered much easier. Examination of the
HRIS tells the HRD manager how many need training in each of
the competencies. Use of competencies also makes it easier for
managers to identify employee strengths and weaknesses,
thereby facilitating employees’ developmental goals. The easier
and clearer the process is, the more likely managers will take
the time to do it.26
Some concern might be raised that competencies are not
developed with the rigor of job analysis, and the lack of
specificity might not be able to withstand possible court
challenges. We argue that as with any tool, proper methodology
will result in relevant and definable competencies.
Organizations that decide to use competencies should not
abandon job analysis, but use its methodology to demonstrate
the link between the relevant KSAs and key competencies of the
job.
Now let’s go back and consider the total operational analysis
process, whether KSAs or competencies are used. Data related
to the job are gathered to determine standards for acceptable
performance. From these standards, criteria are developed.
Developing criteria is an important but complex process, so an
examination of the issues involved in criterion development is
presented in Appendix 4.1. Understanding this information will
also help you understand the criterion issues related to
evaluation presented in Chapter 9.Person Analysis
There is a long-standing rule in carpentry that says “measure
twice, cut once.” The point of this is that if you don’t have your
measurements right, then you just waste your time and
material.

The same applies to the person analysis. If you don’t measure
your KSAs well, you will waste time and resources. The
operational analysis determines the tasks (or competencies) and
KSAs necessary to reach or exceed EP. It is also where the
measures for these things are created. A person analysis will
identify those incumbents who are not meeting the performance
requirements and will determine why. Those not meeting
performance requirements are relatively easy to identify. What
is more difficult is determining whether they have KSAs needed
to meet EP. Here, each employee is examined to determine if
they have the necessary KSAs to meet performance
expectations. Imagine that the EOP for a department that
assembles widgets is five rejects per month. This department’s
AOP is 20 rejects per month. This triggers a TNA. The
operational analysis identifies the KSAs necessary to build the
widgets properly. A person analysis is conducted to identify
those not meeting the EP and to determine which, if any, of the
employees do not have the required KSAs. Those employees
will be sent to training. Recall from the needs analysis model at
the beginning of the chapter that the formula for a PG is:
Expected performance − Actual performance = Performance
gap*
A PG is most often thought of in the reactive sense, as the
difference between EP and AP. For example, assume that the
standard number of snowmobile trailers that a “Builder Class 2”
is expected to produce is 1.5 per day. For the last three weeks,
three employees in this class are averaging 0.6 trailers per day.
The PG is 0.9 trailers per day (1.5 − .6 = .9).
In the proactive analysis, the EOP is what is needed in the
future and AOP is the likely performance level with current
KSAs. Suppose that the trailer manufacturer in the preceding
example decides to purchase equipment that will bend the trailer
frame to the correct shape, eliminating several welds. The
engineering studies indicate that this change in production
process will increase the “Builder Class 2” output to three

trailers per day. At the present KSA level, “Builder Class 2”
employees are expected to produce 1.5 trailers per day. Here,
the PG is the “future” required performance level (three trailers
per day) minus their predicted performance level in the future,
given their current level of KSAs. This PG will be 1.5 trailers
per day. In addition to collecting information regarding the PG,
you should also examine individual differences that might be
present in the trainee population, which might affect the type of
training you offer. Self-efficacy of trainees, for example, has
been shown to be an important variable related to successful
completion of training. Refer back to Figure 3-6 (page 77) for a
number of areas to consider related to individual
differences.WHERE TO COLLECT DATA (AP)
Table 4-8 shows sources for person analysis information. The
decision of what to measure and how to measure it is made in
the Operational Analysis. Once these decisions are made the
measures themselves need to be developed. The development of
the measures also occurs in the Operational Analysis. We
discuss them here in the Person Analysis because of the close
connection between what evaluative measures are used and what
is learned about the people who are evaluated.
We will discuss two of the more commonly used sources,
performance appraisal and proficiency tests, in some detail. We
will also address the less commonly used attitude
survey.Performance Appraisal
Supervisors are the ones who most often complete performance
appraisals.27 If supervisory ratings actually provided an
accurate assessment of an employee’s performance gaps, other
assessment tools would hardly be necessary. But these ratings
often suffer from a lack of reliability and validity for a number
of reasons:
· • Lack of supervisor training on how to use appraisals
· • Lack of opportunity for the supervisor to see substantial
amounts of a subordinate’s performance
*Recall that this “performance gap” is different from the
“organizational performance gap” in that it is obtained through

comparing the operational analysis (what is required) with the
person analysis (how the person actually performs). It is the
combination of PGs that create the OPG.TABLE 4-8 Data
Sources for Person Analysis
Sources for Obtaining Data
Training Need Implications
Remarks
· 1.Supervisor Performance Appraisals
Useful if done specifically for TNA.
Supervisor ratings often not just for TNA, and often not done
well.
· 2.Performance Data
· a. Productivity
· b. Absenteeism and tardiness
· c. Accidents
· d. Grievances
· e. Waste
· f. Product quality
· g. Downtime
· h. Customer complaints
Shows who is not meeting performance standards, but not why.
Useful, easy to analyze and quantify for the purposes of
determining actual performance.
· 3.Observation—Work Sampling
More subjective technique but provides both employee behavior
and results of the behavior.
This is done effectively in some situations such as customer
service where employees know that the telephone calls
employees answer from customers can be monitored.
· 4.Interviews/Questionnaires
Used here to focus on employee’s perception of her training
needs and attitudes. Also involvement in TNA motivates
employees to learn.
Need to be sure employee believes it is in her best interest to be
honest; otherwise, she may not be forthcoming as you would
like. Also she may not know what her needs are.

· 5.Job Knowledge Tests
Shows specific KSA levels.
Care in the development of tests and scoring keys is important
and difficult to do if not trained in the process. Can be tailor-
made or standardized.
· 6.Skills Tests
Simulations
· • Role-play
· • Case study
· • Business games
· • In basket
Certain knowledge, skills, and or attitudes are demonstrated in
these techniques.
Care must be taken so that they measure job-related qualities.
Useful, but again, care in development of scoring criteria is
important.
· 7.Assessment Centers
Combination of several of the above techniques into an
intensive assessment program.
Although expensive, these are very good as they use multiple
raters and exercises to assess employees. Also, criteria for
performance are well developed.
· 8.Coaches
Have extensive interactions with trainee and can get a good feel
for gaps in competencies.
Coaches must be competent to assess training needs.
· 9.Individual’s objectives
Shows the relationship between performance data and the
individuals’ goals.
Good process when implemented properly.
· • Rater errors such as bias and halo and leniency effects,
among others
· • Poorly developed appraisals and appraisal processes
If appraisal instruments are developed properly and the process
of completing them is followed conscientiously, performance
appraisals can be a valuable source of employee training needs.

The literature, however, suggests that this is not often the case.
Supervisor ratings provide less-than-accurate assessments of the
incumbent’s KSAs for both political and interpersonal
reasons.28 This inaccuracy is less likely to occur if performance
appraisal information is gathered specifically for employee
development, where the climate in the organization fosters such
development.29
Several things can be done to minimize problems with
supervisor ratings, such as:
· • Have the appraisal system be relevant to the job. Sometimes
appraisals are too generic to meet specific needs. Also, they
need to be acceptable to both supervisor and employee.30
· • Be sure that the supervisor has access to relevant
information to make accurate appraisals. As noted earlier, in
some cases, supervisors are not in contact with subordinates
often enough on the job to be aware of their performance.31
· • Provide incentives for supervisors to complete accurate
ratings. One way to do this is to use the performance appraisal
for the TNA only. As Murphy and Cleveland note,
· “It is likely that a supervisor experiences little conflict when
information from a performance appraisal is being used for
providing feedback to employees on their strengths and
weaknesses and to recommend employees to training
programs.”32
One way to obtain better supervisor assessments is to provide
training on how to complete such appraisals. Training should
address how to avoid various types of rater bias, such as
halo33 and leniency34 effects.
Another concern is that for some jobs, such as teaching and
sales, supervisors do not often get to see the employee in
action. Sometimes the supervisor is unfamiliar with the job
details. Perhaps the best way to deal with these concerns is
similar to the method suggested for dealing with gathering job
analysis data: The more the perspectives, the better the picture.
For this reason, it is useful to consider additional potential
raters of employee performance.Self-Ratings

A possible way to determine employee needs is through self-
ratings. Much of the research on self-ratings suggests that the
individual tends to overrate her capabilities. However, evidence
also indicates that the inflated ratings are a function of the
rating instruments rather than the individual attempting to
sound better.35Also, when self-raters understand the
performance system, they are more likely to agree with
supervisor ratings.36 These findings suggest that self-ratings
are accurate if subordinates are more involved in the
development of the appraisal process.
McEnery and McEnery examined self-ratings and supervisory
ratings gathered for a needs analysis related to training.37 They
noted that self-ratings were inflated but were also more
discriminating in identifying different needs than were
supervisory ratings. Furthermore, the results suggested that
supervisory assessment of “subordinate needs” more closely
resembled the needs of the raters themselves. More recent
research noted that self-ratings actually have lower
measurement errors than supervisor ratings on some
performance dimensions.38 In short, self-ratings are an
important part of any needs assessment.
Generally, the more sources used to gather information, the
higher the reliability and validity of the results. This tendency
supports use of the 360-degree performance review, by which an
employee rates himself on a number of dimensions and receives
ratings on these dimensions from his supervisor, peers,
subordinates, and sometimes even customers.39 This
information is fed back to the individual. This broader view
takes pressure off the supervisor, especially when others in the
loop agree more with the supervisor than with the individual.
Such data provide a springboard for dialogue between the
supervisor and the subordinate regarding the subordinate’s
needs. Also, there is evidence that those being appraised view
this process more positively than they do the traditional
methods of appraisal.40
The advantages of this process are that the various groups see

the person under different conditions, maintain different
relationships with the individual, and also have different
expectations regarding performance. Evidence indicates that
ratees find feedback from peers and subordinates particularly
useful in planning their developmental goals.41 As noted
before, the more the sources of such information, the better. The
disadvantages of the 360-degree performance
review are the amount of time it takes and the cost of
implementation. If not properly integrated into the company’s
HR system, it can also lead to negative results.42 So, for it to
be effective, a supportive climate is necessary for development
in general,43 and, as always, support from top management is
helpful.44
4-4 Training in Action
Most managers at United Parcel Service (UPS) participate in a
360-degree feedback process. They are measured on a number
of critical skills such as “customer focus,” “people skills,”
“business values,” and so forth. To be effective, however,
managers need to understand why this 360 degree feedback is
useful, and how it will work. To assure this happens, HR
trainers hold short training sessions to explain the purpose and
process of 360-degree feedback to all involved, as well as to
provide them with training in feedback skills.
Each manager that has received the training will then begin to
rate peers, supervisors and subordinates as well as be rated by
their peers supervisors and subordinates on a semiannual basis.
After receiving their ratings, the managers and their supervisors
will have a discussion about the feedback. Objectives for
improvement over the next six months are set, and the manager
has the option of attending programs that provide skills training
and practice in areas identified as requiring improvement. This
process is repeated every six months to determine where
improvement has occurred and setting new objectives based on
the new 360 degree feedback data. What has been the reaction
by those being rated? According to one of the trainers at UPS

most employees have responded very positively. But the trainer
goes on to say that an important part of the implementation was
making sure all those affected understood the purpose of the
process and were given appropriate training in how to give and
receive feedback.
To summarize, performance assessments designed to focus on
development are more likely to provide accurate data than are
more generic or all-purpose appraisals. Also, to determine
developmental needs, both supervisory ratings and self-ratings
should be gathered. Both parties need to be involved in the
assessment process. As McEnery and McEnery suggest, the
supervisor provides a valuable perspective on the subordinate’s
needs. The subordinate gains insight into his needs through
discussion with the supervisor. This process will also improve
communication between the supervisor and the subordinate and
will serve to improve the accuracy of the assessment. The 360-
degree feedback data are also very useful in determining an
employee’s needs. These data will allow for an examination of
the performance from a broader perspective. It is important,
however, that if 360-degree feedback is being used, it must be
incorporated properly into the organization. United Parcel
Service, in Training in Action 4-4, seems to be doing it
properly.
Rather than rely on ratings of job performance an alternative is
to test individuals under controlled conditions. Testing can
measure either knowledge (cognitive) or skills ((behavior).
Job Knowledge (Cognitive) Tests
A cognitive test measures a person’s knowledge. Every job has
a knowledge component. Plumbers need to understand
government regulations for installing water and drainage
systems in a house, supervisors need to understand the
procedures for assigning overtime, and salespeople need to
understand the procedures for accepting returned merchandise.
A cognitive test to measure that job knowledge can be
developed or found in the marketplace. For example, there are
paper and pencil tests that are available in the public domain.

The Mental Measurements Yearbook,™ a publication produced
by the Buros Institute of Mental Measurements at the University
of Nebraska, provides users with a comprehensive guide to over
2,700 contemporary testing instruments. Typically, the type of
knowledge examined in the TNA is declarative knowledge. But
remember that there are also two higher-level knowledge
outcomes: procedural and strategic. One final note about
cognitive (and other) tests: A common belief holds that a
specific time limit needs to be given for a test. Understand that
speed tests provide different information than power
tests.45 Speed tests should be given only if speed in retrieving
and using information is an important job characteristic. If,
however, the critical component is accuracy of retrieval and use
of the knowledge, time limits should not be used. In general,
however, power tests do need some sort of time limit, as
without one, some trainees will remain for twice the time
of others to check and recheck their answers. A good approach
is to indicate a general time limit (e.g., about one hour). When
the time is up, ask, “How much time do you need to finish?”
This question is usually enough incentive for those who are
simply reluctant to hand the test in.
Declarative Knowledge Tests
If the job requires some sort of factual knowledge, such as
“rules covering search and seizure” or “understanding the type
of question that cannot be asked in an interview,” a test can be
developed to determine whether trainees have this declarative
knowledge. Paper-and-pencil tests such as the multiple-choice
test are often used. One concern in using such tests is that they
might reflect the reading level of the participant when reading
is not an important skill for the job. If you are concerned about
the knowledge level of incumbents and reading is not a required
KSA, paper-and-pencil tests would not be appropriate. In such
cases, these tests could be given orally.
Multiple-choice tests offer many advantages. They can assess
the knowledge of a large number of employees at a lower cost
than most other forms of measurement. They are easy to

administer and score and, when skillfully developed, can
accurately measure knowledge.46 A big advantage of multiple-
choice tests is that their reliability is typically higher than other
types of tests. This is especially true when they are well
constructed. Also, because of the number of questions that can
be asked, it is possible to cover a broader range of the content
than with other methods. Some trainees indicate that they are
not good at taking multiple-choice tests. However, evidence
suggests that such tests consistently correlate highly with other
forms of testing. The major difficulty with this type of test is in
the construction of the items. A complete discussion on how to
write good multiple-choice questions is beyond the scope of this
text, but some general rules to consider in constructing
questions are found in Table 4-9. Table 4-10 provides some
examples of common errors in the development of multiple-
choice tests and how to fix them. More comprehensive
information can be found in Evaluating Training Programs, a
book published by the American Society for Training and
Development.47 It might be wise to contact a local university
and discuss the project with someone who has the appropriate
background. Even small companies with limited budgets should
be able to obtain such help from a supervised graduate student
eager to get some real-world experience.
Procedural Knowledge
The second type of knowledge is procedural knowledge. Here,
the learner begins to develop meaningful ways of organizing
information into mental models. Mental models are also known
as cognitive maps, knowledge structures, and task schemata. As
mentioned earlier in the chapter, experts develop more complex
mental models for the way they organize their knowledge than
do new learners. As a result, the expert can access a solution
strategy more quickly.
There are several techniques for assessing how someone has
organized procedural knowledge.48 One method uses paired
comparisons to determine how the person sees the relationship
between topics. For example, trainers could be asked to indicate

the relationships among several training concepts, such as
instructional design, criterion development, needs assessment,
organizational analysis, and so on. Then, these relationships
would be compared with the relationships identified by an
expert. Another method (see Figure 4-5) uses a configuration of
concepts that are linked. Some of the links are blank, and the
trainee must place the appropriate concepts in the blanks next to
the one that makes a best fit. Strategies for measuring these
structures are too comprehensive to be discussed here, but
several publications deal with this topic.49
Strategic Knowledge
The category of strategic knowledge deals with the ability to
develop and apply cognitive strategies used in problem solving.
It assesses the trainee’s level of understanding about the
decisions or choices a trainee must make. Determining a
person’s strategic knowledge is more difficult than the other
two types of knowledge. One process that is useful is called
Probed Protocol Analysis.50 First, subject matter experts define
a problem and the strategies necessary to solve it. Trainees are
then asked to explain step-by-step what they would do to solve
the problem. Questions such as “Why would you do that?”
“What would it mean if it did not help?” and “What other test
could you do?” help determine the trainees’ strategies. Once
again, for more detailed information, several excellent
publications are available.51
TABLE 4-9 Guidelines for Developing a Multiple-Choice Test
TABLE 4-10 Examples of Mistakes in Developing Multiple-
Choice Questions
Example 1
The stem of the original item below fails to present the problem
adequately or to set a frame of reference for responding.
Original
Revised
Who do you go to when you have a conflict?
· a. Superior/Supervisor

· b. Subordinate
· c. Colleague
· d. Customers/Stakeholders
Revised
Who should you go to when you have a conflict at work?
· a. Superior/Supervisor
· b. Subordinate
· c. Colleague
· d. Customers/Stakeholders
Example 2
There should be no grammatical clues to the correct answer (a =
a).
Original
Barack Obama was a:
· a. senator from Illinois
· b. eastern European
· c. Arabic prophet
· d. Imam
Revised
Barack Obama was a:
· a. a senator from Illinois
· b. an Eastern European
· c. an Arabic prophet
· d. an Imam
Example 3
Alternatives should not overlap (e.g., in the original form of
this item, if either of the first two alternatives is correct, “C” is
also correct.)
Original
How old were you when you first started smoking?
· a. While in grade school.
· b. While in middle school.
· c. Before I graduated from high school
· d. After I graduated from high school
Revised
How old were you when you first started smoking?

· a. Less than 10 years old.
· b. Between 10 and 15 years old.
· c. Between 16 and 19 years old.
· d. Over 19 years old.
Example 4
Example of how the greater similarity among alternatives
increases the difficulty of the item.
Easier
Which of the following statements about training in different
cultures is true?
· a. Europeans will resist training that requires trainee
involvement.
· b. Russians require training to be attention Grabbing.
· c. Asians look forward to the “flash” of North American–style
training.
· d. Greeks require lots of technical components to be
successful.
Harder
Which of the following statements about training in different
cultures is true?
· a. Europeans require training to be attention grabbing.
· b. Russians require training to be attention grabbing.
· c. Asians require training to be attention grabbing.
· d. Greeks require training to be attention grabbing.Skills
(Behavioral Tests)
Behavioral tests measure skills and are an important means of
determining an employee’s training needs. Such tests can
incorporate work samples, which are simply work situations
designed to reflect what actually happens in the workplace.
Standardized rating methods are developed so that everyone is
presented with the same situation and measured according to
preset criteria. For example, a welder might be required to
measure and cut three pieces of channel iron and then weld
them at right angles to make a U; a salesclerk might be required
to respond to an irate customer who provides standardized
antagonistic responses to the salesclerk’s handling of a

situation; or a manager might be required to make
a presentation to a boss on the advantages of going global. An
important part of the development of these types of tests is
determining the criteria for successful performance. In the case
of the welders test noted above, what amount of error in
measurement is still considered acceptable; 1/8 inch, 3/16, 3/8?
Also, what error in terms of the 90 degree angles is acceptable?
And finally how strong does the weld have to be? These data
would all be used in grading the welders test, and where she
was not up to standards would be the PG for that
welder. Assessment centers are an expansion of the work sample
approach. They often involve several work samples and other
tests along with assessors who evaluate individuals in different
situations. Although assessment centers are costly to develop
and administer (they often require two to three days off-site),
they provide a comprehensive analysis of needs, especially for
managerial positions.
FIGURE 4-5 Test of Knowledge Organization for Civil
Engineers52
In addition, there are many simulations that can be used to
assess an employee’s skills. Equipment simulators, role plays,
business games and so on can be used to determine a person’s
skills in particular situations. As indicated in the first chapter,
skills can be broken down into two levels, compilation and
automaticity. The focus of the person analysis will depend on
the level of skill required that was determined in the operational
analysis.Compilation
Developing behavioral tests and standards for scoring such tests
can be difficult. A number of situations need to be created in
which the trainee is required to demonstrate the target skill(s).
The difficulty lies in developing scoring standards. Consider a
study that examined the training of machinists.53 It was noted
that passing the training was more a function of the trainer who
was running the course than of the trainees. Different trainers
used different standards for passing. This problem should have
been addressed in the TNA where the performance standards for

the job were identified and the employee’s skills were measured
to see if they met expectations. Criteria based on tolerance
requirements and finished specifications should have been used
to determine who needs training. These criteria, once
developed, are incorporated into the training objectives that will
be developed to guide the training. They also become clear
standards from which to evaluate the effectiveness of the
training. For skills that have a specific output, such as a part for
an automobile, assessment simply compares what was produced
with what was required. For other skills, such as those required
for conflict resolution, assessment could occur through the use
of a structured role-play scenario in which a person acts in an
angry and aggressive manner and the employee responds. These
types of tests can be scored using multiple raters or
standardized forms. Achieving inter-rater agreement is
important in developing such tests. This consistency is
accomplished through standardized methods of rating that are
clear to the trainer or whoever is required to conduct the
testing.Automaticity
In some cases, the skill must be so well learned that it can be
done quickly and without much thought. For this level of skill,
the assessment would need to use more stringent criteria for
what constitutes successful performance. One method for
determining whether the trainee reached automaticity would be
the speed that required performance was completed and the
quality of the response. Emergency procedures for commercial
pilots would be an example of skills that are actually
periodically tested using aircraft simulators.Attitude Measures
Attitudes are an important part of organizational effectiveness.
If, for example, the team approach is an organizational
objective, then attitudes toward this approach are important.
Some organizations routinely conduct various attitude surveys.
In such a situation, a scale related to the attitude toward
teamwork could simply be included. If this practice does not
exist, it might be useful to consider instituting one. At the very
least, organizations could survey trainees before training to

determine how they feel about teams and teamwork (if
teamwork was a PG).
Developing attitude scales requires a great deal of skill;
therefore, it is much better to use well-developed scales found
in the literature. Numerous attitude scales are available through
journals (Personnel Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology,
Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management
Review, Academy of Management Executive) and books
(Assessing Organizational Change, The Experience of Work,
Buros Book of Mental Measurements). Another source that
publishes such scales is the Institute for Social Research at the
University of Michigan.54 Contacting a local university’s
psychology department or business school for help in this area
would likely yield good results. Graduate students are always
anxious to apply their knowledge in real-world situations.
Developing attitude scales requires care, and you should use
existing scales whenever possible rather than attempting to
develop one yourself. However, items in the survey might need
to be reworded to reflect the specific training being done. An
example of an attitude scale (attitude toward empowerment) can
be found in Table 4-11.Gathering Data for the TNA: Final
Thoughts
For a conceptual understanding of the types of data required to
conduct a TNA, it is useful to divide the TNA input phase into
three distinct stages: organization, operation, and person.
Practically, however, they are highly interrelated, can be
conducted the same time and usually require some amount of
moving back and forth among the levels of analysis. The
sources for each of these analyses, as found in Tables 4-1, 4-3,
and 4-8, have a great deal of overlap. For example, if you were
interviewing incumbents regarding operational analysis, you
would at the same time obtain information regarding roadblocks
to getting the job done, which is part of the organizational
analysis. When you examine the performance data for the
person analysis, it is useful to determine any structural reasons
for the poor performance, which is part of the organizational

analysis. This gathering of multiple levels of information at one
time is again illustrated in the Fabrics, Inc. example at the end
of this chapter.
Once the operational analysis data determine the KSAs for the
job, the person analysis will determine whether each of the
relevant employees possesses these KSAs. For those who do
not,
the PG between what is required and what the employee has
serves as the impetus for designing and developing necessary
training.TABLE 4-11 Examples of Attitude Questions
Attitudes toward Empowerment
Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with
the following statements.
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
· 1. Empowering employees is just another way to get more
work done with fewer people. [Reverse scored]
¯1
¯2
¯3
¯4
¯5
· 2. Empowering employees allows everyone to contribute their
ideas for the betterment of the company.
¯1
¯2
¯3
¯4
¯5
· 3. The empowerment program improved my relationship with
my supervisor.
¯1
¯2

¯3
¯4
¯5
· 4. Empowerment brought more meaning to my life at this
company.
¯1
¯2
¯3
¯4
¯5
· 5. Empowerment interventions should be introduced in other
plants in this company.
¯1
¯2
¯3
¯4
¯5
· 6. The empowerment process provided a positive influence in
labor–management relations.
¯1
¯2
¯3
¯4
¯5
For the TNA to be effective, it is important that employee
development be of high concern to both the individual and the
organization. This is more likely to occur when an organization
does the following:
· • Puts procedures in place that allow for developmental
appraisals to take place regularly and separately from appraisals
used for other personnel decisions
· • Allows the individual to provide input into the process
through self-appraisal
· • Places a high value on developing subordinates by rewarding
supervisors who spend time doing so
· • Provides systematic opportunities for employees to receive

the training and mentoring necessary for development
Although having these procedures in place will serve the
organization well, it is still not enough! Numerous stories
recount supervisors who simply go through the motions of a
performance appraisal and employee development and then get
on with the “real work.” Such attitudes on the part of
supervisors are likely to undermine any employee development
system. Subordinates’ perceptions of the process must also be
positive, and they must believe that training will be useful in
their development, particularly when self-assessment is being
used in the TNA.55
Recall from the analysis phase of the training model that the
organizational, operational, and person analyses are the inputs.
The process is the identification of the gap, which is done by
comparing the AP with the EP. The resulting PGs become the
output of the TNA.OUTPUT OF TNA
As noted in the training model at the start of the chapter,
outputs include both training and nontraining needs. Training
needs are dealt with by designing appropriate training programs,
which are discussed in Chapter 5. Here, we examine nontraining
needs.Nontraining Needs
Nontraining needs include those that show no gap in required
KSAs and those characterized by a KSA gap but for which
training is not the best solution. First, let’s examine those that
show no KSA deficiency, as depicted in Figure 4-
1.NONTRAINING NEEDS THAT HAVE NO KSA GAP
These PGs are not a result of a lack of KSAs, but a result of the
following:
· • Performance consequence incongruence
· • Inadequate or inappropriate feedback
· • Barriers to performance in the system
No amount of KSA development will improve performance in
situations where these PGs exist. The causes of these PGs will
be uncovered in the organizational and operational
analysis.Performance Consequence Incongruence
Can working at the expected level of performance be punishing?

The answer is yes, it can. Consider Nancy, the employee who
always has her work done on time and done well. The other
three employees in the department often complete assignments
late, and their work tends to be done sloppily. Now the
supervisor has a very difficult assignment that must be done in
record time. Whoever gets the job will need to work late for the
next few weeks. Who is assigned to the job? Nancy, of course.
Nancy’s reward for being a good performer is to get the
difficult assignments that require staying late to complete. Soon
Nancy catches on and begins acting more like the rest of the
employees in her department. When Nancy is not working at the
expected level, providing her with training will not help. Her
lower performance is not a KSA problem. So, although training
for Nancy will not help, training her supervisor how to motivate
all department employees might be useful. It would also be
useful to have systems in place to motivate the supervisor to
reward employees appropriately.Inadequate or Inappropriate
Feedback
Another nontraining need comes from employees not receiving
appropriate feedback. Numerous examples tell of employees
who believe they are good performers, but their supervisors
believe otherwise. Supervisors generally dislike providing
negative feedback.56 In fact, some suggest that it is the most
disliked of all managerial activities.57 So they simply do not
say anything to the employees. Once again, the problem is not a
training issue for the subordinate, but it could be for the
supervisor.Barriers to Performance
Conditions in the workplace that obstruct the desired
performance level are a third reason for deficiencies in
performance. Receiving material too late, using worn-out
machinery, and being constantly interrupted are but a few of the
possibilities that could hinder performance. Once identified,
these roadblocks need to be removed, a complex task that, in
some cases, might require high-level support. Suppose a
supervisor has too many reports to file each week and this
responsibility takes away from the time needed to help

subordinates; however, middle management needs these reports.
The only way to reduce the amount of paperwork is to request
that middle management reduce the number of reports they
receive or find another way to generate them. This problem is
not an easy one to solve, but as you can see, providing the
supervisor with training related to helping subordinates will not
solve the problem.NON TRAINING SOLUTION CHOICES FOR
A KSA GAP
Nontraining needs can exist where a gap in required KSAs is
also present as shown in Figure 4-1. As noted in the figure, the
nontraining causes of the performance gap need to be corrected
before any solutions to the KSA deficiency can be effective.
After all nontraining causes of the PG have been corrected, then
using Figure 4-1, the answer to the each of the first three
questions is “no.” and you can move on to the question of
whether there is a gap in KSAs. Note that training is not always
the appropriate solution to a KSA gap. Other solutions are
discussed next.4-5 Training in Action Training Is Not Always
the Answer: So Do a TNA First
A few years back, a Fortune 500 durable goods manufacturer
decided to increase its design engineer complement by about 40
employees. They wanted to get these new hires up to speed as
quickly as possible, so they called Bill Stetar, president of
Performance Technology Group, to assist in the development of
an appropriate training package.
On arrival at the company, Bill learned that the company had
already decided that the training should consist of a series of
lectures and seminars and other formal learning processes.
However, Bill suggested that before deciding to use a particular
type of training, it would be useful to do a TNA. The company
was initially reluctant to do a TNA because they wanted to get
the training set up as quickly as possible. However, Bill was
able to convince them that it would be a useful step.
The TNA indicated that much of the required learning could be
completed without any formal classroom training. Instead, job
aids (task-specific job instructions) and supplementary self-help

information was put online for access by the new hires at their
convenience. Much of it was related to
· • what the person needed to do,
· • how to do it (self-help instructions were provided), and
· • where to go for help if you needed it.
The results were that new hires got up to speed faster, made
fewer mistakes than in prior years, and did not have to spend
any time in the classroom.
How much did the company save? Well first of all, they saved
approximately 50 percent of what they had originally budgeted
for the training. But there was more. Learning of the material
was faster. Management expected it to take about 90 days for a
new engineer to be up to speed; it only took on average about
45 days. Without the TNA, traditional training clearly would
have been less efficient. So, as Bill would say: “Training is not
always the answer, do a TNA first.”
Source: By permission of Bill Stetar.Job Aids
A job aid is a set of instructions, diagrams, or other form of
providing information that is available at the job site. Its
purpose is to provide guidance to the worker. A job aid is useful
if the worker’s task is complex, if it requires a number of steps,
or if it is dangerous to forget a step. Airline pilots use job
aids—a list of things they must do prior to takeoff—so that they
do not forget any of the steps required. Another example of a
job aid would be a diagram. Rather than teaching someone a
number of steps in wiring an automobile, a picture depicting
where the wires should go should suffice. It is often cheaper
and more efficient to use job aids when practical, rather than
developing elaborate training packages, as Bill Stetar notes
in Training in Action 4-5.Practice with Coaching
Regarding tasks that are important but are performed
infrequently, employees can easily forget or become less
proficient at them. For this reason, police officers are required
to practice on the firing range each month. Schools conduct fire
drills as practice for an important incident that might never
occur. In these cases, providing the practice is meant to prevent

a PG. If a PG in an infrequently performed task is discovered,
periodic practice sessions with coaching should be considered
to ensure that the gap does not continue to occur, particularly if
its occurrence can have serious consequences. If the skill has
been lost, a coach is needed to provide the guidance to regain
the skill. In addition, having a coach work with the person,
helps speed the acquisition of the desired performance level.
This is discussed at greater length in Chapter 6.Redesign the
Job
This approach might seem extreme, but it is sometimes worth
considering. Several years ago, salespeople in automobile
dealerships were completely responsible for the job of selling a
car, from meeting the customer through to closing the deal. The
most difficult part of selling is closing the deal, which requires
certain KSAs that are difficult to impart through training. As a
result, many car salespeople did not last long in the business.
This deficiency led the dealers to change the job. They provided
the salesperson with the skills to show the car, discuss various
options, and negotiate to a certain extent. Then, when it came to
closing the deal, the salesperson could send the customer to the
sales manager. Thus, the job was changed so that the
salesperson no longer needed to know how to close the
deal.Termination or Transfer
Sometimes neither training or any of the other options we’ve
discussed are the best answer to eliminating the PG. Sometimes
it is necessary to remove the employees from the job. If lack of
motivation is the reason for the PG, and the employee has been
given ample opportunity to improve, then termination needs to
be considered. If it is that the employee is unable to grasp the
KSAs necessary to do the job, then transfer to a more suitable
job may be the answer.TRAINING NEEDS
For those PGs that result from the employees’ lack of KSAs,
and for which training is a solution, the KSAs need to be listed
and described clearly and unambiguously. These KSAs will be
used to develop training objectives (discussed in detail
in Chapter 5).

It is important to understand that in most cases, even if a
training need is identified, nontraining needs are usually also
present. We cannot emphasize enough the importance of these
nontraining factors. Even if training results in the employee
gaining the required competencies, these will not be used on the
job, unless any nontraining causes of the performance gap have
been removed. For training to be successful and transferred to
the job, these “nontraining” factors must be aligned with the
training and the desired employee performance. As Robert
Brinkerhoff, an internationally recognized expert in training
effectiveness said,
· The reality is that these non-training factors are the principle
determinants [for transfer of training], if they are not aligned
and integrated they will easily overwhelm the very best training
[inhibit transfer]. . . . Best estimates are that 80 percent or more
of the eventual impact of training is determined by performance
systems factors [nontraining needs].58 (p. 304)APPROACHES
TO TNA
Now that we have examined the general approach of conducting
a TNA, we examine more closely the distinction between
proactive and reactive approaches.Proactive TNA
The proactive TNA focuses on future HR requirements. From
the unit objectives resulting from the organization’s strategic
planning process, HR must develop unit strategies and tactics
(see Figure 2-1 on page 28) to ensure that the organization has
employees with the required KSAs in all of its critical jobs.
Two approaches can be taken to develop the needed KSAs:
· 1. Prepare employees for promotions or transfers to different
jobs.
· 2. Prepare employees for changes in their current jobs.
An effective, proactive procedure used for planning key
promotions and transfers is succession planning. Succession
planning is the identification and development of employees
perceived to be of high potential so they can fill key positions
in the company as they become vacant. The first step in the
development of a succession plan is to identify key positions in

the organization. These positions, if left vacant for any length
of time, would affect organizational functioning negatively. In
practice, these positions are often high-level management
positions such as vice president of finance or plant manager, but
they could be at any level (e.g., mold maker, if the position is
key to the operation and difficult to fill). Once the key positions
are identified, employees with the potential to fill these key
positions are identified. Then information is provided on
employees’ readiness to fill the position if it becomes vacant.
Employee readiness, of course, is the difference between what
is expected in the new job versus what the employee is currently
capable of doing. Organizations with this type of system in
place have a ready-made TNA.
When preparing employees for changes in their current jobs, it
is important that the TNA identify the expected changes in
performance. Once the performance expectations are
determined, the new KSAs required for that job can then be
identified. These future KSAs are compared with the
incumbent’s current KSAs, and any resulting PGs are addressed
through training. Consider Heinz in Leamington, Ontario
(see Table 4-6). When they determined that they would be
moving to a high-tech ketchup machine, it was necessary to
determine what KSAs would be necessary to operate it. Training
in these KSAs occurred before the new equipment was in
place.ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
The proactive approach starts with expected changes and any
new objectives. As an analyst, try to determine the best fit
between the organization’s current internal environment
(structures, policies, procedures, etc.) and future expectations
and objectives. As an example, questions regarding the formal
structure might include the following:
· • Are pay practices congruent with the new direction taken by
the company? Example: Would a strict hourly pay structure fit
if the plan were to treat each department as entrepreneurial?
· • Is the emphasis of the new priorities congruent with the
performance appraisal system? Example: If the priority is

quality, does the performance appraisal have a dimension to
measure this?
· • Is the strategy congruent with the current practices?
Example: The new strategy is to move to a more positive union–
management relationship. Currently, a policy does not allow any
union business to be conducted on company time. Should this
policy be revisited?
· • Are enough employees available to accomplish the
objective? Example: The plan is to improve quality to meet ISO
9000 standards, but employees are constantly rushed because of
a lack of personnel. Does the company need to consider massive
hiring or training of current employees?
Informal procedures might be evaluated with the following
questions:
· • Do norms that would restrict output exist?
· • Will workers believe that changes in performance are
required?
· • What formal procedures are short-circuited by informal
procedures, and what are the implications (perhaps the formal
procedure is inappropriate)?
These questions need to be asked at all levels in the
organization, but specifically at the departmental level, where
more meaningful data will be found. Often, those in higher
levels of management take a different view of the effect of
various policies on behavior.OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS
Job analysts gather information not only on what tasks are
carried out currently, but also on what tasks will be required in
the future. Strategic job analysis is defined as the identification
of the KSAs required for effective performance in a job as it is
expected to exist in the future.59 Data gathering is identical to
that in traditional job analysis, with the addition of a section
called “gather information on the future.” For this section, it is
necessary to look at changes in areas such as societal values,
political and legal issues, economics, market, labor, and
technology, and also how those changes would affect the job in
question. In this case, input from more than just incumbents and

supervisors is necessary. Information from the following people
is necessary:60
· • At least one person involved in corporate strategy and
closely tied to the job in question
· • Someone who is aware of how the competition structures the
job (technologically and from an HR standpoint)
· • An efficiency expert (internal technology/communication
expert)
· • Someone who worked his way up through the job in question
· • A forward-thinking incumbent (one willing to suggest new
ideas)
This list is not exhaustive and serves only as a guide. Once
these data are gathered, a revision of the tasks and KSAs based
on these changes can be determined. The training function then
uses this information, coupled with person analysis, to
determine future training needs. The previous discussion about
what to do if no job incumbents are available is helpful here. In
reality, no job incumbents exist if the job will change in
substantial ways.
At first this task might seem rather daunting; however, it does
not need to be. The first step is to identify the critical jobs. For
example, if the primary function of the organization is writing
software, the computer programmer’s job will be more critical
to the effectiveness of the organization than the file clerk’s and
should be examined first. Likewise, if the organization is
making parts for the automotive industry, mold making might be
a critical job.PERSON ANALYSIS
Assessment of the person (for the required KSAs) is identical
for both the proactive or reactive TNA, so the information
presented earlier on person analysis is applicable.LET’S DO IT
In the Multistate Health Corporation (MHC) at the end
of Chapter 2, a strategic plan was outlined, and from it a
number of potential objectives were developed for HR related to
developing a human resource planning system (HRPS). The
main focus of the HRIS objectives was that MHC was having
financial problems, and it seemed as if the trouble could be

traced to the competency of the chief executive officers (CEOs)
at their hospitals. Unfortunately, no clear documentation exists
describing the required KSAs for the 30 CEOs; as a result, no
one knows the KSAs needed to be successful or to be promoted
to CEO. To deal with this lack of KSA documentation for CEOs
and other key positions in the organization, the MHC executive
committee developed six objectives. The first step in addressing
these objectives (as they affect the position of CEO) is to
conduct an operational analysis of the CEO position. Recall how
the job analysis was conducted for the large computer firm
(Table 4-4). You could use a similar process here and conduct
interviews, given the small number of incumbents. You can
interview all incumbents (four or five small group meetings), or
hold one meeting with six CEOs: two from each region, one
from the largest and one from the smallest hospital in that
region.
At the meeting, ask the CEOs to list all the tasks and subtasks
they perform, or prepare a partial list from previous
conversations to use the time available most efficiently. Then,
using a scale similar to the one in Table 4-4, ask each of them
to rate each task on its importance for the job. On the basis of
the ratings provided, determine which are important. You need
to examine these tasks to determine whether any differences
distinguish between geographical locations or large versus small
hospitals. If any differences are noted, they need to be resolved.
If a large number of critical tasks are different, the jobs
themselves could be different and may need different titles. It
might also be that the task was not identified as important by
some because it never was required. The task of “effective cost
cutting” might not have been identified in some smaller
hospitals because it was not used. It is still an important task
for CEOs (assuming that CEOs in larger hospitals indicated it as
important), and would be included, although some CEOs might
not have the KSAs to do it effectively, as noted in the case.
Once you identify all the tasks, it is useful to classify them into
broader duties, as outlined in Figure 4-3.

Next, you need to identify the KSAs necessary to perform each
task. These KSAs will be used to make either selection or
training decisions, depending on where they were classified
concerning “need at the time of hire.” Publishing the ones
required at the time of hire for the recruitment process makes
the selection criteria clearer to all.
A team of subject matter experts on the position of CEO (see
the discussion of strategic job analysis in “Operational
Analysis” of the preceding selection) should be consulted to
develop the strategic part of the job analysis (how the job might
look in five years). This information, when compared with the
information on current requirements, highlights what the future
requirements would likely be. At this point, executive
development programs could be put in place to develop the
KSAs needed for the future job of CEO at MHC.
Let’s look at one duty. From the job analysis, one duty might be
defined as the “development of subordinates.” You might
identify the following tasks related to that duty:
· • Initiates action to identify developmental needs
· • Provides timely feedback to help subordinates improve
· • Provides subordinates with opportunities to develop
· • Meets with subordinates to discuss performance and
development
· • Coaches subordinates in a manner that allows them to
improve their skills
Several other duties (and relevant tasks) would, of course, be
identified. Finally, the KSAs necessary to perform the tasks
would be identified. From the preceding list of tasks, KSAs that
would be relevant include the following:
· • Knowledge of the performance review process
· • Knowledge of basic coaching skills
· • Skill at providing feedback in an effective manner
· • Skill at interviewing
· • Positive attitude toward the participative approach to
problem solving
· • Positive attitude toward helping others

Based on the assessment of the skills of the 30 CEOs at MHC,
some or all of these KSAs might be lacking, and training might
be necessary. To determine which CEOs need which KSAs, the
person analysis is conducted.
For the person analysis, let’s just focus on the specific KSAs
necessary to appraise performance. Here you want to know
about CEOs’ knowledge of the appraisal process and their skill
in providing effective reviews. This information is obtained in
part by asking CEOs directly (a subpart of your job analysis
meeting). If managers have no confidence in a performance
appraisal system, they will have no compunction about telling
you that “it’s not worth the time” or “it’s never used anyway so
why bother.” If they do not believe that they have the skill, they
might also tell you that. Another place to obtain such
information is from the CEOs’ subordinates. You might get
information from the CEOs’ subordinates such as “She really
tries to do a good job but is constantly telling me what I need to
do and never asks my opinion” or “He tells me I have a bad
attitude. I’m not sure what he means but am in no mood to ask
either.” These types of comments suggest a lack of skills on the
CEO’s part, or it is possible that the CEO has a negative
attitude toward the process. Again, asking the CEO directly
could determine which it is. You can also use the option of
behavior testing to assess the skills. Put CEOs in a role-play
situation where they must provide feedback to an employee, and
score them on how well they do.
For the organizational analysis part of the TNA, some
information has already been gathered from interviews
conducted by the consultants. One of the objectives based on
those findings was the inclusion of a succession plan. It
provides the mechanism for supplying instant information on
who should be considered for the next promotion, rather than
relying on individual CEOs to make that determination. Of
course, you need a standardized performance review system in
place to make such determinations.
The job analysis provides relevant data for developing standard

performance appraisals necessary in both promotion and
developmental decisions. With such a system in place, each
CEO would be responsible for completing performance reviews
on his subordinates and providing developmental plans for
them. This process would help address the lack of interest in
some CEOs for recommending their subordinates. Although not
explicitly noted, one important measure of the CEOs’
performance appraisal would need to be how well CEOs prepare
and develop their subordinates for promotion. This measure,
specifically as part of their performance review, along with the
use of a succession plan in general, will serve to encourage all
CEOs to work toward developing their subordinates for
promotion.Reactive TNA
The reactive TNA begins with an existing discrepancy in job
performance. In this sense, Figure 4-1 represents a more
complete picture of the reactive process. A middle manager
might notice that production is dropping, a supervisor might see
that a particular employee’s performance has declined, or HR
might note an increase in grievances from a particular
department. Once you identify a performance gap, you need to
determine whether it is worth fixing. Although this decision
may be based on financial implications, it does not have to be.
For example, the company notes that one department has lower
ratings of supervisory consideration (as rated by subordinates)
than the organization expected. The cost of this lower rating
would be difficult to assess. It might take a long time (if ever)
to notice any significant effect on the company’s bottom line. If
the company makes a strong commitment to developing a good
employee–management relationship, it may decide to try to
alleviate the problem.
In the reactive TNA, you still conduct the organizational
analysis, operational analysis, and person analysis, but the
distinction among them is even more blurred, for the following
reasons:
· • The focus is primarily on the one department.
· • Those who demonstrate the discrepancy (and their peers and

subordinates) are the key persons to be interviewed about all
three components.
· • The discrepancy focuses the issue on a particular part of the
job (e.g., interactions with subordinates, as previously
noted).ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Organizational analysis can uncover the three issues identified
earlier the KSA gap in Figure 4-1 (Incongruent Consequences,
Feedback Problems, and Performance Barriers). Once the
decision has been made that there is a positive cost/benefit to
fixing the PG, a complete analysis of all causes of the PG is
needed. Even if a lack of KSAs is identified as a problem,
additional roadblocks might exist that would prevent
performance even if the KSAs were learned.OPERATIONAL
ANALYSIS/PERSON ANALYSIS
In the reactive approach, the performance discrepancy is already
identified; it triggers the analysis. Operational and person
analyses are aimed at identifying the cause of the current gap
between EP and AP. These analyses are conducted in a manner
consistent with our earlier descriptions. Note that the
operational analysis may also uncover performance barriers that
were not visible at the organizational level.LET’S DO IT
When a reactive performance gap is identified, it is best to work
from the gap and deal only with those issues indicated from the
gap analysis. Instead of moving step by step through this
analysis, let’s look at Training in Action 4-6, an actual example
of this process.4-6 Training in Action Where Do You Start
When You Have a Performance Gap?
Students in a training and development class decided that for
their class project, they would like to determine why some
professors are interesting and informative, whereas others are
not. The needs analysis of this performance gap (PG) would
help determine whether the issue is training or something else.
They examined the PG using operational analysis (expected
performance) and person analysis (actual performance). As is
noted in Table 4-3, one way of obtaining expected performance
data is to observe the job. The group of students had observed

the job (lecturing) of professors for two years, and also using
data from other students they interviewed, they developed a list
of behaviors that they believed made lectures interesting and
informative.
For person analysis (actual performance), the students used
observation and performance data (see Table 4-7). Using the
observation method, the students identified six professors who
were considered as having a performance discrepancy. These
data were compared with OTHER performance data (published
student surveys) about the professors’ teaching skills, which
verified the observations. An attempt to verify this information
further was made by asking the dean to provide student
(customer) complaints about professors over the past two years.
The dean declined to provide such information.
The organizational analysis was then conducted. Because of the
nature of the PG (only business school professors were
identified), the organizational analysis focused primarily on the
business school. Examining the university-wide mission and
other documents was not necessary. From Figure 4-1, questions
about the performance consequence incongruence, inadequate
feedback, and barriers to performance in the system were
examined. This was done through an interview (management
interrogation as noted in Table 4-1) with the dean of the
business school. Questions related to adequate feedback were as
follows: (1) Are there other performance ratings of professors?
(2) Do the professors receive feedback on their performance?
The dean’s answer was that the only measure of their teaching
performance is student surveys and any unsolicited complaints
from students. Regarding feedback, the professors receive the
student evaluations along with a ranking of themselves and all
other faculty members based on these data. Any student
complaints would also be made available to the professor. The
dean noted that the same professors tended to be rated low each
year but again declined to provide specifics. A question related
to performance consequence incongruence was as follows: What
happens to those who are rated high and low? The answer was

nothing; there are no extrinsic rewards or punishment for being
a good or poor teacher. Finally, in response to a question about
performance barriers in the system, the dean emphasized the
pressure for publications. “Publish or perish” were the words he
used. Promotions, tenure, travel, and other rewards were all
provided to those who were publishing on a regular basis. These
were the overall findings of the needs assessment.
From the information provided in Training in Action 4-6, will
training help? You cannot really determine the answer yet,
although some factors identified suggest that few external
forces are acting on the professors to change their teaching.
Let’s suppose that you did talk to the professors, and they told
you that they always teach this way and suggested that their job
was not to entertain, but to teach. Through some subtle
questioning, you determine that they do not seem to understand
some basic skills about making a lecture interesting and
effective. They evaded questions about how an effective slide
show should be set up, how questions can be used to create
interest, and so on. Thus a KSA deficit is revealed. Would
training alone be enough? It might, if the training were designed
in a way that was interesting and it motivated the professors to
go back to the classroom to try some different ideas. They
would more likely try these new ways of teaching if
organizational changes were made that encouraged them to
improve. For example, when they reached an average on teacher
evaluations of 3.5 on a 5-point scale, the professors could be
offered a bonus (in the form of travel money or computer
equipment if a cash bonus were not possible). Changes in the
way pay increases are offered, with heavier emphasis on the
importance of student evaluations in getting tenure or
promotion, would encourage professors to be more concerned
about their teaching. Even personal interest by the dean could
be effective. The dean might meet with the professor and
indicate a concern with the performance; they could set goals
for improvement and then meet on a regular basis to encourage
the change. All these changes, combined with a well-designed

training program that would also motivate the professors,
should result in an improvement.Reactive versus Proactive
From a systems perspective, it makes sense that a proactive
approach would be better than a reactive approach. Obviously,
anticipating needs is better than waiting until they cause
problems. Companies that integrate the training function with
strategic objectives are more readily able to respond to the
rapidly changing technology and business conditions that are an
everyday part of corporate life.61However, even when operating
proactively, the organization will at times need to react to
changes in the environment. Strategic plans are not cast in
concrete but must be adapted to current events. Using a
combination of proactive and reactive strategies allows an
organization to be most effective. It is, in fact, possible that a
proactive approach is more important for market leader
organizations than for cost leader organizations.62 Market
leaders need to be much more aware of their environment and
anticipate how they will respond to that environment; otherwise,
they will not survive.63 In reality, however, many organizations
operate from a reactive perspective when it comes to
training.FOCUS ON SMALL BUSINESS
Some suggest that the small business is not simply a miniature
large organization but a unique entity in itself.64 So what is
true for large organizations might not be relevant for small
ones. This assessment might be true in some areas but not
necessarily in the area of HR practices. Research has shown that
small firms with high-quality HR practices are generally higher
performers than those without such practices.65 Also, small
firms with higher amounts of training consistently demonstrate
more innovativeness than those with lower levels of
training.66 What is unique about the small firm is that the HR
procedures that management decides to implement are likely
much more critical (compared with the large organization)
because errors in judgment that create challenges for large
companies (such as the building of the Edsel car by Ford) could
destroy a small business. Therefore, the proactive approach to

training would seem to be more important for the small
business. Furthermore, in smaller organizations, it is easier to
integrate a proactive approach because fewer employees are
involved.
The top management of a small business is usually the owner,
who is usually responsible for any training.67 However, this
person likely does not have any HR background and might not
understand how a proactive approach to training can be
advantageous.68 In fact, much
of the dissatisfaction with training in the small business sector
is a function of the reactive approach, which responds to a crisis
with a “quick fix.” The small business owner/manager needs to
realize that sound training practices tied to the strategic plan
will pay off in the long run, as Metro Tool & Die discovered
in Training in Action 4-7.4-7 Training in Action69 Training:
Where Is the Return?
Metro Tool & Die of Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, has 42
employees, most of whom have little education or training. Mr.
Pantano, the owner, was interested in improving the quality and
efficiency of his shop. He contacted Fabian Hogan, a consultant
with the Ontario Skills Development Ministry. After an
assessment, Mr. Hogan suggested that all employees receive
training in basic literacy skills, blueprint reading, and
instrumentation die setup. Doing this would entail a
considerable expense, but the consultant convinced Mr. Pantano
that the investment was, in the long term, a good one. At 3:30
every day, training sessions were held on company premises and
company time. Was this commitment to training worthwhile?
Since completion of the training, rejects dropped from 7,500 per
million to 325 per million. The company won the prestigious
Xerox Quality Award in a worldwide competition. Metro
recently provided one of its customers with a $9,600 cost
savings. In the owner’s own words, “Training has paid for
itself. There is no tool and die company like us. We are a small
company using big-company tactics.”

That was in the early 1990s. Today, the company has grown to
100 skilled employees, and their market expanded from business
machines to the auto industry, appliances, computers, etc., and
they have clients all over the world. They have become ISO
9000 and QS 9000 certified. These certifications were very time
consuming and costly in terms of training, but as Anna Pantano
said, “We are committed to having a highly trained workforce.
One of our niches is being able to meet unreasonable deadlines
and last minute changes to specs, while still meeting deadlines.
This is accomplished because we believe in cross-training and
have a number of our employees capable in more than one
operation, making us very adaptable to last minute changes by
our customers. On top of that each employee must receive a
specific amount of training each year. Without the training
commitment we have, that simply would not be possible.”
Other evidence indicates that more small manufacturing
businesses are undertaking TNA. One reason for this is the wish
to become ISO certified. David Alcock works for the Canadian
Plastics Training Centre (CPTC) in Toronto, which provides
training to many of the small mold-making companies in the
region. He says that because of the investment required in
becoming ISO certified, companies are requesting a TNA to
obtain the maximum effect for their training dollars. He noted
that in the last few years, more than half of the company’s
customers, many of which are small businesses, requested a
TNA.
The time factor is always a concern for any business, but
particularly for small business. For small business, the TNA
often seems a waste of time. Techniques can speed up the
process of working through a TNA, but generally these
techniques require using a trained analyst to be
effective.70 Here are some tips for the small business HR
person or manager to consider when faced with conducting a
TNA:71
· • Be clear on what is to be done.
· • Examine existing available data.

· • Develop some ideas related to the issue and test them in the
data gathering.
· • Collapse the steps.
· • Use technology.
The most important thing is to clarify what type of OPG you
have, and then map out a plan of what to do for the TNA before
venturing out to do it. Examine records, minutes, and any other
documentation related to the gap. Determine who needs to be
talked to and what questions will need to be asked. (A
reexamination of Tables 4-1and 4-2 might be helpful here.)
Sometimes it is difficult to help employees understand exactly
what is being sought.
Consider Fred, the only salesperson in the organization who
consistently gets letters of praise from customers and high
repeat business. When Fred is asked what he does that makes
him so successful, his response is, “I do not know, I just treat
them well.” To explore this more, outline a scenario that you
think might be correct. Such a scenario might look like this:
When customers come in, Bill greets them by name, asks about
the family, asks questions about themselves, then asks what he
can do for them today, and so forth. Once Fred hears the
scenario, he can correct or amend it so the scenario fits what he
actually does. You provided Fred with a template from which to
provide information to you. Clearly, one way to speed up the
process is to collapse the steps. For example, meet with
everyone at once and give them a possible solution to the
problem. Now ask for candid responses to questions such as, “Is
this an adequate description of the problem? Is the proposed
solution the best one? What would you do differently?” or
“What would prevent the successful implementation of this
solution?” Of course, it is necessary to be sure that everyone at
the meeting is willing to be open and honest. Finally, the use of
e-mail, discussion boards, and so forth, can help to gather
information from several employees, with minimum time spent
actually meeting them. Place the problem or issue on a
discussion board and ask for comments. Return to it from time

to time to review comments and questions and pose new or
follow-up questions. E-mail is also a way of soliciting input.
Simply get a group on an e-mail list, and conduct meetings
using the technology.
However, problems can arise when you do not do the full TNA,
which can lead to less-than-ideal solutions. Still, the shortcut is
better than not doing a TNA at all. Often the ramifications of
not doing a TNA are time and money wasted on things unrelated
to solving the problem. Even for a small business, it is
important to do something, rather than nothing, even if it is less
than ideal.Assistance for Small Business
Small-business owners can access resources to aid them in
training their employees. The different levels of government
assist in various ways to help fund training. For example, most
states have small business development centers (SBDCs) that
provide assistance in training. In California, customized
training programs assist companies in becoming ISO certified
and are available from the California State Department of
Education at no cost. Instructors with factory experience
conduct a TNA and develop training on the basis of the
analysis, making the training organization-specific. As a result,
employees can see its advantages to their job. The major hurdle
to these programs is convincing management of their value.
Also, the training must be integrated into the overall plan of the
organization, or it is not successful.
When the small business does not have time or expertise,
government-sponsored consultants can provide support.
Furthermore, in most universities, graduate students in
psychology or business would welcome the opportunity to
become involved. These individuals often operate under the
watchful eye of highly trained professors and are willing to do
the work, at a fraction of the cost a professional would charge,
simply for the experience. In fact, if the situation provided
research possibilities, the project might be done for free.
Moreover, many business schools have professional training
consultants associated with their continuing education or

executive education programs who also provide seminars and/or
consulting. For those who argue that small businesses simply
cannot afford the time to do a comprehensive TNA, we argue
the opposite; they cannot afford not to. It is better to do
something rather than nothing.TNA AND DESIGN
We return now to the opening case, Westcan. Remember that
Chris was all set to begin developing an “effective meeting”
training program. As you read the rest of the case, think about
the things you learned about conducting a TNA. Note that the
TNA Westcan uses is much simpler and less formal than some
we discussed. However, the value of doing the TNA is quite
obvious.
The needs assessment at Westcan shows that training was
required but not the training that Chris first imagined. Her
problem was that she did not have enough information to
understand the types of needs the managers had. Without this
information, she began to design what she thought would be a
good “effective meeting” training session. What would have
happened if she had gone ahead with her original plan? After
conducting the TNA, she is now in a much better position to
design an appropriate training program. The next step is to
develop a clear set of training objectives that will drive both the
design and evaluation of training. The importance of sound
training objectives cannot be overstressed. Chapter 5 provides a
step-by-step procedure for developing these objectives and
meshing them with training design issues and
constraints.Connection to Training
EvaluationCASE DEVELOPING A TRAINING PACKAGE AT
WESTCAN (CONCLUSION)
Chris told Karen about the conversation with Irven and what she
had put together. Chris said, “What remains is to develop the
simulation. Can you help?”
“Sure,” said Karen, “but it’s too bad you are so far along. I
might have been able to help you design the training.”
Chris indicated that she had not put a great deal of time into
designing the training and was open to any suggestions.

Karen suggested that Chris consider doing a needs analysis. “In
a way, you completed a partial operational analysis by
determining what is required in running an effective meeting.
What we do not know is where the managers are deficient; we
call that a person analysis. One way to obtain that information
is to ask the managers to describe how their meetings currently
run and the areas they see as ineffective. Their answers should
reflect the areas in which they are deficient. Also, by asking the
managers what training they want, we could ensure that the
training is relevant. Another method would be to sit in and
observe how they run their meetings. It would allow us to
identify performance and KSA gaps they might be unaware of,”
said Karen. Karen noted that in her brief time at Westcan, it
seemed that premeeting information was well distributed and
understood, agendas were given, and notice of meetings always
contained the relevant information.
“You might be right,” said Chris. “I simply never thought of
asking them.” Together they developed a questionnaire asking
questions related to effective meetings, such as, “What would
you like to see contained in a one-day effective meeting
workshop?” and “How well do the meetings with your staff stay
on track?” They also got permission to sit in on a number of
meetings.
The returned surveys and meeting observations indicated that
most managers understood the rules of effective meetings. All
had, at one time or another, attended a lecture or read material
on running an effective meeting. The problem was that they had
never been able to turn the knowledge into action. They knew
what to do, just not how to do it. They wanted practice, with
feedback from a professional. They also wanted the training to
be for the exact teams they continually operated in, which
required that management and nonmanagement from a team
attend the same training and learn the behaviors required for
effective meetings together. After going through the TNA with
Karen and documenting all the information, Chris said to Karen,
“Well, it looks like the training I was going to provide was way

off the mark compared with what we now know they need. I owe
you a dinner.”
One of the critical byproducts of identifying training needs is
that you will have also identified the measures you will use for
evaluating the effectiveness of training (did they acquire the
KSAs they needed). This will be covered more thoroughly when
we discuss the development of
training objectives. However, a brief summary of the
interconnections will be useful here to give you a framework as
you move through the rest of the text. Once training needs have
been identified and the organization decides that it will provide
training to address them, the training design process begins. As
stated earlier, the first step in that process is to develop the
objectives for the training. The learning objectives will need to
reflect the criteria that were used to determine that a training
need existed (employee KSAs were deficient). These objectives
then serve as the focus for the rest of the training process
(design, development, implementation and evaluation). After
the training is conducted, it needs to be evaluated. One of the
most important evaluations is whether trainees learned what
they needed to learn. The learning objectives specify how you
will measure if learning occurred and you will use the same
measures (and instruments) that were used to identify the KSAs
that were training needs. So, there is a direct link between the
KSAs you identify as training needs and those you evaluate at
the end of training. For example, if you developed a multiple-
choice test to assess needs, that test (or a similar one) would be
used to evaluate learning. If you used role-plays to assess
training needs, then these role-plays or very similar ones would
be used to evaluate the learning.Summary
Training is a reasonable solution when a PG is caused by an
employee’s lack of KSAs. However, most problems identified
by managers as requiring training actually do not require
training. Most such problems are a function of organizational
barriers (reward/punishment incongruities, inadequate feedback,

or system barriers) to performance. A TNA will reveal the
location and reason for the problem.
When a gap in required KSAs creates a PG and training is
required, the TNA ensures that the KSA deficiencies are
identified. Training that is focused on these KSAs will be
relevant and therefore more motivating for the trainees. The
likelihood is higher that training will be successful when a TNA
is conducted because
· • the appropriate KSAs required to do the job are identified
(operational analysis),
· • the KSAs of the employees in that job are determined
(person analysis) so that only those needing training are trained,
and
· • the roadblocks to transfer of the training are identified
(organizational analysis) and removed.
The TNA consists of organizational, operational, and person
analysis. The organizational analysis is designed to assess the
capital resources, HR availability, and the work environment. It
is important to understand the amount and type of resources
available and what type of environment the affected employees
work in. Often, employees are not performing at the expected
level for reasons other than a lack of KSAs. The organizational
analysis identifies these reasons so they can be rectified. Even
where KSAs are the problem, other remedies (job aids, practice,
and so forth) can be considered before training.
The operational analysis provides information pertaining to the
KSA requirements for the job in question. Observing the job,
doing the job, and examining job descriptions and specifications
are some of the ways of determining this information. The
method most often used, however, is to ask incumbents and
supervisors what is required in a systematic way.
The person analysis provides information on each employee’s
specific level of competence regarding the KSA requirements.
Several methods can be used to determine competence levels,
such as examining performance appraisals, testing, or simply
asking employees where they encounter problems. Each of these

approaches offers advantages, and the one you choose depends
on factors such as time and availability.
There are two types of TNA: proactive and reactive. With
proactive TNA, the focus is on planned changes to jobs and
performance expectations. Typically, these changes evolve from
strategic planning, but also might occur from other processes.
Because the proactive TNA anticipates future changes, it also
must anticipate the KSAs required to meet or exceed
performance expectations in the future. As a result, some of the
types of information collected are different from those collected
for the reactive TNA.
The reactive TNA is far more common and is a response to a
current PG. Here, the TNA needs to be completed more quickly
because the gap is already affecting productivity. An effective
organization uses both proactive and reactive types of TNA.The
Training Program (Fabrics, Inc.)
This section is the beginning of a step-by-step process for
developing a training program for a small fabrications company.
Here, we examine the TNA for the program, and in subsequent
chapters, we will continue the process through to the evaluation.
Fabrics, Inc., once a small organization, recently experienced an
incredible growth. Only two years ago, the owner was also the
supervisor of 40 employees. Now it is a firm that employs more
than 200. The fast growth proved good for some, with the
opportunity for advancement. The owner called a consultant to
help him with a few problems that emerged with the fast
growth. “I seem to have trouble keeping my mold-makers and
some other key employees,” he said. “They are in demand, and
although I am competitive regarding money, I think the new
supervisors are not treating them well. Also, I received some
complaints from customers about the way supervisors talk to
them. The supervisors were all promoted from within, without
any formal training in supervising employees. They know their
stuff regarding the work the employees are doing, so they are
able to help employees who are having problems. However, they
seem to get into arguments easily, and I hear a lot of yelling

going on in the plant. When we were smaller, I looked after the
supervisory responsibilities myself and never found a reason to
yell at the employees, so I think the supervisors need some
training in effective ways to deal with employees. I only have
nine supervisors—could you give them some sort of training to
be better?”
The consultant responded, “If you want to be sure that we deal
with the problem, it would be useful to determine what issues
are creating the problems and, from that, recommend a course of
action.”
“Actually, I talked to a few other vendors and they indicate they
have some traditional basic supervisor training packages that
would fit our needs and, therefore, they could start right away. I
really want this fixed fast,” the owner said.
“Well, I can understand that, but you do want to be sure that the
training you get is relevant to the problems you experienced;
otherwise, it is a waste of money. How about I simply contract
to do a training needs analysis and give you a report of the
findings? Then, based on this information, you can decide
whether any of the other vendors or the training I can provide
best fits your needs in terms of relevancy and cost. That way,
you are assured that any training you purchase will be relevant,”
said the consultant.
“How long would that take?” the owner asked.
“It requires that I talk to you in a bit more detail, as well as to
those involved; some of the supervisors and subordinates. If
they are readily available I would be done this week, with a
report going to you early next week,” the consultant replied.
The owner asked how much it would cost, and after negotiating
for 15 minutes, agreed to the project. They returned to the
office to write up the contract for a needs analysis.
The interview with the owner (who was also the manager of all
the first-line supervisors) was scheduled first and included an
organizational and operational analysis. What follows is an
edited version of the questions related to the organizational
analysis.

THE INTERVIEW
Direction of the Organization
Q:
What is the mission of the company? What are the goals
employees should be working for?
A:
I do not really have time for that kind of stuff. I have to keep
the organization running.
Q:
If there is no mission, how do employees understand what the
focus of their job should be?
A:
They understand that they need to do their jobs.
Q:
What about goals or objectives?
A:
Again, I do not have the time for that, and I have never needed
such stuff in the past.
Q:
That may be true, but you are much larger now and do need to
communicate these things in some fashion. How do employees
know what to focus on: quality, quantity, customer service,
keeping costs down?
A:
All of those things are important, but I get your point. I never
actually indicated anything about this to them. I simply took it
for granted that they understood it.
Q:
What type of management style do you want supervisors to
have, and how do you promote that?
A:
I assumed that they would supervise like me. I always listened
to them when they were workers. I believe in treating everyone
with dignity and respect and expect others to do the same. I do
not have any method to transmit that except to follow my style.
HR Systems

Q:
What criteria are used to select, transfer, and promote
individuals?
A:
I hired a firm to do all the hiring for me when I was expanding.
I told them I wanted qualified workers. As for the promotion to
supervisor, I picked the best workers.
Q:
Best how? What criteria were you using?
A:
Well, I picked those who were the hardest workers, the ones
who always turned out the best work the fastest, and were
always willing to work late to get the job done.
Q:
Are there formal appraisal systems? If yes, what is the
information used for promotion, bonuses, and so forth?
A:
I do not have time for that. I believe that people generally know
when they are doing a good job. If they are not, I will not keep
them.
Job Design
Q:
How are supervisors’ jobs organized? Where do they get their
information and where does it go?
A:
Supervisors receive the orders for each day at the beginning of
the day and then give it out to the relevant workers. They then
keep track of it to see that it is done on time and out to the
customer.
Reward Systems
Q:
What incentives are in place to encourage employees to work
toward the success of the organization?
A:
Well, I think I pay them well.
Q:

Does everyone receive the same amount of pay?
A:
At the present time, yes, because they are all relatively new
supervisors. I do plan to give them raises based on how well
they are performing.
Q:
But you indicated that you do not really have a method of
informing them what you are measuring them on. How are they
to know what is important?
A:
Well, I will tell them. I guess I need to be considering that issue
down the road.
Performance
Q:
How do the supervisors know what their role is in the company?
A:
I told them that they needed to supervise the employees and
what that entailed.
Q:
How do they find out how well they are doing in their job? Is
there a formal feedback process?
A:
I talk to them about how they are doing from time to time, but I
get your point and will think about that.
Q:
Are there opportunities for help if they are having problems?
A:
Take this problem with the yelling and getting employees angry
at them. I have talked to them about it and have offered to get
them training.
Q:
How do they feel about that?
A:
Actually, they thought it was great. As I said, none of these
supervisors have had anything in the way of supervisory
training.

Methods and Practices
Q:
What are the policies, procedures, and rules in the organization?
In your view, how do they facilitate or inhibit performance?
A:
I really do not think there is anything hindering their
performance. I am always willing to help, but I also have work
to do. That is why I promoted employees to supervisors, so I
would not have to deal with that part of the business.
After gathering information on the organization, the consultant
gathered operational analysis data from the manager (owner).
The consultant used the method provided in Figure 4-3. What
follows is a portion of the completed form.
JOB TITLE: SUPERVISOR
SPECIFIC DUTY: BE SURE WORK IS COMPLETED AND
SENT TO THE CUSTOMER ON TIME
TASKS
SUBTASKS
KSAs
Organize jobs in manner that ensures completion on time
Examine jobs and assess time required
Knowledge of types of jobs we get
Knowledge of times required for jobs to be completed
Sort and give jobs to appropriate employees
Organization and prioritizing skills
Knowledge of employees’ capabilities
Monitor progress of work
Talk to employees about their progress on jobs
Knowledge of proper feedback
Effective feedback skills
Helping attitude
Examine specific job products during production to ensure
quality

Knowledge of quality standards
Quality assessment skills
Listen effectively
Provide feedback to employees about performance
Knowledge of effective listening skills
Knowledge of conflict styles
Conflict resolution skills
Knowledge of proper feedback
Effective feedback skills
Positive attitude for treating employees with respect
And so forth . . .
Next, the consultant met with the supervisors, first as a single
group of nine to do an operational analysis and then
individually to discuss individual performance. He chose to use
a slightly different approach to the operational analysis because
he expected that they might have some problems working from
the form used with the owner. The following excerpt comes
from that interview.
To begin the meeting, the consultant said:
· I am here to find out just what your job as supervisor entails.
This step is the first in determining what training we can
provide to make you more effective in your job. First, we need
to know what it is you do on the job. So I am going to let you
provide me with a list of the things you do on the job—the
tasks. Let me give you an example of what I mean. For the job
of a salesperson, I might be told a required task was to “sell
printers.” This description is too general to be useful, or you
might say you must “introduce yourself to a new client,” which
is too specific. What we need is somewhere in between these
two extremes, such as “make oral presentation to a small group
of people.” Are there any questions? OK, let’s begin.
Q:
Think of a typical Monday. What’s the first thing you do when
you arrive at work?
A:
Check the answering machine.

Q:
That is a little too specific. Why do you check the answering
machine?
A:
I need to return any important calls from suppliers or customers.
Q:
What do these calls deal with?
A:
Complaints usually, although some are checking on the status of
their job.
Q:
Anybody else do anything different from that?
A:
No.
Q:
What do you do next?
A:
Examine the jobs that have come in and prioritize them based
on their complexity and due date.
Q:
The task, then, is organizing and prioritizing the new jobs you
received. What next?
A:
Meet with each subordinate, see how they are doing, and
distribute the new work.
Q:
Tell me what “see how they are doing” means.
A:
I make sure that they are on schedule with their work. I check
their progress on the jobs they are working on.
Q:
OK, so check on progress of subordinates is the task. What
next?
A:
After all the work is distributed, I check to see what orders are
due to be completed and sent out today.

Q:
OK, but I guess that assumes everyone is on schedule. What do
you do if someone is behind in their job?
A:
Depends how far behind the job is. If it is serious, I may simply
take the job away and give it to someone I think can do the job
faster.
A:
I do not do that. I find out what the problem is and help the
person get back on track.
Q:
So you spend some time training that person?
A:
Well, sort of. It is not formal training, but I will see why the
person is having problems and give some of my “tricks of the
trade” to speed things up.
Q:
Anybody deal with this issue differently?
A:
I do not usually have the time to do any training. I will give it
to someone who can do it, or in some cases, just do the job
myself. Sometimes that is faster. After all, we have all this
useless paperwork that we have to do.
Q:
I want to come back to the paperwork, but first, are you saying
that no standard exists for dealing with employees who are
having problems with particular jobs?
A:
Sure there is. The boss expects us to train them, but with the
pressure for production, we often do not have time to do that.
A:
Well, I agree with that. Even though I do stop and spend time
helping, I often feel the pressure to rush and probably do not do
a good job of it. I do try and tell them what they need to do to
improve in the particular area.
Although the format used in the session starts first thing in the

morning and continues through a typical day, clues often
emerge as to other tasks that are done. The mentioning of “tell
them what they need to do to improve” causes the consultant to
focus on that task and what other tasks are related to it, because
the owner did indicate that providing feedback was an important
task.
Q:
OK, let’s look at the issue of telling them how to improve. We
could think of that as giving feedback to employees. What other
tasks require you to discuss things with subordinates?
A:
We are supposed to deal with their concerns.
A:
Yeah, that’s right, and also we are supposed to meet one-on-one
with them and discuss their performance. Trouble is, these new
employees are know-it-alls and not willing to listen.
A:
You’re right about that. On more than one occasion, many of us
resort to yelling at these guys to get them to respond.
A:
Boy, is that ever true.
Q:
What about the paperwork?
A:
Well, it is stupid. A clerk could do it, but we are expected to do
it. If we do not, then billing and other problems come up, so we
have to do it or else. …
A:
Yeah, it takes away from us being out here where we are
needed.
And so forth. …
Other questions that might be asked:
What is the next thing you would do in the afternoon?
The next?
What is the last thing you do in the day?
That pretty much describes a typical day (Monday in this case).

Is there anything you would do at the beginning of the week
(Monday) that is not done at other times?
How about at the end of the week? Is there anything you do then
that is not done during the rest of the week?
Is there anything that you do only once or twice a week that we
missed?
Now think about the beginning of the month. What do you do at
the beginning of the month that is not done at other times?
How about the end of the month?
Is there anything that is done only a few times a month that we
might have missed?
The beginning of the year?
The end of the year?
Are there any tasks that we may have missed because they occur
only once in a while?
You will note that often it is necessary to redefine the task
statements for the incumbent. This art comes with practice. The
following list contains some of the tasks and relevant KSAs
obtained from the TNA.
TASKS
KSAs
Deal with customer complaints
Knowledge of effective listening processes
Knowledge of conflict resolution strategies
Listening skills
Conflict resolution skills
Organize and prioritize jobs
Knowledge of types of jobs received
Knowledge of time required for various jobs
Organization and planning skills
Check on progress of subordinates’ work and provide feedback
on performance
Knowledge of proper feedback processes
Communication skills
Deal with concerns of employees
Positive attitude toward treating employees with respect

Knowledge of effective listening processes
Knowledge of communication strategies
Positive attitude toward helping employees
Next, for the person analysis, individual meetings with
supervisors and one with the owner (supervisor of the
supervisors) were conducted. The questions came right from the
job analysis and asked about the supervisors’ knowledge of the
areas identified, the skills needed, and their attitudes toward
issues identified as important in their job. The introduction to
the interview was as follows:
· From the interviews, I have listed a number of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that are necessary to be an effective
supervisor here at Fabrics, Inc. I would like to ask you how
proficient you believe you are in each of them. By the way, do
not feel bad if you have no understanding of many of these
concepts; many do not. Remember, the information gathered
will be used to determine how to help you be a better
supervisor, so candid responses are encouraged. In terms of
having knowledge of the following, indicate to me if you have
no understanding, a very low level of understanding, some
understanding, a fair amount of understanding, or complete
understanding.
The results of the TNA identified a number of KSAs (training
needs) that were deficient, as well as some nontraining needs.
Addressing Nontraining Needs
The following nontraining issues need to be addressed to help
ensure that supervisory training will be transferred to the job:
· • Have owner (either with others or on his own) determine the
goals and objectives of the company and which aspects of
performance should be focused on.
· • Set up a formal appraisal system where, in one session, the
owner sits down with each supervisor to discuss performance
and set objectives. In another session, performance development
is discussed.
· • Use objectives set for the year and clarify how rewards
(bonus, pay raises, and so forth) will be tied to the objectives.

· • Set up similar sessions for supervisors and subordinates in
terms of developmental performance review (at a minimum).
Also, consider incentives based on performance appraisals.
· • Hire someone to relieve the supervisors of some of their
paperwork so they can spend more time on the floor.
And so forth. …
Training Needs
Several training needs were evident from the needs analysis
beyond what was indicated by the owner. Specific to those
issues, however, supervisors were particularly candid in
indicating that they had never been exposed to any type of
feedback or communication skills. They had no knowledge or
skills in these areas. Attitudes in this area were mixed. Some
believed that the best way to provide feedback is to “call it like
it is.” “Some of these guys are simply not willing to listen, and
you need to be tough” was a typical comment from these
supervisors. Others believed that treating subordinates the way
you would like to be treated goes a long way in gaining their
support and willingness to listen.
A partial list of training needs includes lack of knowledge and
skill in:
· Effective listening
· Communication
· Conflict resolution
· Effective feedback
· Employee performance measurement
· Employee motivation… and so forth
At this point, we will leave “the training program” with the
needs identified. The next step is the design phase. We will
return to Fabrics, Inc. at the end of Chapter 5.Key Terms
· • 360-degree performance review
· • Actual criterion
· • Actual organizational performance (AOP)
· • Actual performance (AP)
· • Assessment center
· • Behavioral test

· • Bias
· • Bias in performance ratings
· • Capital resources
· • Cognitive test
· • Competency
· • Content validity
· • Criteria
· • Criterion contamination
· • Criterion deficiency
· • Criterion relevancy
· • Declarative knowledge
· • Error (measurement)
· • Expected organizational performance (EOP)
· • Expected performance (EP)
· • Group characteristic bias
· • Halo effect
· • Human resources
· • Job aid
· • Job-duty-task method
· • Job expectation technique
· • Knowledge of predictor bias
· • Operational analysis
· • Opportunity bias
· • Organizational analysis
· • Organizational environment
· • Organizational performance gap (OPG)
· • Performance gap (PG)
· • Person analysis
· • Proactive TNA
· • Procedural knowledge
· • Reactive TNA
· • Reliability
· • Self-ratings
· • Simulations
· • Split half reliability
· • Strategic job analysis

· • Succession planning
· • Task-oriented job analysis
· • Test–retest reliability
· • Training needs analysis (TNA)
· • Ultimate criterion
· • Validity
· • Work sample
· • Worker-oriented job analysisQuestions for Review
1.
What is the purpose of a TNA? Is it always necessary?
2.
What is the difference between proactive and reactive TNA?
When is proactive better?
3.
What are competencies, and why are they popular in training
departments? How are competency models related to job
analysis?
4.
Describe how you would go about analyzing the future training
needs of your university.
5.
To obtain person analysis data, why not just use the
performance appraisal completed by the supervisor? How can
you obtain the best information possible if performance
appraisal data must be used? How do self-ratings fit into this
approach?Exercises
1.
In a small group, analyze the job of “student.” What are the
duties and tasks required? From these tasks, list the KSAs that
students need. Are any in your group deficient in any of these
KSAs? Now identify and list the workshops offered to students
to help them be successful. Are these relevant to the KSAs you
identified? What additional programs would you recommend be
offered?
2.
Do the same job analysis for students in another field, and

compare it with yours. Are the KSAs the same for
students in another field, and compare it with yours. Are the
KSAs the same for a student in science and arts? In law or
engineering? What, if anything, is different?
3.
Talk to someone you know who is currently working and see
whether it would be possible to do a TNA on a particular job
classification or on that person’s job. Even interviewing only a
few employees would provide enough information to give you
an idea of how to conduct the TNA.
Fabrics, Inc., Questions
1.
Compare the information provided in the Fabrics, Inc., case
with the sources for locating gaps in performance in Table 4-
1 and identify which sources were used. Are there any other
sources that would provide useful information?
2.
In collecting information, did the training analyst ask the
correct people for the relevant information? Explain your
answer. Hint: Examine Table 4-2.
3.
How would you go about dealing with the nontraining needs?
Why is this important?
4.
What sources of data were used in the operational analysis?
Indicate how closely they correspond to the ideal model
presented in the text.
5.
What sources of data were used in the person analysis? Indicate
how closely they correspond to the ideal model presented in the
text.
Web Research
Conduct an Internet search to identify a needs analysis model
that is different from the one presented in this chapter.
Summarize the two models and describe how they differ.
Provide a critical analysis of these differences.

CASE ANALYSIS
Fred recently became a manager at a local hardware store that
employs six managers and 55 nonmanagement employees. As
new, larger chains such as Home Depot come to the area, the
owner is concerned about losing many of his customers because
he cannot compete on the basis of price. The management team
met and discussed its strategic response. The team arrived at a
strategy that would focus on high volume items and make
personalized service the cornerstone of its effort. Fred’s
responsibility was to train all nonmanagement employees in
good customer relations skills; for that he was given a budget of
$70,000. Over the past six months, Fred has received a number
of training brochures from outside organizations.
One of the brochures boasted, “Three-day workshop, $35,000.
We will come in and train all your employees (maximum of 50
per session) so that any customer who comes to your store once
will come again.”
Another said, “One-day seminar on customer service skills. The
best in the country. Only $8,000 (maximum participants 70).”
A third said, “Customer satisfaction guaranteed on our customer
satisfaction training for sales clerks. Three-day workshop,
$25,000. Maximum participants 25 to allow for individual
help.”
Fred liked the third one because it provided personalized
training. He called the company to talk about its offering. The
consultant said that by keeping the number small, he would be
able to provide actual work simulations for each of the trainees.
He also indicated that he would tailor the simulations to reflect
the hardware store. Fred noted that they would need two
sessions and asked the consultant if he could take a few more
per session to accommodate the 55 employees. The consultant
agreed. The training went ahead, and the cost was under budget
by $20,000.
Case Questions
For the purpose of these questions, focus only on the training
aspect of the case.

1.
Do you agree with Fred’s decision to conduct the training and
use the third vendor? Using concepts from the chapter, explain
your answer.
2.
What else might Fred do before choosing a training package?
Use information provided in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 to describe
your approach. Make sure to provide enough detail to
demonstrate your understanding of the key issues and
approaches to determining how to proceed once a triggering
event has occurred.
3.
If training went ahead as indicated, how successful do you think
it would be? Explain your answer using concepts from this
chapter.
Appendix 4.1
One of the most critical components of training is the
development of appropriate tests (criteria) to accurately
measure success in training. These criteria can be used for
assessing KSAs during the TNA, providing feedback during
training, and evaluating the training once it is completed. This
section provides both a conceptual framework for understanding
criterion measures and a practical guide for developing sound
criteria.
CRITERIA
Criteria are measures of expected performance. The data
gathered in the operational analysis describe what the expected
performance is for the job. From this, ways to measure both the
level of job performance and the employees’ KSAs will have to
be developed. Development of sound criteria is important, as
they will be used not only to measure how employees are doing
but also as a measure of training success. So let’s examine this
issue of criteria development in more detail. Two critical
components of good criteria measures are that they should be
both reliable and valid.
Reliability

Reliability is the consistency of a measurement. It is often
calculated using a correlation coefficient. It can be measured in
the following two ways: across similar measures (split half
reliability) and across time (test–retest reliability).
For the split half method, let’s assume that 100 multiple-choice
questions are used to test students’ knowledge of this course. To
determine the reliability of the test, the instructor splits the test
into two sections: even-numbered questions and odd-numbered
questions. He considers them as separate tests, even though the
100 questions are given at the same time. Adding up the score
of the odd-numbered and even-numbered questions provides two
scores for each student. Correlating the two scores, the
instructor determines how reliable the test is. A high correlation
would suggest that the test is highly reliable.
In the test–retest method, the instructor gives the test today and
again in three days. He correlates student scores from the two
time periods. Again, a high correlation between the two sets of
scores would indicate a reliable test.
Highly reliable criteria measures are important. Consider a
criterion for a machinist who has completed training. He must
produce a shaft exactly four centimeters thick. A test is
constructed requiring the trainee to produce a shaft with the
correct specifications. To pass the test, the trainee must produce
a shaft with a measurement that can be off by no more than
2/1,000ths of a centimeter. The evaluator measures the shaft
with a micrometer (a measurement instrument able to detect
differences in thousandths of centimeters). She finds it
1/1,000th of a centimeter too large. If she measured it
tomorrow, she would find the same results. If another instructor
measured it using the same procedure, he would find the same
results. This criterion is highly reliable. If a ruler is used
instead of a micrometer, the results still might be reliable but
less so, because the less accurate ruler makes judgment errors in
reading the scale more likely. Developing well-designed
instrumentation, therefore, is important to obtaining a reliable
measure, whether it is for a machinist or a measure of

interpersonal skills.
Although developing a reliable instrument is important, the
reliability in the use of the instrument is of equal importance.
Both the instrument and the procedure used in applying it affect
the reliability of the results. Without training, the evaluator in
the example above would not know how much to tighten the
micrometer around the shaft before obtaining the measurement.
If one evaluator tightened it as much as he could and another
tightened it just until she felt the first sign of resistance, the
difference in results could be more than the 2/1,000ths of a
centimeter tolerance allowed.
Validity
Validity is the degree to which a measurement actually
measures what you say it measures. Compared with reliability
(the consistency of a measure), validity is more difficult to
assess. Consider the question, “Has training resulted in
learning?” Learning is a physiological process that takes place
in the brain. We cannot assess this process directly, so we test
individuals and, on the basis of their scores, we infer whether
learning takes place. It is not a direct measure of the learning
process but an inference based on behavior.
FIGURE 4-6 Illustration of Criterion Deficiency, Relevance and
Contamination
To better understand the problems associated with validity, let’s
look at what we call the ultimate criterion.1 The ultimate
criterion is what we would like to be able to measure if it were
possible to do so. It would include the exact indicators of the
object being measured. However, we are never able to measure
the ultimate criterion, because it is simply a theoretical
construct. We must settle for what we are able to measure,
which is the actual criterion.2 Examining the relationship
between the ultimate criterion and the actual criterion provides
us with insight into the problems associated with criteria
development. The actual criterion, what we settle for, can be
thought of in terms of its relevance, deficiency, and

contamination in relation to the ultimate criterion (see Figure 4-
6).CRITERION RELEVANCY
Criterion relevancy is the portion of the actual criterion that
overlaps the ultimate criterion (see Figure 4-6) and represents
the validity of the actual criterion. However, given that we can
never measure the ultimate criterion, an empirical measure of
this validity (a correlation between the ultimate criterion and
actual criterion) is not possible. This problem illustrates the
need for logical and rational analysis in developing the actual
criterion to obtain the best approximation of the ultimate
criterion.
Let’s look at an example in which training is designed to
improve interpersonal relationships. Raters evaluate the
learning by rating a trainee’s behaviors in a scripted role-play.
The degrees to which the raters are trained, to which the scales
to be used in rating are well developed, and to which examples
of acceptable and less acceptable behavior are clear to the raters
are all factors that contribute to the validity of the criterion
(overlap of actual with ultimate). Because these will never
match the ultimate criterion perfectly, deficiencies and
contamination will always be factors. The more rigorous the
development of criterion measures and processes, however, the
more the actual criterion will approach the ultimate
criterion.CRITERION DEFICIENCY
Criterion deficiency is the part of the ultimate criterion that we
miss when we use the actual criterion or the degree to which we
are not measuring important aspects of performance. The factors
that make up a trainee’s ability to produce parts with a tolerance
of a few thousandths of a centimeter are more complex than
simply being able to do it under ideal testing conditions.
Factors such as noise in the plant, climate in the plant, different
types of parts that need to be machined, and supervisor–
subordinate relationships contribute to making a machinist
successful. Our measure of success (producing one part in a
training room) will obviously be deficient when compared with
an ultimate measure of a successful machinist, which takes into

consideration all the above factors (the ultimate
criterion).CRITERION CONTAMINATION
Just as any measure will miss some important aspects of true
success (criterion deficiency), so too will it contain some part
that measures aspects not related to the true measure of
success (criterion contamination). This part of the actual
criterion does not overlap with the ultimate criterion.3
The two main categories of contamination are error and
bias. Error (measurement)is random variation. It is, by
definition, not correlated with anything, and, therefore, not as
great a concern as is bias. Error lowers validity but does not
cause misrepresentation of the data unless the error is too large.
Then, of course, error can be a problem. Poorly trained
evaluators, poorly developed instruments, or other factors could
also cause high error content.
When the contamination is bias rather than error, it means you
are measuring something other than what you want to measure.
A large amount of contamination will lead to erroneous
conclusions about the object you are measuring. Four sources of
such bias are opportunity bias, group characteristic bias, bias in
ratings, and knowledge of predictor bias.4
When certain individuals have some advantage that provides
them with a higher level of performance, irrespective of their
own skill level, opportunity bias occurs. Suppose, for example,
you wanted to know if knowledge gained during training
predicted performance on the job. To do this, you would
correlate the scores on the training exam with performance one
year later. If the correlation is positive and strong, this suggests
those scoring highest on the training test also produced the most
product and best quality (i.e., a high correlation between
success in training and overall performance after training).
However, those who scored the highest in training received the
newest machines to work on as a reward. The relationship
between the two scores was contaminated by the fact that the
better trainees received the better machines. These machines
might have provided the opportunity for success.

If something about the group creates higher (or lower)
performance, irrespective of an individual’s capability, that is
called group characteristic bias. For example, trainees who did
well in training are placed with Supervisor A, who is
progressive and participative in her approach. Those who did
less well in training are placed with a more authoritarian
supervisor, Supervisor B, who will “keep an eye on them.” Once
again, those who did better in training might produce more and
better-quality products as a function of the climate created by
Supervisor A, not the training they received.
Bias in performance ratings is another possible contaminant.
Bias in performance ratings is that portion of the actual
criterion which is not correlated with the ultimate criterion but
correlated with variables used by raters in their subjective
judgments. Supervisors often use subjective ratings in
evaluations. These ratings can be tainted because even in areas
where objective data are available, it might not reflect the
actual skill level of the worker. Some workers have better
territories (sales), better equipment (machinist), or a better
(clean, well-lit) environment. In many cases, the supervisor
does not take these differences into account when rating
subordinates. One of the most frequent biases in performance
ratings is the halo effect. This is a powerful force in rating
subordinates. It occurs when a supervisor rates a subordinate on
all dimensions of performance on the basis of knowledge of
only one dimension. For example, Susan is well organized, so
she is rated as a great performer. Supervisors need to be trained
to avoid these biases.
The final possible contaminant is knowledge of predictor bias.
The criterion for success in training could be thought of as a
predictor of later performance on the job; successful training
should contribute to successful performance. But knowing each
employee’s success level in training could influence the
supervisor’s ratings at some time in the future.RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
FIGURE 4-7 A Comparison of Reliability and Validity

Reliability is the consistency of a measure, and validity is the
degree to which you are measuring what you want to measure.
As an example, imagine that a rifle manufacturer has two new
rifles he wishes to test for their ability to hit the bull’s-eye. He
places the first rifle in a vise-like mechanism to prevent
deviation, which occurs if a person were doing the shooting. For
the purpose of this discussion, we will change the terminology
for validity slightly. We will say that validity is “doing what
you want it to do” rather than “measuring what you want to
measure.” Conceptually, these notions are the same. In the vise,
the first rifle is aimed at a target 50 yards away, and five shots
are fired. Each shot hits the target (see Figure 4-7A). Is the rifle
(instrument) consistent (reliable)? As you can see, the five
bullets struck the target but they are all over the place. The rifle
is not reliable. Nor is it valid (doing what you want it to do: hit
the bull’s-eye). There is no point trying to make the rifle valid
(doing what you want it to do) because it has no reliability; you
need reliability before you can have validity. The next rifle is
placed in the vise. This time the five shots are all in the upper
left-hand corner of the target (Figure 4-7B). Is the rifle
reliable? Yes, because it consistently hit in the same place for
all five shots. Is it valid? No, it did not hit the bull’seye. We
now adjust the sight and fire; all five hit the bull’s-eye (Figure
4-7C). Is this rifle reliable? Yes, the bullets were all in
relatively the same place (consistent). Is it valid? Yes, all five
hit the bull’s-eye as well.
From this example, it should be clear that you can have a
reliable test that is not valid, but you cannot have a valid test
that is not reliable (Figure 4-7). You need consistency of a
measure before you even consider expecting all the bullets to
hit the bull’s-eye. Reliability, therefore, is a primary concern,
but only because you need it to have validity.Development of
Criteria
It might seem that developing sound criteria is impossible. Not
so. As we discussed previously, the operational analysis
identifies the level of acceptable performance and the KSAs

required to meet this performance level. From this analysis,
criteria can be developed. Once criteria are established, the next
step is to carefully develop instruments to measure the criteria.
The instruments should leave as little as possible to the
judgment of the rater.
Consider the job of internal auditor. One of the tasks identified
from the operational analysis is “knowledge of which reference
books to use for auditing problems.” A part of the knowledge
required, then, is to know what is contained in the various
reference manuals. Training would require the trainee to learn
what was contained in the various reference books. A criterion
for success would be demonstrating this knowledge.
If you want to develop a reliable and valid measure of the
criterion “understanding what is contained in the reference
manuals,” an excellent method would be a multiple-choice test
of the material. The advantage of a well-designed multiple-
choice test is that minimal judgment is necessary. So no matter
who scores the test, the outcome will be the same, making it
highly reliable. Taking care to choose a cross section of
questions from all the material will provide a level of validity.
Given that well-designed multiple-choice tests can accurately
measure any type of knowledge,5we strongly suggest their use
when possible.
Developing sound criteria for skills is more difficult and may
not be as reliable. However, instruments to measure skills, if
carefully developed, can still meet reliability requirements.
Some examples of such measuring instruments are presented in
the discussion of evaluation in Chapter 9, under “Fabrics, Inc.”
In the internal auditor example provided earlier, an expected
behavior might be “calm an irate department head.” The skill
required to accomplish this behavior could be “active listening.”
A measure of the criterion would be how a trainee behaves in a
role-play situation in which the role-player becomes angry at
something the auditor says.
In the case of measuring the criterion “calming an irate
department head,” it is critical to develop clear rules and

examples of what is and is not acceptable. Also, it is important
to train raters in the use of the rules and to provide examples.
The more familiar the raters are with good, average, and poor
responses, the more reliable the measure can be.
Validity in such instances is called content validity, when an
expert examines the criteria on the basis of her knowledge of
the TNA.6 It is important, therefore, to conduct a good TNA,
for everything that follows from it (both training content and
evaluation instruments) is based on that analysis.
The time and effort spent developing a sound criterion are
critical to the training process. Once developed, the criterion is
used to determine the following:
· • Expected level of performance (operational analysis)
· • Likelihood that the incumbent can reach it (person analysis)
· • Training needs for those who cannot reach it (a training
objective)
· • Measures of training effectiveness (training success).

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