2. 2
• Strategic Windows: their nature.
• The nature and purpose of strategy and how it is
formulated. The nature of marketing strategy and
how this should take account of the interests of
various stakeholders when involving such things as,
product/service development and delivery,
promotional mix, support services, manufacturing
and production processes, R&D, and material
purchasing affect the stakeholders.
• Other factors in the business environment that
influence marketing strategy: political, economic,
socio-cultural and technological (PEST).
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 战略窗口：其性质。
• 战略的性质和目的以及如何制定。 营销
战略的性质以及在涉及诸如产品/服务开
发和交付，促销组合，支持服务，制造和
生产流程，研发和材料购买之类的事项时，
应考虑如何会影响各个利益相关者的利益。
• 商业环境中影响营销战略的其他因素：政
治，经济，社会文化和技术（PEST）。
3. 3
• Marketing and competitors: how a firm must be
able to position itself competitively in the minds of
its customers so that its products and services stand
out very favourably in important respects in
relationship to competitors.
• Matching the firm’s products / services with
opportunities and threats in the market place.
• The limited periods during which the fit between
the key requirements of a market and the particular
competencies of a firm competing in that market
are at an optimum.
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 营销和竞争者：公司必须如何能够在客户
的心中具有竞争性的地位，以便其产品和
服务在与竞争者的关系中的重要方面非常
突出。
• 使公司的产品/服务与市场中的机遇和威胁
相匹配。
• 市场的关键需求与公司在该市场竞争中的
特定能力之间的契合度处于有限的最佳时
期。
4. 4
• Investment in a product line or a market area should
be timed to coincide with periods during which a
strategic window is open. Correspondingly, withdrawal
should be considered where something which was a
good fit, is no longer a good fit.
• Ways in which a market can evolve and how firms
might develop a competitive strategy to take
advantage of Strategic Windows.
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 在产品线或市场领域的投资应与战略窗
口打开的时期相一致。 相应地，当某
件东西不再合适时，应考虑撤离。
• 市场的发展方式以及公司如何制定竞争
战略以利用战略窗口。
5. 5
• A strategy is a plan that integrates an organization’s
major goals, policies, decisions and sequences of
action into a cohesive whole.
• It can apply at all levels in an organization and
pertain to any of the functional areas of
management. Thus there may be production,
financial, marketing, personnel and corporate
strategies, just to name a few.
• If we look specifically at marketing then there may
be pricing, product, promotion, distribution,
marketing research, sales, advertising,
merchandising, etc. strategies.
• 战略是将组织的主要目标，政策，决策
和行动顺序整合为一个整体的计划。
• 它可以适用于组织中的所有级别，并且
涉及管理的任何职能领域。 因此，可
能会有生产，财务，营销，人员和公司
战略，仅举几例。
• 如果我们专门研究营销，那么可能会有
定价，产品，促销，分销，市场研究，
销售，广告，商品推销等战略。
营销战略介绍
Introduction to marketing strategy
6. 6
• Strategy is concerned with effectiveness rather than
efficiency and is the process of analysing the
environment and designing the fit between the
organization, its resources and objectives and the
environment.
• The strategic process refers to the manner in which
strategy is formulated. There are several approaches：
rational approach, flexible approach, creative
approach, behavioural approach and incremental
approach
• 战略关注的是效益，而不是效率，并分
析了环境和组织，其资源和目标与环境
之间的设计配合的过程。
• 战略过程是指制定战略的方式。 有几
种方法：理性方法，灵活方法，创造性
方法，行为方法和增量方法
营销战略介绍
Introduction to marketing strategy
7. 7
• Marketing is about satisfying customer wants and
needs and in the course of doing so facilitating the
achievement of an organization’s objectives.
• Marketing is about the competitive positioning of
products and services in the minds of the
customers, in such a way that the products and
services are perceived to be different from one
another.
• It is also about the communication of messages and
images (reflecting product and service positioning)
and the means which are used to convey these
messages and images to the customers.
什么是营销战略？
What is marketing strategy?
• 营销在于满足客户的需求和欲望，在此
过程中促进组织目标的实现。
• 营销是关于产品和服务在客户心中的竞
争定位，以这种方式使产品和服务被认
为彼此不同。
• 它还涉及信息和图像的通信（反映产品
和服务定位）以及用于将这些信息和图
像传达给客户的手段。
8. 8
• Products and services need to be seen as more than
physical entities — it is the benefits they offer
customers that are being purchased.
• Marketing is also about managing relationships. In
order to persuade the ultimate consumers of the
products to buy, others concerned with the product
have to be persuaded that what is on offer will
satisfy customers’ wants and needs.
• The chain of persuasion can stretch right back into
the organization itself and involve employees of the
company. This is the area where internal marketing
has come to the fore in recent years.
什么是营销战略？
What is marketing strategy?
• 产品和服务不仅应被视为实体，还应为
它们提供给正在购买的客户的好处。
• 营销也与管理关系有关。 为了说服最
终消费者购买产品，必须也说服其他与
该产品有关的人，使他们相信所提供的
产品能够满足客户的需求。
• 说服链可以延伸到组织本身，并使公司
的员工参与进来。 近年来内部营销这
个领域是受关注的。
9. 9
• Building relationships with other organizations is
also important. The 21st century is seeing the
development of strategic alliances and networks
where firms work together towards shared goals
and collaborate in their operations. Managing such
relationships productively is almost certainly the key
to success or failure.
• The foregoing is at the heart of marketing strategy,
which has to take into account the following factors:
什么是营销战略？
What is marketing strategy?
• 与其他组织建立关系也很重要。 21世
纪见证了战略联盟和网络的发展，在这
种网络中，公司将共同努力以实现共同
的目标并在运营中进行协作。 高效地
管理这种关系几乎肯定是成功或失败的
关键。
• 前述内容是营销战略的核心，必须考虑
以下因素：
11. 11
• Markets or customers are driven towards wanting
certain products and services.
• Political, economic, socio-cultural and technological
(PEST) influences all impact upon the nature of
customer wants and needs.
市场驱动力的影响
Impact of market drivers – PEST forces
• 市场或客户被驱使想要某些产品和服务。
• 政治，经济，社会文化和技术（PEST）
都会影响客户需求的性质。
12. 12
Factors 因素 Implication 意义
Political/environmental factors 政治/环境因素
• Government retirement from welfare provision. 政府不再提供福利 • Poor cannot pay for traditional life assurance 穷人无法支付传统的生活保障
• Self-help encouragement by Government 政府鼓励自助 • Only middle income groups can afford to pay 只有中等收入群体有能力支付
• Increasingly severe pensions legislation 日益严格的退休金立法 • Driving up costs of compliance and complexity of selling 抬高合规成本和销售复杂性
Economic environment factors 经济环境因素
• Widening gap between rich and poor 贫富差距拉大 • Poor will jettison life/savings costs— traditional market will be unprofitable 贫困将放弃
人寿/储蓄成本-传统市场将无利可图
Socio-cultural factors 社会文化因素
• Major increases in working women in lower income groups 低收入群体
中的职业女性大幅增加
• No one at home to pay premiums 没人在家支付保费
• Less manual jobs/more office admin jobs 减少手工工作/增加办公室管
理员工作
• Less need for home collection of life assurance 减少家庭领取人寿保险的需要
• Lottery 抽奖 • Reduces disposable income. 减少可支配收入
• Higher expectations of middle income groups 对中等收入人群的期望更
高
• Better services and returns demanded 要求更好的服务和回报
Demographic factors 人口因素
• Population shift to middle/old ages 人口转移到中/老年 • Need for care and illness cover 需要护理和疾病保险
• Less young people 年轻人少 • Falling market for life/savings products 人寿/储蓄产品市场下跌
Technological factors 技术因素
• New tech not easily accepted by lower income groups 低收入人群不容
易接受的新技术
• Benefits of automation (costs) not immediately available in traditional market 传统市场
无法立即获得自动化的好处（成本）
• Growth in telemarketing/database marketing 电话销售/数据库营销的
增长
• Key cost cutting force 关键成本削减力量
市场驱动力的影响
Impact of market drivers – PEST forces
13. 13
• Competition is important in influencing how
successful an organization’s business venture can
be.
• It is not simply a matter of producing a good
product or service which matches with customer
wants and needs and provides customer
satisfaction.
• A firm must be able to position itself competitively
in the minds of its customers so that its products
and services stand out very favourably in important
respects in relationship to competitors.
竞争的影响
Impact of competition
• 竞争对影响企业的业务成功有重要意义。
• 这不仅仅是生产符合客户想要和需要并
提供客户满意度的优质产品或服务的问
题。
• 公司必须能够在客户心目中以竞争优势
定位自己，以便其产品和服务在与竞争
对手的关系中的重要方面非常突出。
14. 14
• Shell and Esso, for example, both sell essentially the
same fuel oils, but both are able to carve out
positions for themselves in the minds of their
customers, so that they can both operate successfully
in the marketplace.
• The nature and strength of competitors and how a
firm jockeys for position are key aspects of marketing
and business strategy.
• Technologies and products have life cycles and so do
markets and industries. There are different stages in
the life cycle of markets and industries and these have
important ramifications for marketing strategy.
竞争的影响
Impact of competition
• 例如，壳牌公司和埃索公司（Esso）基
本上都销售相同的燃料油，但它们都能
够在客户的心中为自己赢得头寸，以便
它们都能在市场上成功运营。
• 竞争对手的性质和实力以及如何稳固地
位，这是营销和业务战略的关键环节。
• 技术和产品都有生命周期，市场和行业
也有生命周期。 市场和行业生命周期
有不同的阶段，这些阶段对营销战略有
重要的影响。
15. 15
• Moreover, taken in conjunction with the number and
strength of competitors that operate in a market or an
industry at any one time in the life cycle, it poses a tight
boundary within which the firm can design an optimal
marketing strategy.
• Some firms may be ideally suited to exploiting certain
types of product market opportunities whereas others
may languish and fail when trying to exploit the same
ones. In another situation the reverse can easily apply.
One cannot assume that every firm will be able to
exploit the same situation to its advantage, even when
the opportunity does appear to be very exciting and has
much to promise.
竞争的影响
Impact of competition
• 此外，结合生命周期中任何一个时间时
间段内在市场或行业中运营的竞争者的
数量和实力，它构成了企业可以在其中
设计最佳营销战略的一个紧密的界限。
• 有些公司可能最适合利用某些类型的产
品市场机会，而另一些公司可能会在尝
试利用相同的机会时陷入困境而失败。
在另一种情况下，相反的也很容易发生。
即使机会确实非常令人兴奋并且有很大
的希望，但是也不能假设每个公司都能
利用相同的情况来发挥自己的优势。
16. 16
• Having the necessary skills and assets, or having
access to them, is critical in implementing successful
marketing strategies. Without these assets and skills a
whole series of strategies may fail.
竞争的影响
Impact of competition
• 拥有必要的技能和资产，或者可以获取
它们，对于实施成功的营销战略至关重
要。 没有这些资产和技能，一系列战
略可能会失败。
17. 17
• Abell (1978) introduced the concept of strategic
windows.
• The principal idea behind the concept of a strategic
window is that there are only limited periods during
which the fit between the key requirements of a
market and the particular competencies of a firm
competing in that market is at an optimum.
• As a consequence it is recommended that investment
in a product line or a market area is timed to coincide
with periods during which a strategic window is open.
Correspondingly, withdrawal should be considered
where something which was a good fit, is no longer a
good fit.
战略窗口
Strategic window
• Abell（1978）提出了战略窗口的概念。
• 战略窗口概念背后的主要思想是，只有
在有限的时间段内，市场的关键要求与
竞争该市场的公司的特定能力之间的匹
配是最佳的。
• 因此，建议对产品线或市场区域的投资
的时间安排与战略窗口打开的时期一致。
相应地，当某件东西不再合适时，应考
虑撤离。
18. 18
• The latter can arise, for example, if changes in market
requirements exceed the firm’s capability to adapt to
such changes.
• The argument put forward is that when changes in the
market and the marketing environment are
incremental in nature, firms can successfully adapt
themselves to the new situation by modifying current
marketing and other functional programmes.
• Such changes can be introduced through technological
innovations, changes in customer tastes, changes in
legal regulations, economic and financial constraints
or any changes in environmental conditions.
战略窗口
Strategic window
例如，如果市场需求的变化超出了公司适
应这种变化的能力，则后者可能会出现。
提出的论点是，当市场和营销环境的变化
本质上是渐进的时，企业可以通过修改当
前的营销和其他职能计划来成功地适应新
情况。
可以通过技术创新，客户口味的变化，法
律法规的变化，经济和财务限制或环境条
件的任何变化来引入这种变化。
19. 19
• The nature of competition may also change and in
particular the elements which make up the five forces
of Porter’s (1980) competition model. New entrants to
the industry may appear; substitute products may
become more attractive propositions to customers;
both suppliers and customers may find their
bargaining powers strengthened; and the balance of
competition power between the incumbent firms in
the industry may change as one firm develops a
competitive advantage.
战略窗口
Strategic window
• 竞争的性质也可能发生变化，特别是构
成波特（1980）竞争模型的五种力量的
要素。 可能出现新的行业进入者； 替
代产品可能成为对客户更具吸引力的主
张； 供应商和客户都可能发现他们的
议价能力得到加强； 而且，随着一家
公司发展出竞争优势，行业中现有公司
之间的竞争能力平衡可能会发生变化。
20. 20
• However, if the cumulative changes in the economic,
technological, social, political and cultural
environments remain unnoticed by a company’s
managers until it is too late to respond, the problems
which they create for the firm may be overwhelmingly
difficult to overcome.
• Similarly, when the degree of market change is of such
magnitude that the competence of a firm to continue
to compete effectively is questioned, then the firm
may be experiencing the closure of an important
strategic window.
战略窗口
Strategic window
• 但是，如果企业经理们都不会注意到经
济，技术，社会，政治和文化环境的累
积变化，直到为时已晚，那么他们为公
司带来的问题可能将难以克服。
• 同样，当市场变化的程度如此之大，以
至于企业继续有效竞争的能力受到质疑
时，企业可能正面临着重要战略窗口的
关闭。
21. 21
• Entry to a new market constitutes an example of
where the presence of a strategic window is critical to
success.
• For example, in the tumble drier market in the 1970s,
larger manufacturers delayed entry until the market
was sufficiently large to generate the kind of return on
investment they demanded.
战略窗口
Strategic window
• 进入新市场构成了战略窗口的存在对成
功至关重要的一个例子。
• 例如，在1970年代的滚筒式干衣机市场
中，较大的制造商推迟了进入市场的时
间，直到市场足够大以产生所需的投资
回报。
22. 22
• Expenditure on plant, equipment and marketing
represents another area in which the strategic window
takes on importance.
• The question as to whether expenditure should be
increased, diminished or maintained at the current
level depends upon whether the strategic window is
expected to remain open or to close in the near
future.
• The timing of exit from a market is also important.
There are times when it is possible and advisable to
divest business which one cannot operate profitably
so as to profit from the divestment.
战略窗口
Strategic window
• 工厂，设备和营销方面的支出是战略窗
口越来越重要的另一个领域。
• 关于是否应增加，减少或维持目前水平
的支出的问题取决于战略窗口是否有望
在不久的将来保持打开或关闭。
• 退出市场的时机也很重要。 在某些可
能和明智的情况下，建议剥离没有利润
盈利的业务，而从剥离中获利。
23. 23
• For example, one may be able to reinvest the
proceeds of a divested business in other opportunities
where the strategic window is open. In such
circumstances strategic windows are interdependent.
• Cunard, for example, successfully moved from being
involved principally in passenger shipping to
containerization—the strategic windows overlapped.
The key seems to be being market oriented rather
than product oriented in defining the business in
which one is operating (see Exhibit 1.3).
战略窗口
Strategic window
• 例如，在战略窗口打开的情况下，人们
可能能够将已剥离业务的收益再投资于
其他机会。 在这种情况下，战略窗口
是相互依存的。
• 例如，库纳德（Cunard）成功地从主要
从事客运业务转移到了集装箱运输业务
–战略窗口重叠。 在确定经营者所从事
的业务时，关键似乎是以市场为导向，
而不是以产品为导向（参见图1.3）。
24. 24
Product Orientation 产品导向 Market Orientation 市场导向
• We are a night club 我们是夜总会 • We offer an experience 我们提供体验
• Self-help encouragement by Government 政府鼓励自助 • Only middle income groups can afford to pay 只有中等收入群体有能力支付
• We run an airline 我们经营一家航空公司 • We transport people and their goods anywhere in the world 我们将人员及其货物
运输到世界任何地方
• We sell jewelery 我们出售珠宝 • We enhance your appearance 我们改善您的外观
• We sell houses 我们卖房子 • We create happy living environments for people 我们为人们创造幸福的生活环
境
• We sell newspapers 我们卖报纸 • We provide interesting information for people 我们为人们提供有趣的信息
• We run a university 我们开办大学 • We provide the opportunity for self development。 我们提供自我发展的机会
• We market personal computers 我们销售个人电脑 • We bring a new dimension of interpersonal communication into people’s lives 我
们将人际沟通的新维度带入人们的生活
• We are travel agents 我们是旅行社 • We make people’s dreams come true 我们使人们的梦想成真
市场导向对比产品导向
Market orientation versus product orientation
25. 25
• It is important to examine not only where the firm is
today, but how well equipped it is to deal with
tomorrow. In particular, the task of predicting non-
incremental changes in the market is of critical
importance. Existing firms and their competitors can
sometimes be replaced in a comparatively short space
of time by a whole new range of competitors.
• Firms which are oblivious to the opening and closing
of strategic windows or firms which fail to utilize
overlapping strategic windows to best advantage, or
firms which are unable to divest when a window
closes, risk disaster.
战略窗口
Strategic window
重要的是，不仅要检查公司现在的位置，
而且要检查明天要处理的设备如何。 特别
地，预测市场非增量变化的任务至关重要。
现有公司及其竞争对手有时可以在较短的
时间内被全新的竞争对手所取代。
忽略了战略窗口的打开和关闭的公司，未
能利用重叠的战略窗口以发挥最大优势的
公司，或在窗口关闭时无法撤资的公司，
都可能遭受灾难。
26. 26
Strategic windows arise as a result of market
evolution. Markets are not static unchanging entities
but change substantially in nature over time. There are
different ways in which a market can evolve. Four
examples quoted by Abell are:
• the development of new primary demand
• the emergence of new competing technologies
which cannibalize existing ones
• market redefinition
• channel changes.
不断发展的市场和战略窗口
Evolving markets and strategic window
战略窗口是市场发展的结果。 市场不是静
止不变的实体，而是随着时间的推移本质
上发生实质性变化。 市场可以通过多种方
式发展。 Abell引用了四个示例：
• 新的主要需求的发展
• 新的竞争技术的出现蚕食了现有技术
• 市场重新定义
• 渠道变更。
27. 27
Other sources include:
• restructuring of markets—removal of trading barriers
• creation of an internal market—the UK health service of
the 1980s and 1990s
• creation of new industries and markets
• deregulation of markets
• entry of new highly competitive firms to an industry
• the changing structure of the retail trade and its impact
on supplying firms
• impact of substitute products on an industry
• timing of withdrawal from a market
• managing products in times of high inflation or
conditions of economic uncertainty.
不断发展的市场和战略窗口
Evolving markets and strategic window
其他来源包括：
• 市场重组 – 消除贸易壁垒
• 建立内部市场 – 1980年代和1990年代的英国
卫生服务
• 创造新的产业和市场
• 市场放松管制
• 新的竞争激烈的公司进入行业
• 零售贸易结构的变化及其对供应商的影响
• 替代产品对行业的影响
• 从市场撤出的时机
• 在通货膨胀率高或经济不确定的情况下管理产
品。
28. 28
• The evolving patterns of markets imply that the
resource requirements of a firm to compete effectively
in a market may change radically with time.
Unfortunately the resources and key competencies of
incumbent firms cannot be so easily adjusted.
• Strategic windows have implications for incumbent
firms and for new entrants to a market. Incumbent
firms have the following four options:
1. Assemble resources needed to close the gap
between the new critical marketing requirements
and the firm’s competencies.
不断发展的市场和战略窗口
Evolving markets and strategic window
• 市场模式的演变意味着企业有效竞争市
场所需的资源可能会随时间发生根本性
变化。 不幸的是，现有企业的资源和
关键竞争力无法轻易调整。
• 战略窗口对现有公司和市场新进入者都
有影响。 现有企业有以下四个选择：
1. 整合所需的资源，以弥合新的关键
营销需求与公司能力之间的差距。
29. 29
2. Shift their efforts to selected segments, where
the fit between requirements and resources is
still acceptable.
3. Shift to a low-profile approach cutting back on all
further allocation of capital and deliberately
milking the business for short-run profit.
4. Exit the market by liquidation or sale.
不断发展的市场和战略窗口
Evolving markets and strategic window
2. 将他们的工作转移到选定的细分，
在这些细分中，需求和资源之间的
适合度仍然可以接受。
3. 转向低调策略，削减所有进一步的
资本配置，并故意挤占业务以获取
短期利润。
4. 通过清算或出售退出市场。
30. 30
Essentially we are looking at a multi-stage process.
Organizations need to:
1. Identify the opportunities and threats posed by the
opening and closing of strategic windows.
2. Analyse all the relevant internal and external
environmental factors acting upon the firm in the
context of the strategic windows.
3. Determine the best strategy or set of strategies that are
likely to enable the firm to take best advantage of the
strategic window while it is open.
打开和关闭战略窗口所带来的机遇和威胁
Opportunities and threats presented by the opening and closing of strategic windows
本质上，我们正在考虑一个多阶段的过程。 组
织需要：
1. 确定战略窗口的打开和关闭所带来的机遇和
威胁。
2. 在战略窗口内分析影响公司的所有相关内部
和外部环境因素。
3. 确定最佳战略或一组战略，这些战略或方法
可以使公司在打开战略窗口时充分利用战略
窗口。
31. 31
4. Ensure that adequate resources are available to
implement the chosen strategies.
5. Implement the chosen strategy to take best advantage
of the opportunities presented by the strategic window
and to minimize the risks posed by the threats.
打开和关闭战略窗口所带来的机遇和威胁
Opportunities and threats presented by the opening and closing of strategic windows
4. 确保有足够的资源来实施所选战略。
5. 实施选定的战略，以充分利用战略窗
口所提供的机会，并最大程度地减少
威胁带来的风险。
32. 32
A competitive strategy is made up of six parts. The first
four apply to any type of business whereas the other two
are used when there is more than one business unit in an
organization. It involves a determination of:
1. The product market in which the business competes.
• The scope of a business is partially determined by
what products it offers, by the markets it serves,
by the nature of other businesses with whom it
chooses to compete, and by the extent of its
vertical integration.
• The scope of the business is also affected by
those same elements it chooses to avoid.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
竞争战略由六个部分组成。 前四个适用于
任何类型的业务，而当组织中有多个业务
部门时使用后两个。 它涉及以下方面的确
定：
1. 企业参与竞争的产品市场。
• 业务范围部分取决于其提供的产品，
服务的市场，与之竞争的其他业务
的性质以及垂直整合的程度。
• 业务范围也受其选择避免的那些要
素的影响。
33. 33
• Often the latter is more important because
decisions regarding what to avoid, if acted upon
rigorously, can conserve resources needed to
compete successfully elsewhere.
2. The level of investment. Although there are variations
and refinements, it is useful to see the options in terms
of:
a) invest to grow
b) invest only to maintain the existing position
c) milk the business by minimizing investment
d) recover as much of the assets as possible by
liquidating or divesting the business.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
• 通常情况下，后者更重要，因为关于
避免什么样的决定，如果严格地采取
行动，可以保存到别处成功竞争所需
要的资源。
2. 投资水平。 尽管有各种变化和改进，但查
看以下方面的选项很有用：
• 投资成长
• 仅投资维持现有职位
• 通过最小化投资来挤奶业务
• 通过清算或剥离业务来收回尽可能多
的资产。
34. 34
3. The functional area strategies required to compete in
the selected product market. These are:
a) product line strategy
b) positioning strategy
c) pricing strategy
d) distribution strategy
e) manufacturing strategy
f) information technology strategy
g) segmentation strategy
h) global strategy.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
3. 在所选产品市场中竞争所需的功能区域战
略。 这些是：
• 产品线战略
• 定位战略
• 定价战略
• 分销战略
• 制造战略
• 信息技术战略
• 细分战略
• 全球战略。
35. 35
4. The strategic assets or skills that underpin the strategy
and provide the sustainable competitive advantage.
• A strategic skill is something that the business
does extremely well such as manufacturing or
marketing and which is strategically important to
the business.
• A strategic asset is a resource such as a brand
name or installed customer base that is strong
relative to competitors.
• Strategy formulation should take into account the
cost and feasibility of producing or maintaining
assets or skills that will provide the basis for a
sustainable competitive advantage.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
4. 构成战略基础并提供可持续竞争优势
的战略资产或技能。
• 战略技能是企业非常擅长的事情，
例如制造或营销，并且对企业具有
战略重要性。
• 战略资产是相对于竞争对手而言很
强大的资源，例如品牌名称或已建
立的客户群。
• 战略制定应考虑生产或维护资产或
技能的成本和可行性，这将为可持
续竞争优势提供基础。
36. 36
A single organization, firm or business, is usually made up
of a number of business units. Most business units share
an organizational framework with other business units
which takes us to the remaining two points.
5. The allocation of the resources among the business
units. Financial resources generated either internally or
externally, plus non-financial resources such as plant,
equipment and people, have to be allocated. The
allocation decision is a key component in the strategy
formulation process.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
单个组织，公司或业务通常由多个业务部
门组成。 大多数业务部门与其他业务部门
共享一个组织框架，这将我们带到了剩下
的两点。
5. 在业务部门之间分配资源。 必须分配
内部或外部产生的财务资源，以及工
厂，设备和人员等非财务资源。 分配
决策是战略制定过程中的关键组成部
分。
37. 37
6. Looking for synergies across the business—that is the
creation of value by having business units that support
and complement each other. Where a firm has many
businesses that can achieve synergistic effects it will
have an advantage over those firms that ignore such
possibilities in their own organizations or who fail or
are unable to achieve any synergy.
竞争战略的性质
Nature of competitive strategies
6. 在整个企业中寻求协同效应，即通过
让业务部门相互支持和互补来创造价
值。 如果一家公司拥有许多可以实现
协同效应的业务，它将比那些忽略其
自身组织中的这种可能性或失败或无
法实现任何协同效应的公司具有优势。
38. 38
• Developing a competitive strategy means developing a
broad formula for how a business is going to compete,
what its goals should be and what policies will be
needed to attain those goals.
• Competitive strategy is a combination of the ends or
goals for which the firm is striving and the means or
policies by which it is seeking to get there.
• The Wheel of Competitive Strategy (see Porter, 1980a)
is a device for articulating the key aspects of a firm’s
competitive strategy.
制定战略的经典方法
The classic approach to the formulation of strategies
制定竞争战略意味着为企业如何竞争，其
目标应该是什么以及实现这些目标需要采
取什么政策制定广泛的公式。
竞争战略是末端或该公司正在努力的目标，
并通过它正在寻求实现这一目标的手段或
战略的组合。
竞争战略之轮（参见Porter，1980a）是
一种阐明企业竞争战略关键方面的工具。
40. 40
The process consists of three steps:
1. What is the business doing now? Where are we
now?
• Identification: What is the implicit or explicit
current strategy?
• Assumptions: What assumptions about the
company’s relative position, strengths and
weaknesses, competitors and industry trends must
be made for the current strategy to be viable?
制定竞争战略的流程
Process for formulating a competitive strategy
该流程包括三个步骤：
1. 公司现在在做什么？ 我们现在在哪？
• 识别：当前的隐式或显式战略是什么？
• 假设：要使当前策战略可行，必须对公
司的相对定位，优势和劣势，竞争对手
和行业趋势做出哪些假设？
41. 41
2. What is happening in the environment?
• Industry analysis: What are the key factors influencing
competitive success? What are the important industry
opportunities and threats?
• Competitor analysis: What are the capabilities and
limitations of existing and potential competitors, and
what are their probable future moves?
• Societal analysis: What important government, social
and political factors will present opportunities or
threats?
• Strengths and weaknesses: Given an analysis of
industry and competitors, what are the firm’s strengths
and weaknesses relative to present and future
competition?
制定竞争战略的流程
Process for formulating a competitive strategy
2. 环境中发生了什么？
• 行业分析：影响竞争成功的关键因素是
什么？ 重要的行业机遇和威胁是什
么？
• 竞争对手分析：现有和潜在竞争对手的
能力和局限性是什么，他们未来可能采
取的行动是什么？
• 社会分析：哪些重要的政府，社会和政
治因素会带来机遇或威胁？
• 优势和劣势：通过对行业和竞争对手的
分析，相对于当前和未来的竞争，公司
的优势和劣势是什么？
42. 42
3. What should the business be doing?
• Tests of assumptions and strategy: How do the
assumptions embodied in the current strategy
compare with the analysis indicated above? How
does the strategy meet the tests indicated above?
• Strategic alternatives: What are the strategic
alternatives given the analysis above? (Is the
current strategy one of these?)
• Strategic choice: Which alternative best relates the
company’s situation to external opportunities and
threats?
制定竞争战略的流程
Process for formulating a competitive strategy
3. 公司应该做什么？
• 假设和战略的检验：当前战略中包含的假
设与上述分析相比如何？ 该战略如何满足
上述测试？
• 战略备择方案：以上分析得出哪些战略选
择？ （当前战略是其中之一吗？）
• 战略选择：哪种选择最能将公司状况与外
部机会和威胁联系起来？
43. 43
There are three possible broad areas for consideration.
1. The first is the selection of product markets in
which the firm will operate and the question of
how much investment should be allocated to each.
2. The second is the development of functional area
strategies
3. The third is the determination of the bases of
sustainable competitive advantage in those product
markets.
有三个可能需要考虑的广泛领域。
1. 首先是选择公司将要经营的产品市场，
以及每个市场应分配多少投资的问题。
2. 第二是制定职能领域战略
3. 第三是确定那些产品市场中可持续竞
争优势的基础。
战略识别与选择
Strategy identification and selection
44. 44
• Many strategic decisions involve products: which
product lines to continue, which to add and which
to delete.
• Markets need to be selected in which a competitive
advantage will exist.
• It is crucial in strategy development to have a
dynamic rather than a static focus.
• The concept of a product-market matrix (Ansoff
matrix—see Ansoff, 1987) is helpful for identifying
options and encouraging a dynamic perspective.
产品市场投资战略
Product market investment strategies
• 许多战略决策都涉及产品：哪些产品线要
继续，哪些产品线要添加，哪些产品线要
删除。
• 需要选择具有竞争优势的市场。
• 在战略制定中至关重要的是要动态而不是
静态。
• 产品 – 市场矩阵的概念（Ansoff矩阵，请
参阅Ansoff，1987）有助于确定选项和鼓
励动态观点。
45. 45
In the product-market matrix suggested by Ansoff there are
four growth vectors.
• The first is to penetrate existing product markets (see
chapter 12). A firm may attempt to attract customers
from competitors or to increase usage rates of existing
customers.
• A second growth vector involves product expansion
while remaining in existing markets.
• A third growth vector is to apply the same products in
new markets, while
• the fourth growth vector is to diversify into new
products.
• In addition, there is a third dimension to the matrix
which is based on vertical integration.
产品市场投资战略
Product market investment strategies
在Ansoff建议的产品市场矩阵中，有四个增长
向量。
• 首先是打入现有产品市场（请参阅第12
章）。 公司可能会试图吸引竞争对手的客
户或提高现有客户的使用率。
• 第二个增长向量涉及产品扩展，同时保留在
现有市场中。
• 第三个增长向量是将相同的产品应用于新市
场，而
• 第四个增长向量是向新产品多元化。
• 另外，矩阵的第三维是基于垂直整合的。
46. 46
For each product market, a number of investment
options are possible.
• The firm can reduce or control the investment in a
business area by either a milking or a holding
strategy.
• Alternatively, it can withdraw completely if
prospects become very unattractive or if the
business area becomes incompatible with the
overall thrust of the firm.
• It can also invest to enter or grow.
对于每个产品市场，都有许多投资选择。
• 公司可以通过挤奶或控股战略来减少或控
制业务领域的投资。
• 另外，如果前景变得很不吸引人，或者业
务领域与公司的总体目标不符，则可以完
全撤回。
• 它也可以投资进入或发展。
投资战略
Investment Strategies
47. 47
• The development of a business strategy involves the
specification of the strategies in functional areas
such as sales, brand management, R&D,
manufacturing and finance.
• The strategic thrusts representing various ways to
achieve sustainable competitive advantage can be
implemented in a variety of ways.
• Differentiation, for instance, can be based upon
product quality, product features, innovation,
service, distribution or even a strong brand name.
功能领域战略
Functional area strategies
• 商业战略的制定涉及销售，品牌管理，研
发，制造和财务等功能领域中战略的规范。
• 代表以各种方式实现可持续竞争优势的战
略重点可以通过多种方式实施。
• 例如，差异可以基于产品质量，产品功能，
创新，服务，分销甚至强大的品牌名称。
48. 48
• Low- cost strategies can be based on an experience
curve which links cost reduction to cumulative
production volume. However, it can also be based
on factors such as no frills products or automated
production processes.
功能领域战略
Functional area strategies
• 低成本战略可以基于经验曲线，该经验
曲线将成本降低与累计产量联系在一起。
但是，它也可以基于无装饰产品或自动
化生产过程等因素。
49. 49
• A strategy is a plan that integrates an organization’s
major goals, policies, decisions and sequences of
action into a cohesive whole.
• Strategy is concerned with effectiveness rather than
efficiency and is the process of analysing the
environment and designing the fit between the
organization, its resources and objectives and the
environment.
• Marketing is about satisfying customer wants and
needs and in the course of doing so facilitating the
achievement of an organization’s objectives.
总结（2之1）
Summary (1 of 2)
• 战略是将组织的主要目标，政策，决策
和行动顺序整合为一个整体的计划。
• 战略关注效益而不是效率，它是分析环
境并设计组织，其资源，目标与环境之
间关系的过程。
• 营销是为了满足客户的需求，在此过程
中促进组织目标的实现。
50. 50
Marketing strategy are impacted by the following
factors
• Impact of market drivers
• The nature of competition in the marketplace
• Stage of the market or industry lifecycle
• Opening and closing of strategic windows
• Assets and skills that a firm possesses or can readily
acquire/access
总结（2之2）
Summary (2 of 2)
营销策略受以下因素影响
• 市场驱动力的影响
• 市场竞争的性质
• 市场或行业生命周期的阶段
• 战略窗口的打开和关闭
• 公司拥有或容易获得/获取的资产和技
能
53. 2
• How organisa+ons create their own environments
rather than simply adapt to exis+ng ones. How they
select the strategic windows of opportuni+es and
threats through which they want to look out into
the world and develop and market product and
services to meet the needs of what they observe to
be required in the face of environmental
turbulence.
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 组织如何创建自己的环境，而不是简单地
适应现有环境。 他们如何选择机遇和威
胁的战略窗口，通过它们希望放眼世界，
并开发和销售产品和服务，以满足他们面
对的环境动荡中所需要的需求。
54. 3
• How well the fit between an organization’s
products/services meet the needs presented by the
windows of opportunities and threats is a fitting
start for exploring the subject of strategic
marketing. It introduces the many factors that
impinge on the firm’s ability to operate in a
strategically successful manner.
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 组织的产品/服务之间的契合度如何满足机
遇和威胁之窗提出的需求，是探索战略营
销主题的合适起点。 它介绍了许多影响公
司以战略上成功的方式运作的能力的因
素。
55. 4
• Discuss product portfolio models – e.g. the BCG
(Boston Consulting Group) matrix and the the
Directional Policy matrix. Point to the use and
limitations of such models – e.g. that they are useful
diagnostic tools but more formal and detailed
planning mechanisms are required to evolve and
evaluate detailed strategies.
学习成果
Learning outcomes
• 讨论产品组合模型-例如 BCG（波士顿
咨询集团）矩阵和“定向政策”矩阵。 指
出此类模型的使用和局限性-例如 它们
是有用的诊断工具，但是需要更正式，
更详细的计划机制来发展和评估详细战
略。
56. 5
• Organizations market a mix of products or services
or both. These constitute the offering that is made
through the strategic window.
• Central to the success or failure of a business is the
health of its product (or service) mix. A starting
point is the product life cycle concept.
• It is necessary to have a balanced portfolio of
products services in terms of cash generating
capabilities in order to ensure steady-sales and
profits at all times.
• 组织销售产品或服务或两者的混合。
这些构成了通过战略窗口提供的供品。
• 企业成败的关键是产品（或服务）组合
的健康状况。 起点是产品生命周期概
念。
• 就现金产生能力而言，必须有均衡的产
品服务组合，以确保始终稳定的销售和
利润。
投资组合分析介绍
Introduction to portfolio analysis
57. 6
• Since products will generate different cash flows
and profits over their lives it means that the firm
has to constantly review its product mix, prune its
product lines and introduce new products from
time to time in order to maintain long-run profits
and stay in business.
• Several product portfolio models, perhaps the best
known of which are the BCG (Boston Consulting
Group) matrix, the GE/McKinsey matrix, and the
Directional Policy matrix have been adopted by
marketers to aid them assess the health of a firm’s
product mix.
• 由于产品将在其整个生命周期内产生不
同的现金流量和利润，这意味着公司必
须不断审查其产品组合，修剪其产品线
并不时推出新产品，以保持长期利润并
保持业务。
• 营销人员已经采用了几种产品组合模型，
其中最著名的就是BCG（波士顿咨询集
团）矩阵，GE /麦肯锡矩阵和“定向政
策”矩阵，以帮助他们评估公司产品组
合的健康状况。
投资组合分析介绍
Introduction to portfolio analysis
58. 7
• The need for new products and new product
markets has an important influence on strategy
formulation.
• Most products have life cycles and progress through
recognized stages.
• Every stage in the life cycle brings with it
environmental threats and opportunities that
require changes to be made in marketing strategy
and have implications for marketing planning.
• In general, life cycles exhibit the following features:
• 新产品和新产品市场的需求对战略制定
具有重要影响。
• 大多数产品都有生命周期，并通过公认
的阶段。
• 生命周期的每个阶段都会带来环境威胁
和机遇，这些挑战和机遇要求对营销战
略进行更改，并对营销计划产生影响。
• 通常，生命周期具有以下特征：
产品生命周期
The product life cycle
59. 8
• Products have a finite life span.
• The typical product life cycle curve, as reflected in
the sales history of a product is ‘S’ shaped until it
eventually levels off. It is at this point that market
maturity occurs and when the maturity phase has
run its course, a period of decline follows.
• In general terms, the stages in the life cycle are
known as ‘introduction, growth, maturity and
decline’.
• 产品的寿命有限。
• 反映在产品销售历史中的典型产品生命
周期曲线为“ S”形，直到最终趋于平稳。
正是在这一点上出现了市场成熟度，并
且当成熟度阶段运行时，便出现了一段
下降时期。
• 一般而言，生命周期的各个阶段被称为
“引进，成长，成熟和衰退”。
产品生命周期
The product life cycle
60. 9
• The life cycle of a product may be prolonged by
finding new uses or new users for the product or by
geVng present users to increase the amount they
use.
• During its passage through the life cycle, the
average profitability per unit of the product sold at
first increases and then eventually begins to decline.
• A typical life cycle of a successful product appears in
Figure 2.1.
• 通过找到产品的新用途或新用户或通过
吸引现有用户增加其使用量，可以延长
产品的生命周期。
• 在其整个生命周期中，所售产品的平均
每单位获利能力首先增加，然后最终开
始衰退。
• 成功产品的典型生命周期如图2.1所示。
产品生命周期
The product life cycle
62. 11
• Product life cycles can vary considerably in terms of
length.
• The steam locomotive made its debut in the early
19th century and disappeared from regular service
in the UK towards the end of the 1960s.
• In contrast, some women’s and men’s clothes come
in and out of vogue with amazing alacrity. They can
even become obsolete with the passing of the
seasons, so they appear to have relatively short life
cycles.
• However, fashions come back in vogue again from
time to time and old products are introduced as
new ones.
产品生命周期的长度
The length of the product life cycle
• 产品生命周期的长短可能会有很大差异。
• 蒸汽机车在19世纪初期首次亮相，并在
1960年代末从英国的常规服务中消失了。
• 相比之下，有些男女服装则以惊人的活
跃性进出时尚界。 随着季节的流逝，
它们甚至可能变得过时，因此它们的生
命周期似乎相对较短。
• 然而，时尚不时地重新流行，而旧产品
被重新引入为新产品。
63. 12
• One problem that has been found in trying to make
use of the product life cycle concept as a
management tool is that many products do not
appear to perform in the market place as it
suggests.
• They seem to bypass some stages while geVng
stuck at other stages. Moreover, they may even
come into vogue again a^er a period of going out of
fashion. These observa+ons have brought about
cri+cisms of the product life cycle as a useful
planning tool.
产品生命周期的长度
The length of the product life cycle
• 试图将产品生命周期概念用作管理工具
时发现的一个问题是，许多产品似乎并
不像它建议的那样在市场上表现良好。
• 他们似乎绕过某些阶段，而陷入其他阶
段。 而且，在一段时间过时之后，它
们甚至可能再次流行。 这些观察结果
对产品生命周期作为一种有用的计划工
具提出了批评。
64. 13
• Experience shows that sales and profitability vary at
every stage in the life cycle.
• Awareness of the product life cycle concept can
help a firm to take better advantage of the market
position of the product or service. It can provide
indicators of when new launches should be
considered, when moving to new markets should be
on the agenda and the need for diversification.
• The product life cycle concept can be used to
analyse:
产品生命周期的长度
The length of the product life cycle
• 经验表明，销售和获利能力在生命周期
的每个阶段都有所不同。
• 对产品生命周期概念的意识可以帮助公
司更好地利用产品或服务的市场地位。
它可以提供指标，说明何时应考虑新产
品上市，何时进入新市场以及多元化的
必要性。
• 产品生命周期概念可用于分析：
65. 14
• product category (e.g. cars)
• product forms (e.g. small hatchbacks)
• product brand (e.g. Ford)
• product model (e.g. Fiesta)
• Perhaps the most useful application of the product
life cycle concept is with respect to product forms.
产品生命周期的长度
The length of the product life cycle
• 产品类别（例如 汽车）
• 产品形式（例如 小型掀背车）
• 产品品牌（例如 福特）
• 产品型号（例如 Fiesta）
• 产品生命周期概念最有用的应用可能是
关于产品形式。
66. 15
The introductory stage
• Losses or at best low profits are experienced often
during the introductory stage.
• This is because sales are low and promotion and
distribution costs are relatively high. Obtaining
distribution for a product requires substantial
amounts of cash and promotional costs are greatest in
relationship to sales during the introductory stage.
• In addition, extensive promotion is usually required to
secure distribution. High margins can provide the cash
for heavy promotional expenditure and this in turn
produces high initial prices that may discourage rapid
adoption of the product by certain customer
segments.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
引进阶段
• 在引进阶段经常会蒙受损失或充其量是低
利润。
• 这是因为销售额低，促销和分销成本相对
较高。 获得产品的分销需要大量现金，并
且在推出阶段，促销费用相对于销售而言
是最大的。
• 另外，通常需要大量促销以确保分销。 高
利润可以为大量促销支出提供现金，而这
反过来又会产生较高的初始价格，这可能
会阻止某些客户群迅速采用该产品。
67. 16
Growth stage
• New competitors enter the market attracted by the
prospect of large-scale production potential and the
large profits to be made as the market grows in size
and economies of scale come into operation.
• There is little change in prices and promotional
expenditure from the introductory stage, though both
may be slightly reduced.
• There is also a decline in the ‘promotion to sales
ratio’—that is the amount of money spent on
promotion in relation to the amount of sales
generated, since sales are expanding during this stage.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
成长阶段
• 新的竞争者被大规模生产潜力的前景所
吸引，并且随着市场规模的扩大和规模
经济的产生而获得巨额利润，从而吸引
了新的竞争者进入市场。
• 从引进阶段起，价格和促销支出几乎没
有变化，尽管两者可能都略有减少。
• “促销与销售比率”也有所下降，即促销
所花费的金额与所产生的销售量相关，
因为在此阶段销售在不断增长。
68. 17
Growth stage
• The net result of all this is that increased profits are
generated as costs are spread over a larger volume
and unit manufacturing costs decrease in line with the
influence of the experience curve.
• Growth eventually decelerates as fewer first-time
buyers enter the market. This often means that a firm
has to employ one of several strategies to keep up
market growth as long as possible. These include:
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
• 所有这些的最终结果是，随着成本分布
在更大的数量上，单位生产成本随着经
验曲线的影响而降低，从而产生了增加
的利润。
• 随着较少的首次购买者进入市场，增长
最终会减速。 这通常意味着公司必须
采用几种战略中的一种来尽可能长时间
地保持市场增长。 这些包括：
69. 18
Growth stage
• continually looking for new ways to improve product
quality
• adding new features to a product or service
• refining the styling of a product
• introducing new models and flanker products
• entering new market segments
• switching the emphasis of advertising away from
creating product awareness to producing conviction
and purchase
• lowering price to entice price-sensitive buyers.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
成长期
• 不断寻找提高产品质量的新方法
• 向产品或服务添加新功能
• 完善产品的样式
• 推出新型号和侧翼产品
• 进入新的细分市场
• 将广告的重点从建立产品意识转移到产
生信念和购买
• 降低价格以吸引对价格敏感的买家。
70. 19
Maturity stage
• The maturity stage follows on from the onset of
decline in the rate of sales growth.
• The latter produces over-capacity in the industry
which in turn leads to increased competition. It is a
stage in which profits decline.
• During the maturity stage, firms implement frequent
price reductions and increase advertising and
consumer promotions.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
成熟阶段
• 成熟阶段是从销售增长率下降开始的。
• 后者导致该行业的产能过剩，进而导致
竞争加剧。 这是利润下降的阶段。
• 在成熟阶段，公司会经常降低价格并增
加广告和消费者促销。
71. 20
Maturity stage
• Emphasis is placed on product research and
development to come up with product improvements
and flanker brands.
• While the well established competitors do well, the
weaker competitors may quit the market.
• Cash earned by strong competitors at this stage can be
put into products that are at earlier stages in their life
cycles.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
成熟阶段
• 重点放在产品研发上，以提出产品改进
和侧翼品牌。
• 实力雄厚的竞争对手表现良好，而实力
较弱的竞争对手可能会退出市场。
• 在此阶段，强大竞争对手所赚取的现金
可以投入到生命周期处于早期阶段的产
品中。
72. 21
Decline stage
• Sales of most products eventually start to decline for
one or more of several reasons. These include
technological progress, shifts in consumer tastes and
increased domestic and foreign competition.
• Over-capacity in the market is produced together with
price cutting and lower profits.
• At this time some firms may withdraw from the
market and those remaining reduce the number of
products that they have to offer, pull out of smaller
market segments and weaker trade channels, cut the
promotion budget or reduce prices even further.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
衰退阶段
• 大多数产品的销售最终由于以下几个原因中的
一个或多个而开始下降。 其中包括技术进步，
消费者品味的转变以及国内外竞争的加剧。
• 市场的产能过剩与降价和较低的利润共同产生。
• 这时，有些公司可能退出市场，而剩下的则减
少了他们必须提供的产品数量，退出了较小的
细分市场和较弱的贸易渠道，削减了促销预算
或进一步降低了价格。
73. 22
• Consideration must be given to dropping products
during this stage unless there are good reasons for
retaining them.
• Weak products tend to occupy a disproportionate
amount of management’s time and resources.
• The products often require frequent price and
inventory adjustments, short production runs and
expensive set-up times.
• Moreover, they may need the kind of advertising and
salesforce attention which if it were to be spent on
more lively products could produce greater
profitability.
产品生命周期阶段
Product life cycle stages
• 除非有充分的理由保留它们，否则在此阶段
必须考虑丢弃产品。
• 劣质产品往往会占用过多的管理时间和资源。
• 产品通常需要频繁的价格和库存调整，短暂
的生产运行以及昂贵的设置时间。
• 而且，它们可能需要那种广告和销售人员的
关注，如果将关注用于更生动的产品上，则
可以带来更大的利润。
74. 23
• Some products or services produce considerable
amounts of cash while others do not.
• Where considerable cash is generated, it is often
more than is required for essential operational
expenditure and for additional investment in facilities
and staff.
• In other cases, however, the cash generated may be
insufficient to cover these kinds of expenditure.
• A firm might benefit if products that are not
satisfactorily contributing to profits and overheads of
the firm are dropped from the product mix.
产品/服务组合
The product/service portfolio
• 有些产品或服务产生大量现金，而另一些则不然。
• 在产生大量现金时，往往超出必要的基本运营支
出以及对设施和人员的额外投资。
• 但是，在其他情况下，产生的现金可能不足以支
付此类支出。
• 如果从产品组合中剔除不能令人满意地为公司的
利润和间接费用做出贡献的产品，则该公司可能
会受益。
75. 24
The Boston Matrix
• The Boston approach maps products on to a two-
dimensional matrix .
• According to the Boston Consulting Group, the two
most significant factors which govern the long-term
profitability of a product are the rate of growth of
its market and the share of the market that the
product has relative to its largest competitor.
• One interprets the strength or limitations of a
product by its position in the matrix.
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
波士顿矩阵
• 波士顿方法将产品映射到二维矩阵上。
• 根据波士顿咨询集团的说法，控制产品
长期获利能力的两个最重要因素是其市
场增长率和该产品相对于其最大竞争对
手的市场份额。
• 人们通过产品在矩阵中的位置来解释其
强度或局限性。
77. 26
Star
• Products falling into the high growth, high market
share quadrant are termed ‘stars’. They are
tomorrow’s cash earners.
• Being high market share businesses, they will be
highly profitable and generate a lot of cash, but at
the same time their high growth will also mean that
they will require a lot of cash both to finance
working capital and to build capacity.
• Thus, though profitable, stars might have either
positive or negative net cash flow.
明星
• 进入高增长，高市场份额象限的产品被
称为“明星”。 他们是明天的赚钱者。
• 作为高市场份额的企业，它们将获得高
额利润并产生大量现金，但同时，其高
增长也将意味着它们将需要大量现金来
筹集营运资金和建设能力。
• 因此，明星虽然有利可图，但其净现金
流量可能为正也可能为负。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
78. 27
Cash cow
• Products positioned in the low growth, high market
share quadrant are designated ‘cash cows’.
• These are the real cash generators, being profitable
as a result of their high relative market share.
• It is quite likely that they will also create surplus
cash not required to finance growth.
金牛
• 处于低增长，高市场份额象限的产品被
称为“金牛”。
• 这些是真正的现金产生者，由于其较高
的相对市场份额而获利。
• 他们很有可能还会创造多余的现金来为
增长提供资金。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
79. 28
Dogs
• Products falling into the low growth, low relative
market share quadrant are designated ‘dogs’.
• These are inherently unprofitable and seem to
possess no future, though their cash requirements
are low.
瘦狗
• 处于低增长，相对市场份额低象限的产
品被称为“瘦狗”。
• 尽管它们的现金需求很低，但它们本质
上是无利可图的，而且似乎没有任何前
途。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
80. 29
Question mark
• Products in the high growth, low market share
segment have been referred to as ‘wild cats’,
‘problem children’ or simply ‘?’s.
• They are unprofitable as a result of their low market
share, and they consume a lot of cash merely to
maintain their market position because of the high
growth rate of the market.
问号
• 高增长，低市场份额细分市场中的产品
被称为“野猫”，“问题儿童”或简称为
“问号”。
• 由于市场份额低，它们无利可图，而且
由于市场的高增长率，他们仅为了维持
市场地位就消耗大量现金。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
81. 30
• The overall strategy is defined simply with regard to
the management of cash flows in order to achieve a
balanced portfolio over time.
• Cash is obtained from cash cows and invested in
stars to convert them into tomorrow’s cash cows.
• Dogs are divested and problem children are either
converted into stars or liquidated.
• In this way a balanced portfolio should be achieved
with an adequate succession of stars ready to take
over from today’s cash generators, the cash cows.
• 总体战略的定义仅与现金流的管理有关，
以实现长期的均衡投资组合。
• 现金是从金牛中获得的，并投资在明星身
上，将其转化为明天的金牛。
• 瘦狗被剥离 ，问号被转换成明星或被清算。
• 这样一来，就应该取得平衡的投资组合，
并有足够多的明星来接管当今的现金产生
者，即金牛。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – BCG matrix
82. 31
• A nine-celled multi-factor portfolio matrix was
designed by General Electric working with McKinsey
and company to overcome some of the limitations
of considering only market share and market
growth in accomplishing strategic marketing
management.
• Once again, services or other forms of business unit
can be plotted in place of products.
• The GE/McKinsey multi-factor matrix has two
dimensions. Across the horizontal axis is industrial
attractiveness and along the vertical axis, business
strength.
• 通用电气与麦肯锡和公司合作设计了一
个九宫格多因素投资组合矩阵，以克服
在完成战略营销管理时仅考虑市场份额
和市场增长的某些限制。
• 再一次，可以绘制服务或其他形式的业
务部门来代替产品。
• GE /麦肯锡多因素矩阵具有两个维度。
横轴是产业吸引力，纵轴是企业实力。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – GE/McKinsey matrix
83. 32
• For example, GE originally considered size, market
growth, pricing, market diversity and competitive
structure as the major factors to describe industry
attractiveness.
• In the case of business strength, attention was
focused on size, growth, share, position,
profitability, margins, technology position,
strength/weaknesses, image, pollution and people.
• However, a company can use different factors in
either the business strength or industrial
attractiveness category, depending on the situation.
• 例如，GE最初将规模，市场增长，价格，
市场多样性和竞争结构视为描述行业吸
引力的主要因素。
• 在业务实力方面，注意力集中在规模，
增长，份额，地位，盈利能力，利润，
技术地位，优势/劣势，形象，污染和
人员上。
• 但是，公司可以根据情况在业务实力或
行业吸引力类别中使用不同的因素。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – GE/McKinsey matrix
85. 34
• The Shell Chemicals Directional Policy matrix is very
similar to the GE/ McKinsey matrix.
• The major differences are greater precision in the
assessment of factor ratings together with somewhat
more explicit strategy guidelines.
• The DPM uses a multivariate approach where market
growth rate is replaced by market attractiveness and
relative market share by business strength.
• Market attractiveness and business strength both
comprise a set of Critical Success Factors (CSFs). The
content of each of these sets of CSFs depends
entirely upon the company and the competitive
environment.
• 壳牌化学品公司定向政策矩阵与GE /麦
肯锡矩阵非常相似。
• 主要的不同之处在于评估因素等级的准
确性更高，而战略准则也更为明确。
• DPM使用多变量方法，其中市场增长率
被市场吸引力取代，而相对市场份额被
业务实力取代。
• 市场吸引力和业务实力都构成一组关键
的成功因素（CSF）。 每套CSF的内容
完全取决于公司和竞争环境。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
86. 35
Market attractiveness
Market attractiveness should be measured in terms of
the few key things one must get right in order to
succeed. Some possible factors are listed below:
• Market factors: market size, market growth rate,
cyclicality, seasonality, power of sellers and buyers,
distributors, price sensitivity.
• Competition: number of competitors, type and
power of competitors, ease of market entry, risk of
product substitution, market share, image in market,
possibility of new technology, volatility.
市场吸引力
市场吸引力应该以成功要取得成功的几件关键
事情来衡量。 下面列出了一些可能的因素：
• 市场因素：市场规模，市场增长率，周期
性，季节性，买卖双方的力量，分销商，
价格敏感性。
• 竞争：竞争者的数量，竞争者的类型和力
量，进入市场的难易程度，产品替代的风
险，市场份额，市场形象，新技术的可能
性，波动性。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
87. 36
• Technological: sophistication of technology, patents,
copyrights, maturity.
• Economic: financial strength and barriers, economies
of scale, capacity utilization.
• Socio-political: social values, attitudes and trends,
laws, etc.
• 技术：技术的复杂性 ，专利，版权，
成熟度。
• 经济：资金实力和壁垒，规模经济，产
能利用。
• 社会政治：社会价值观，态度和趋势，
法律等。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
88. 37
Business strength
Business strength should also be measured in terms of
the few key things one must get right in order to
succeed and should enable a comparison to be made of
a company relative to its major competitors. Some
possible factors are listed below:
• Market: market share, company and market image,
distribution channels.
• Product: pricing policy, product range, reputation for
product reliability and quality standards, breadth of
product line.
业务实力
业务实力还应该根据成功所必须采取的几
项关键措施来衡量，并且应该使公司能够
与主要竞争对手进行比较。 下面列出了一
些可能的因素：
• 市场：市场份额，公司和市场形象，分
销渠道。
• 产品：定价政策，产品范围，产品可靠
性和质量标准的声誉，产品线的广度。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
89. 38
• Capability: managerial competence, design
capability, ability to respond to changing
circumstances, manufacturing strength, R&D, capital
strength and finances.
• Customer relations: service levels, sales force
coverage.
• 能力：管理能力，设计能力，对变化的
环境做出反应的能力，制造实力，研发，
资本实力和财务能力。
• 客户关系：服务水平，销售队伍覆盖。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
90. 39
• Selecting the business CSFs is not a trivial matter. The
process should involve collective effort from key
managers and executives in group meetings, and
when done properly will result in consensus views
which reflect organizational values.
• As the process is largely unscientific it is important
that as many parties are involved as possible,
including the most senior management.
• Each factor is then assigned a range and given a
score, from 0 to 10, relative to a firm’s major
competitors. The total combined score results in the
market attractiveness or business strength score,
which provides the two co-ordinates for the matrix
plot.
• 选择业务CSF并非易事。 该过程应包括主要管
理人员和高管人员在小组会议中的集体努力，
并且如果适当完成，将产生反映组织价值的共
识性观点。
• 由于该过程在很大程度上是不科学的，因此要
尽可能多地参与其中，包括最高管理层，这一
点很重要。
• 然后，相对于公司的主要竞争对手，为每个因
素分配一个范围，并给出一个从0到10的分数。
总的综合得分将得出市场吸引力或业务实力得
分，这将为矩阵图提供两个坐标。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
92. 41
Position 1
• This is equivalent to the Question Mark position in
the Boston matrix.
• For products in this position the market potential is
considered attractive, but they do not have the
necessary strength in the market to do extremely
well.
• The options for this position are either to invest in the
product to build market strength or to take as much
as you can from the product.
• Focusing resources may be appropriate if investment
is proposed as a number of business functions may
have to be developed because of the overall weak
market position.
位置1
• 这等效于波士顿矩阵中的问号位置。
• 处于这个位置的产品，市场潜力被认为具
有吸引力，但它们没有足够的市场实力来
做得很好。
• 该位置的选择是投资产品以建立市场实力，
或从产品中获取最大收益。
• 如果建议进行投资，则集中资源可能是适
当的，因为由于整体市场地位疲软，可能
必须开发许多业务功能。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
93. 42
Position 2
• This is equivalent to the Star position in the Boston
matrix.
• It is the most attractive position. The product has
achieved a strong market position in a highly
attractive market.
• The continued development of this business deserves
the best resources available to maintain the success.
位置2
• 这等效于波士顿矩阵中的“明星”位置。
• 这是最有吸引力的位置。 该产品在极
具吸引力的市场中获得了强大的市场地
位。
• 这项业务的持续发展值得最佳的资源来
维持成功。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
94. 43
Position 3
• This is equivalent to the Cash Cow position in the
Boston matrix.
• It is also a very attractive position. The product is
dominant and in a strong market position in a market
that has lost its future potential.
位置3
• 这相等于波士顿矩阵中的“金牛”职位置。
• 这也是一个非常有吸引力的位置。该产
品在失去其未来潜力的市场中占主导地
位，并且处于强大的市场地位。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
95. 44
Position 4
• This is equivalent to the Dog position in the Boston
matrix.
• It is not the most attractive of market positions and
equates to low market potential for a product or
products with few strengths.
• Though these products may not generate as much
profit as other more attractive products, they will
obviously support the remainder of the product range
and make a contribution to overheads.
位置4
• 这等效于波士顿矩阵中的“瘦狗”位置。
• 它不是最具市场吸引力的产品，等同于
一种或多种优势产品的低市场潜力。
• 尽管这些产品可能不会产生比其他更具
吸引力的产品那么多的利润，但它们显
然会支持其余产品范围，并会对间接费
用作出贡献。
投资组合模型
Portfolio models – Directional policy matrix
96. 45
• Portfolio models are easy to use and the benefit of
using such models is to gain some idea of the profile of
strong/weak products or services in the mix.
• They may, however, cause an organization to put too
much stress on market- share growth and entry into
high growth businesses.
• They may also cause firms to pay insufficient attention
to managing the current business.
• Another problem is that the results produced by using
the models are responsive to the weights and ratings
and can be manipulated to produce desired results.
总结（2之1）
Summary (1 of 2)
• 投资组合模型易于使用，使用这种模型的好
处是可以了解组合中强/弱产品或服务的概况。
• 但是，它们可能会使组织对市场份额的增长
和进入高增长业务施加太大压力。
• 它们也可能导致公司对管理当前业务的关注
不足。
• 另一个问题是通过使用模型产生的结果对权
重和等级作出响应，并且可以对其进行处理
以产生期望的结果。
97. 46
• Many products or services will end up in the middle
of the matrix and this makes it difficult to suggest
an appropriate strategy.
• The models do not accommodate the synergy
between two or more products/services and this
suggests that making decisions for one in isolation
from the others may be shortsighted.
总结（2之2）
Summary (2 of 2)
• 许多产品或服务将最终出现在矩阵的中
间，这使得难以提出适当的战略。
• 这些模型不能容纳两个或多个产品/服
务之间的协同作用，这表明，将一个产
品与另一个产品/服务隔离开来的决策
可能是短视的。
100. 2
• Making the best of a strategic window opportunity
not only involves identifying promising
opportunities but also having the right kind of
resources to make the best of the opportunity.
• In addition to an analysis of external threats and
opportunities in the environment, strategy
development must be based on objectives,
strengths and capabilities of a business.
• Understanding a business in depth is the goal of self
analysis. The analysis is based on detailed current
information on sales, profits, costs, organizational
structure, management style and other factors.
• 充分利用战略窗口机会不仅涉及确定有
前途的机会，还包括拥有适当种类的资
源来充分利用机会。
• 除了分析环境中的外部威胁和机遇外，
战略制定还必须基于企业的目标，优势
和能力。
• 深入了解业务是自我分析的目标。 该
分析基于有关销售，利润，成本，组织
结构，管理风格和其他因素的详细的当
前信息。
业务分析介绍
Introduction to analysis of business
101. 3
• There are a number of different approaches to self
analysis.
• First, there is the focus on marketing competencies
and the resource-based view of the firm which is
central to any thinking about self analysis from a
marketing perspective.
• Next there is value chain analysis which examines
the elements upon which a competitive advantage
can be based, and more.
• The second part of the chapter looks at the need for
creativity in business and stresses the problems
associated with negative mind sets and blocks to
creative thinking.
• 有多种不同的自我分析方法。
• 首先，重点放在营销能力和公司基于资源的
观点上，这对于从营销角度进行自我分析的
任何思考都是至关重要的。
• 接下来是价值链分析，该分析研究了可以形
成竞争优势的要素等等。
• 本章的第二部分着眼于业务中对创造力的需
求，并强调了与消极思维定势和创造力思维
障碍相关的问题。
业务分析介绍
Introduction to analysis of business
103. 5
• Two main ideas characterize thinking about
marketing in recent years. The first is market
orientation and the second is the resource-based
view of the firm.
• Market orientation is central to marketing. A firm
characterized as market oriented might have:
• developed an appreciation that understanding
present and potential customer needs is
fundamental to providing superior customer value;
• encouraged the systematic gathering and sharing of
information regarding present and potential
customers and competitors as well as other related
constituencies;
• 近年来，关于营销的思考有两个主要思
想。 第一个是市场导向，第二个是企
业基于资源的观点。
• 市场导向对于营销至关重要。 以市场
为导向的公司可能具有：
• 认识到理解当前和潜在的客户需求对于
提供卓越的客户价值至关重要；
• 鼓励系统化地收集和共享有关当前和潜
在客户，竞争对手以及其他相关选区的
信息；
营销能力
Marketing competencies
104. 6
• and instilled an integrated, organization-wide priority
to respond to changing customer needs and
competitor activities in order to exploit opportunities
and circumvent threats
• Market orientation places emphasis on the high
performance of companies with high quality,
organization-wide generation and sharing of market
intelligence which produces responsiveness to
market needs.
• 并灌输了全组织范围内的综合优先级，
以响应不断变化的客户需求和竞争对手
的活动，从而抓住机遇并规避威胁
• 以市场为导向强调高质量，公司范围内
产生和共享市场情报的公司的高性能，
从而产生对市场需求的响应。
营销能力
Marketing competencies
105. 7
• For a strategy to be sustainable it has to be based on
the firm’s resources and capabilities.
• Organizational assets comprise things such as:
• physical assets—land, facilities, buildings,
equipment;
• financial assets—cash, credit rating;
• operations assets—machinery, systems and
processes;
• human assets— employees, their qualities and
skills;
• marketing assets—distribution penetration,
marketing expertise, market positioning, market
knowledge, customer loyalty, brand name,
reputation, relationships with distributors;
• 为了使战略可持续，它必须基于公司的资
源和能力。
• 组织资产包括以下内容：
• 有形资产—土地，设施，建筑物，设
备；
• 金融资产—现金，信用等级；
• 运营资产 – 机械，系统和流程；
• 人力资产 – 员工，他们的素质和技能；
• 营销资产 – 分销渗透率，营销专业知
识，市场定位，市场知识，客户忠诚
度，品牌名称，声誉，与分销商的关
系；。
营销能力
Marketing competencies
106. 8
• legal assets—patents and copyrights;
• systems—management information systems and
decision support mechanisms.
• Company capabilities refer to a firm’s ability to deploy
assets through organizational processes to achieve
desired results.
• 合法资产 – 专利和版权；
• 系统 – 管理信息系统和决策支持机
制。
• 公司能力是指公司通过组织过程部署资
产以实现预期结果的能力。
营销能力
Marketing competencies
107. 9
• Porter considered the value chain as a means of
ascertaining the competitive advantage that a firm
might possess. A value chain of this nature
comprises two types of value-creating activities:
• Primary value activities:
• inbound logistics—material handling and
warehousing
• operations—transforming inputs into the final
product
• outbound logistics—order processing and
distribution
marketing and sales—communication, pricing
and channel management
• service—installation, repair and parts.
价值链分析
Value chain analysis
• 波特认为价值链是确定公司可能具有的
竞争优势的一种手段。 这种性质的价
值链包括两种类型的价值创造活动：
• 主要价值活动：
• 入库物流—物料搬运和仓储
• 运营 – 将投入转化为最终产品
• 外向物流 – 订单处理和分销营销与
销售-沟通，定价和渠道管理
• 服务 – 安装，维修和零件。
108. 10
• Secondary value activities:
• procurement—procedures and information
systems
• technology development—improving product
and processes/systems
• human resource management—hiring,
training and compensation
• firm infrastructure—general management,
finance, accounting, governmental relations
and quality management.
• Each of the activities in the value chain is a potential
source of competitive advantage and thus should be
considered in undertaking self assessment.
价值链分析
Value chain analysis
• 次要价值活动：
• 采购—程序和信息系统
• 技术开发 – 改善产品和流程/系统
• 人力资源管理 – 雇用，培训和薪酬
• 公司基础设施 – 一般管理，财务，
会计，政府关系和质量管理。
• 价值链中的每项活动都是潜在的竞争优
势来源，因此在进行自我评估时应予以
考虑。
109. 11
• Self analysis starts with an analysis of current
financial performance, measures of sales and
profitability.
• Change in either of these can signal a change in the
market viability of a product line and the ability to
produce competitively.
• Most firms have sales and profitability targets as key
elements of their objectives.
• A reasonably sensitive measure of what customers
think about a product or service is its sales or
market share. If customers alter their views about a
product or service, sales and market share should
be affected.
财务业绩–销售和盈利能力
Financial performance – sales and profitability
• 自我分析始于对当前财务绩效，销售和盈
利能力的分析。
• 这两个方面的变化都可能预示着产品线的
市场生存能力和竞争能力的变化。
• 大多数公司都将销售和盈利目标作为其目
标的关键要素。
• 客户对产品或服务的看法的合理敏感度量
是其销售或市场份额。 如果客户改变对
产品或服务的看法，则销售和市场份额将
受到影响。
110. 12
Profitability
• Profits can be used for capital needed to pursue
growth strategies, to replace obsolete plant and
equipment and to absorb market risk.
• Return on assets is often taken as the measure of
profitability. It is a product of profit margin, which
depends on the selling price and cost structure, and
asset turnover which depends on inventory control
and asset utilization.
• Businesses should try to earn a return on assets that
meets or exceeds the cost of capital, the weighted
average cost of equity and cost of debt.
盈利能力
• 利润可用于追求增长战略，替换陈旧的工
厂和设备以及吸收市场风险所需的资本。
• 资产收益率通常被视为获利能力的度量。
它是利润率的产品，它取决于售价和成本
结构，而资产周转率则取决于库存控制和
资产利用率。
• 企业应设法赚取达到或超过资本成本，加
权平均权益成本和债务成本的资产收益。
财务业绩–销售和盈利能力
Financial performance – sales and profitability
111. 13
• It is difficult to measure performance indicators that
really reflect long-term prospects.
• It is simpler to focus on short-term profitability
measures and correspondingly to reduce
investment in new products and brand images that
will have long-term payoffs.
• Such measures might include customer satisfaction,
brand loyalty measures, product or service quality
measures, brand or firm associations, relative cost,
new product activity, and manager- employee
capability and performance.
其他种类的绩效评估
Other kinds of performance measurement
• 难以衡量能够真正反映长期前景的绩效
指标。
• 将重点放在短期获利措施上并相应地减
少对具有长期收益的新产品和品牌形象
的投资会更容易。
• 此类度量可能包括客户满意度，品牌忠
诚度度量，产品或服务质量度量，品牌
或公司关联，相对成本，新产品活动以
及经理-员工能力和绩效。
112. 14
• A product or service and its components should be
critically and objectively compared with both the
competition and with customer expectations and
needs.
• Quality is usually based on several critical dimensions
that can be identified and measured over time—
number of defects, conformance to performance
specifications, durability, reliability, etc.
产品和服务质量
Product and service quality
• 应将产品或服务及其组件与竞争对手以及
客户的期望和需求进行严格和客观的比较。
• 质量通常基于可以随时间确定和测量的几
个关键维度，包括缺陷数量，符合性能规
格，耐用性，可靠性等。
113. 15
• Companies may become attractive take-over targets
and the value of their stock may rise because of the
strength of their brands.
• Moreover, some brands are even valued as assets in
the company balance sheet.
• Branding for consumers represents the mark of a
given level of quality and value that helps them
choose between one offering and another.
• The development of a range of brands to cover
different consumer segments enables a firm to benefit
from changing consumer wants.
品牌或公司连带
Brand or firm associations
• 公司可能会成为有吸引力的接管目标，并且由
于其品牌的实力，其股票的价值可能会上升。
• 此外，有些品牌甚至在公司资产负债表中被视
为资产。
• 对消费者而言，品牌代表了给定质量和价值水
平的标志，可以帮助他们在一种产品与另一种
产品之间进行选择。
• 一系列涵盖不同消费领域的品牌的发展使公司
可以从不断变化的消费者需求中受益。
114. 16
• From a marketer’s point of view, brands allow the
producer, and more recently the retailer, to target
different groups of consumers or segments of the
market, with different labels and product offerings.
• In fact, developing more than one brand enables a
firm to segment a market and target different
consumers.
• An important asset of a brand or firm is what
customers think of it: its associations and perceived
quality. The latter, of course, may be different to
actual quality.
品牌或公司连带
Brand or firm associations
• 从营销者的角度来看，品牌可以使生产者
（以及最近的零售商）针对具有不同标签
和产品的不同消费者群体或细分市场。
• 实际上，开发多个品牌可以使公司划分市
场并针对不同的消费者。
• 品牌或公司的重要资产是客户对品牌或公
司的看法：其联想和感知质量。 当然，后
者可能与实际质量有所不同。
115. 17
• It can be based on experiences with past products or
services and quality cues such as retailer types, pricing
strategies, packaging, advertising and typical
customers.
• The product may be associated with expertise in a
particular technological area or with innovativeness.
• Such associations can be an important strategic asset
for a brand or firm.
品牌或公司关联
Brand or firm associations
• 它可以基于过去产品或服务的经验以及
质量提示，例如零售商类型，定价战略，
包装，广告和典型客户。
• 该产品可能与特定技术领域的专业知识
或创新能力相关联。
• 对于品牌或公司而言，这种关联可能是
重要的战略资产。
116. 18
• A careful cost analysis of a product or service and its
components involves tearing down competitors’
products and analysing their systems in detail—
reverse engineering.
• Such an analysis enables one to see where costs may
be saved in product construction and material used.
• Alternatively, weaknesses in one’s own designs can be
improved. Where an advantage is held in the design of
one’s own product but the additional cost is only
small, this may be promoted as a strategic competitive
advantage if it is felt that the advantage can be
sustained.
相对成本
Relative cost
• 对产品或服务及其组件进行仔细的成本
分析涉及拆卸竞争对手的产品并详细分
析其系统，即逆向工程。
• 这种分析使人们可以看到在产品构造和
所用材料方面可以节省哪些成本。
• 或者，可以改善自己设计中的弱点。
如果在自己的产品设计中保留了优势，
但增加的成本很小，那么如果认为可以
保持优势，就可以将其提升为战略竞争
优势。
117. 19
• OrganizaTons have to both obtain and sustain a team
of talented individuals who can carry on the necessary
management acTviTes to sustain the organizaTon’s
posiTon vis-à-vis compeTtors.
• Moreover, an organizaTon should be evaluated not
only in terms of how well it obtains human resources
but also in terms of how well it nurtures them.
• A healthy organizaTon will consist of individuals who
are moTvated, challenged, fulfilled and growing in
their professions.
• Each of these dimensions can observed and measured
by employee surveys and group discussions.
经理/员工的能力和绩效
Manager/employee capability and performance
• 组织必须获得并维持一支有才能的团队，
他们可以进行必要的管理活动以维持组
织相对于竞争对手的地位。
• 此外，组织不仅应在获得人力资源的方
式方面进行评估，而且还应在培养人力
资源方面进行评估。
• 一个健康的组织将由积极进取，挑战，
成就并成长的个人组成。
• 每个维度都可以通过员工调查和小组讨
论来观察和衡量。
118. 20
Additional factors that could be considered include:
• customer loyalty management
• average order/purchase value
• the ‘expected value’ of a transaction period
• the cost of attracting customers
• the cost of retaining customers
• co-productivity—the involvement of suppliers and
customers in creating value
• operational gearing
• financial gearing and corporate control
• strategic and operational cash flow
• capacity management availability and utilization.
其他绩效因素
Other performance factors
可以考虑的其他因素包括：
• 客户忠诚度管理
• 平均订单/购买价值
• 交易期的“期望值”
• 吸引顾客的成本
• 留住客户的成本
• 共同生产力-供应商和客户参与创造价值
• 运营杠杆
• 财务杠杆与公司控制
• 战略和经营现金流
• 容量管理可用性和利用率。
119. 21
• Nowadays, the majority of organizations are fully
aware of just how vital creativity is to their prosperity.
• In order to identify and so solve many of the problems
that arise in business it is necessary to challenge the
problem-solving capabilities of those in charge.
• In many cases the creative process which is used to
approach problems has to be restructured and
redeveloped in order to produce new ideas and
perspectives.
• Change is an intrinsic necessity for a company that
wishes to perform well in the long term.
创造力
Creativity
• 如今，大多数组织都充分意识到创造力
对他们的繁荣至关重要。
• 为了识别并解决业务中出现的许多问题，
有必要挑战主管人员的解决问题的能力。
• 在许多情况下，用于解决问题的创造性
过程必须进行重组和重新开发，以便产
生新的思想和观点。
• 对于希望长期保持良好业绩的公司而言，
变革是其内在必需。
120. 22
• One of the key aspects of any organization’s success or
failure is its ability to stay ahead of the competition in
a rapidly changing environment.
• Changes within a company, forced by either internal
or external factors, create an unhappy climate for the
company and its workers.
• Creative leaders actively hunt for new problems and
are especially successful in handling new challenges
which demand solutions outside the routine of
orthodox strategies. They often possess significant
vision and are able to inspire others by their creative
talents.
创造力
CreaJvity
• 任何组织成功或失败的关键因素之一就是
在瞬息万变的环境中保持竞争优势的能力。
• 由于内部或外部因素而导致的公司内部变
动会给公司及其员工带来不愉快的氛围。
• 富有创造力的领导者积极寻找新问题，特
别是在应对新挑战时尤其成功，这些挑战
需要传统策略无法解决的问题。 他们通常
具有远见卓识，并能够通过他们的创造才
能来启发他人。
