The document summarizes the identification of six hemocyte cell types in Culex quinquefasciatus by light and transmission electron microscopy:
1) Prohemocytes, the smallest hemocytes, with a large central nucleus and few organelles. They represent 9.3% of hemocytes.
2) Spherulocytes, small hemocytes with numerous spherules containing a lamellar pattern and dense core. They are 1.6% of hemocytes.
3) Adipohemocytes, rare cells with a large nucleolated nucleus, cytoplasm containing organelles and lipid inclusions. They are 0.8% of hemocytes.
4) Oenocytoids
The document summarizes research on retinal stem cells in the Japanese rice fish model. Researchers transplanted fluorescent protein-labeled retinal stem cells into host blastulae and observed that the stem cells gave rise to all three major retinal layers, indicating their multipotency. Further experiments using multicolor transgenic fish lines confirmed that arched continuous stripes in the retina arose from single retinal stem cells. Additional work showed that post-embryonic retinal stem cells also retained multipotency and could generate all retinal cell types, demonstrating that developmental progression does not affect this potential of retinal stem cells. The researchers concluded that retinal stem cells are multipotent and can develop into all neural retina layers throughout development.
This document is a thesis by Jonas Danielson from Lund University in 2010 on the topic of plant Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIPs), also known as aquaporins. It provides an introduction to MIPs and their structure and function. It then focuses on plant MIPs, discussing the large family of MIP isoforms in plants, their evolution and diversity across plant species. It aims to expand knowledge of plant MIP diversity and the roles of different subfamilies and isoforms using both traditional molecular biology approaches and comparative genetics methods.
The document discusses molecular medicine and various diagnostic techniques. It covers diagnostics for infectious diseases, which has shifted from examining microbial phenotypes to using nucleic acid techniques like PCR and probes. These DNA-based methods allow detection without culturing and can identify sub-species and drug resistance genes. The document also discusses diagnostics for genetic diseases using techniques like linkage analysis and pedigree analysis to find disease-causing genes. Finally, it outlines gene therapy techniques like germline and somatic cell therapy which aim to cure inherited diseases by providing a correct copy of defective genes.
The complete sequences of RNA 4 from cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) strains Ny (subgroup I) and Sn (subgroup II) were determined and compared to other known CMV RNA 4 sequences. The identification of a unique EcoRI site, present only in subgroup-II RNA 4 sequences, provides a simple method for classifying CMV isolates into subgroups I and II. Sequence variation was greater in the untranslated regions of RNA 4 than previously observed, with 74.9% identity between subgroups and 93.6% within subgroup II.
The document discusses biological stain analysis and DNA evidence in forensic investigations. It describes how DNA can be used to identify individuals by their unique DNA profiles. Short tandem repeats (STRs) located throughout the human genome are analyzed to generate DNA profiles for identification. STR analysis has become the standard technique used in DNA databases like CODIS to identify criminals. Proper collection, packaging, and storage of biological evidence is important to preserve DNA evidence.
An accurate distance_to_the_nearest_galaxySérgio Sacani
This document summarizes recent research that more accurately measured the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) galaxy. A team called the Araucaria Project measured the distances to eight eclipsing binary stars in the LMC to determine a distance of 49.3 ± 0.5 kiloparsecs, which is accurate to 2.2%. This more precise measurement of the distance to the LMC will help astronomers better determine distances to more distant galaxies and improve our understanding of properties like dark energy. The new measurement is consistent with but more accurate than previous estimates, addressing issues with prior discrepancies in LMC distance measurements.
This lecture introduces concepts of bacterial genetics and virulence. It defines key genetic terms and describes how bacteria differ from eukaryotes in their genetics. Mobile genetic elements often facilitate the acquisition of virulence genes via horizontal gene transfer. Virulence factors do not always benefit the bacterium directly but may aid bacteriophages. Genetic methods like signature-tagged mutagenesis and Tn-seq can identify genes required for virulence in model infections.
The document summarizes research on retinal stem cells in the Japanese rice fish model. Researchers transplanted fluorescent protein-labeled retinal stem cells into host blastulae and observed that the stem cells gave rise to all three major retinal layers, indicating their multipotency. Further experiments using multicolor transgenic fish lines confirmed that arched continuous stripes in the retina arose from single retinal stem cells. Additional work showed that post-embryonic retinal stem cells also retained multipotency and could generate all retinal cell types, demonstrating that developmental progression does not affect this potential of retinal stem cells. The researchers concluded that retinal stem cells are multipotent and can develop into all neural retina layers throughout development.
This document is a thesis by Jonas Danielson from Lund University in 2010 on the topic of plant Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIPs), also known as aquaporins. It provides an introduction to MIPs and their structure and function. It then focuses on plant MIPs, discussing the large family of MIP isoforms in plants, their evolution and diversity across plant species. It aims to expand knowledge of plant MIP diversity and the roles of different subfamilies and isoforms using both traditional molecular biology approaches and comparative genetics methods.
The document discusses molecular medicine and various diagnostic techniques. It covers diagnostics for infectious diseases, which has shifted from examining microbial phenotypes to using nucleic acid techniques like PCR and probes. These DNA-based methods allow detection without culturing and can identify sub-species and drug resistance genes. The document also discusses diagnostics for genetic diseases using techniques like linkage analysis and pedigree analysis to find disease-causing genes. Finally, it outlines gene therapy techniques like germline and somatic cell therapy which aim to cure inherited diseases by providing a correct copy of defective genes.
The complete sequences of RNA 4 from cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) strains Ny (subgroup I) and Sn (subgroup II) were determined and compared to other known CMV RNA 4 sequences. The identification of a unique EcoRI site, present only in subgroup-II RNA 4 sequences, provides a simple method for classifying CMV isolates into subgroups I and II. Sequence variation was greater in the untranslated regions of RNA 4 than previously observed, with 74.9% identity between subgroups and 93.6% within subgroup II.
The document discusses biological stain analysis and DNA evidence in forensic investigations. It describes how DNA can be used to identify individuals by their unique DNA profiles. Short tandem repeats (STRs) located throughout the human genome are analyzed to generate DNA profiles for identification. STR analysis has become the standard technique used in DNA databases like CODIS to identify criminals. Proper collection, packaging, and storage of biological evidence is important to preserve DNA evidence.
An accurate distance_to_the_nearest_galaxySérgio Sacani
This document summarizes recent research that more accurately measured the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) galaxy. A team called the Araucaria Project measured the distances to eight eclipsing binary stars in the LMC to determine a distance of 49.3 ± 0.5 kiloparsecs, which is accurate to 2.2%. This more precise measurement of the distance to the LMC will help astronomers better determine distances to more distant galaxies and improve our understanding of properties like dark energy. The new measurement is consistent with but more accurate than previous estimates, addressing issues with prior discrepancies in LMC distance measurements.
This lecture introduces concepts of bacterial genetics and virulence. It defines key genetic terms and describes how bacteria differ from eukaryotes in their genetics. Mobile genetic elements often facilitate the acquisition of virulence genes via horizontal gene transfer. Virulence factors do not always benefit the bacterium directly but may aid bacteriophages. Genetic methods like signature-tagged mutagenesis and Tn-seq can identify genes required for virulence in model infections.
Evolution of DNA repair genes, proteins and processesJonathan Eisen
This dissertation discusses the interface between evolution and DNA repair. It explores using comparative studies of repair genes and processes to study evolution. Differences in repair, such as mismatch repair, can drive evolution by affecting mutation rates and patterns. Evolutionary studies can benefit our understanding of repair mechanisms and gene families. The author developed "phylogenomics" to combine evolutionary reconstructions with genome analyses for improved inferences. Studies of RecA evolution, DNA turnover in E. coli, repair in Archaea, and adaptive mutation are presented.
1. The document describes the development of a new single-cell RNA-seq method called Quartz-Seq that has higher reproducibility and sensitivity than existing methods.
2. Quartz-Seq can quantitatively detect various types of non-genetic cellular heterogeneity and can distinguish different cell types and cell cycle phases of a single cell type.
3. It can also comprehensively reveal gene expression heterogeneity between single cells of the same cell type in the same cell cycle phase.
This lecture covers key findings to the development of genomics as a field. This first part covers briefly Mendel to knowing that DNA is the genetic material by Hershey and Chase
Daniel Mejía Arrieta Mutation in DNA ReplicationDaniel Mejia
The document discusses DNA replication and mutation. It notes that DNA encodes genetic information and small changes during replication can cause mutations, altering protein function and potentially health. DNA breakage at fragile sites can lead to lost genetic information and potential cancerous cell proliferation as cells try to replace DNA for daughter cells. The document also discusses how mice have evolved resistance to common poisons through a vitamin K-related gene mutation providing an adaptive advantage. Medical applications of understanding DNA replication and mutation are also mentioned, like detection of abnormalities for prevention and potential future control of induced mutations for improved health outcomes.
Unit 11: Viruses and Prions
LECTURE LEARNING GOALS
1. Define what is a virus, and describe the three theories on the origin of viruses.
2. Define and contrast prions and subviral agents. Explain how they are different from viruses.
3. Explain coronaviruses, the origin of SARS- CoV-2, how it infects cells, and the tools we use to fight the spread of COVID-19.
This document summarizes research on the identification and chromosomal localization of 74 genomic clones containing odorant receptor (OR) genes in the human genome. The key findings are:
1) Over half of the clones hybridized to multiple locations in the genome, demonstrating large duplications that have distributed OR sequences across many chromosomes. The majority of clones hybridized to 17 common locations on 13 chromosomes.
2) One clone in particular hybridized to 20 locations on 13 chromosomes, illustrating extensive homology among these sites that likely results from large genomic duplications.
3) A small number of clones each hybridized to only one or two unique locations, indicating those regions are more diverged.
4) The
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
This document discusses various topics related to genomics and systems biology, including DNA sequencing methods, finding and identifying genes, genetic mapping, genome sequencing, the human genome, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), bioinformatics, systems biology, and applications of genomics such as functional genomics, comparative genomics, metagenomics, toxicogenomics, and epigenetics. DNA sequencing methods determine the order of nucleotides, genes can be located using sequence tagged sites and expressed sequence tagged sites, and genetic mapping aims to locate genes on chromosomes.
This document reviews various techniques that have been used to study neural crest cell migration, including:
1. Classic ablation experiments, which remove neural folds to observe structure development but have interpretive issues.
2. Explantation experiments, which culture neural crest cells but their potential varies depending on location.
3. Cell marking techniques like radioactive labeling but the label is diluted over generations.
4. The quail-chick chimera technique, which grafts quail neural tissue into chicks to track migration based on nuclear differences.
5. Cell lineage studies using fluorescent dyes to label and track single cells and their descendants.
6. Cell lineage studies using retroviruses to incorporate genetic markers into mouse
Dp53 and DDNp53 are two isoforms of the p53 gene in Drosophila that differentially regulate apoptosis and apoptosis-induced proliferation. Both isoforms induce apoptosis, but through distinct mechanisms - Dp53 activates reaper and hid, while DDNp53 activates reaper. Additionally, DDNp53 (but not Dp53) induces expression of the mitogen Wingless and enhances proliferation in surrounding tissues in response to apoptosis. This suggests DDNp53 has a unique role in regulating apoptosis-induced compensatory proliferation, providing insights into the functions of p53 isoforms in tissue repair and regeneration.
1. DNA can be extracted from cells by breaking open the nucleus and cell membranes to release the DNA, then using alcohol to precipitate the DNA out of solution for purification.
2. Genetic engineering involves isolating genes from DNA and transferring them between organisms or modifying genes within an organism. It is used to produce proteins like insulin, improve crop traits like pest resistance, and enhance animal traits such as wool or milk production.
3. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, leaving "sticky ends" that can be joined with other DNA fragments during genetic manipulation and engineering of organisms.
This document describes a study that uses next-generation re-sequencing and bioinformatics to analyze presence/absence variation of accessory chromosomes across isolates of the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. The genome of the reference isolate IPO323 contains 21 chromosomes including 8 accessory chromosomes. Low-cost next-generation sequencing of 13 novel Z. tritici isolates is performed and the reads are aligned to the IPO323 reference genome to determine if accessory chromosomes present in IPO323 are also present in the novel isolates based on read coverage. De novo assembly of reads from the novel isolates is also conducted and compared to IPO323 to identify any additional accessory chromosomes or sequences not present in IPO323. This
nucleo-cytoplasmic intraction,Anterograde and Retrograde singnalingBalaji Rathod
This document discusses nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions and signal transduction between the nucleus and organelles. It provides examples of non-Mendelian inheritance from the cytoplasm, including chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA inheritance. The document outlines anterograde and retrograde signaling pathways between the nucleus and organelles, as well as cross-talk between mitochondria and chloroplasts. Maintaining organellar genomes provides benefits like preventing total organelle loss and generating cytoplasmic variation, which can be useful under environmental stress. However, more research is still needed to fully understand how organelle and nuclear genomes coordinate gene expression.
The document describes an experiment analyzing the presence of an Alu sequence in the PV92 locus on chromosome 16 in DNA samples from students. PCR and gel electrophoresis were used to amplify and visualize segments of DNA containing the Alu sequence. Students were found to be homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive for the sequence. The results demonstrate the potential of using SINEs like the Alu sequence to identify individuals through their DNA profiles.
It is a circular DNA molecule 4.6 million base pairs in length, containing 4288 annotated protein-coding genes (organized into 2584 operons), seven ribosomal RNA (rRNA) operons, and 86 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes.
Theories regarding origin of Mitochondria and ChloroplastsGuttiPavan
The document summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. It states that mitochondria likely evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells, eventually becoming specialized organelles. Similarly, chloroplasts may have evolved from photosynthetic prokaryotes that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells already containing mitochondria. This endosymbiotic theory was first proposed by Lynn Margulis and has received significant evidentiary support.
Abnormalities 0f mitotis By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MITOSIS
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS
SOURCE & REASON OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
EFFECTS OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
ABNORMALITIES OF MITOSIS IN PLANTS
ABNORMALITIES OF MITOSIS IN ANIMALS & HUMAN BEINGS
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR MITOTIC ABNORMALITY
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
This document discusses various methods of genetic recombination including transformation, conjugation, transduction, and protoplast fusion. It provides definitions and examples of key terms. Transformation involves the direct uptake of exogenous DNA by a cell. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct contact. Transduction is the transfer of genes between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. Protoplast fusion involves fusing plant protoplasts using electric shock or chemicals to produce somatic hybrid plants. The document also discusses applications of these techniques such as gene cloning, production of monoclonal antibodies, and genetic engineering.
Microsatellite analysis in organelle genomes of chlorophyta(論文討論)Yi-Hung Peng
The document analyzes the frequency and distribution of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) in the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes of chlorophyta algae. It finds that SSRs are more common in non-coding regions than coding regions. The most frequent SSRs are mono-nucleotide repeats, with poly A/T repeats being most common. Dinucleotide repeats are also present but less frequent, with poly AT/TA repeats being the most abundant. The SSR patterns in chlorophyta organellar genomes are similar to those in organelle and nuclear genomes of higher taxa. The study provides insight into SSR patterns in lower plant organellar genomes and their potential use as genetic markers.
Five attenuated Francisella novicida transposon mutants (with mutations corresponding to dsbB, FTT0742, pdpB, fumA, and carB in F. tularensis) were identified that provided protection against challenge with over 8 x 105 CFU of wild-type F. novicida in mice. The mutants were screened by examining their ability to grow in mouse macrophages and their virulence in mice. These attenuated mutants were then tested for their ability to protect mice against challenge with high doses of wild-type bacteria. The findings from this study could be useful in the design of a vaccine against tularemia.
Evolution of DNA repair genes, proteins and processesJonathan Eisen
This dissertation discusses the interface between evolution and DNA repair. It explores using comparative studies of repair genes and processes to study evolution. Differences in repair, such as mismatch repair, can drive evolution by affecting mutation rates and patterns. Evolutionary studies can benefit our understanding of repair mechanisms and gene families. The author developed "phylogenomics" to combine evolutionary reconstructions with genome analyses for improved inferences. Studies of RecA evolution, DNA turnover in E. coli, repair in Archaea, and adaptive mutation are presented.
1. The document describes the development of a new single-cell RNA-seq method called Quartz-Seq that has higher reproducibility and sensitivity than existing methods.
2. Quartz-Seq can quantitatively detect various types of non-genetic cellular heterogeneity and can distinguish different cell types and cell cycle phases of a single cell type.
3. It can also comprehensively reveal gene expression heterogeneity between single cells of the same cell type in the same cell cycle phase.
This lecture covers key findings to the development of genomics as a field. This first part covers briefly Mendel to knowing that DNA is the genetic material by Hershey and Chase
Daniel Mejía Arrieta Mutation in DNA ReplicationDaniel Mejia
The document discusses DNA replication and mutation. It notes that DNA encodes genetic information and small changes during replication can cause mutations, altering protein function and potentially health. DNA breakage at fragile sites can lead to lost genetic information and potential cancerous cell proliferation as cells try to replace DNA for daughter cells. The document also discusses how mice have evolved resistance to common poisons through a vitamin K-related gene mutation providing an adaptive advantage. Medical applications of understanding DNA replication and mutation are also mentioned, like detection of abnormalities for prevention and potential future control of induced mutations for improved health outcomes.
Unit 11: Viruses and Prions
LECTURE LEARNING GOALS
1. Define what is a virus, and describe the three theories on the origin of viruses.
2. Define and contrast prions and subviral agents. Explain how they are different from viruses.
3. Explain coronaviruses, the origin of SARS- CoV-2, how it infects cells, and the tools we use to fight the spread of COVID-19.
This document summarizes research on the identification and chromosomal localization of 74 genomic clones containing odorant receptor (OR) genes in the human genome. The key findings are:
1) Over half of the clones hybridized to multiple locations in the genome, demonstrating large duplications that have distributed OR sequences across many chromosomes. The majority of clones hybridized to 17 common locations on 13 chromosomes.
2) One clone in particular hybridized to 20 locations on 13 chromosomes, illustrating extensive homology among these sites that likely results from large genomic duplications.
3) A small number of clones each hybridized to only one or two unique locations, indicating those regions are more diverged.
4) The
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
This document discusses various topics related to genomics and systems biology, including DNA sequencing methods, finding and identifying genes, genetic mapping, genome sequencing, the human genome, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), bioinformatics, systems biology, and applications of genomics such as functional genomics, comparative genomics, metagenomics, toxicogenomics, and epigenetics. DNA sequencing methods determine the order of nucleotides, genes can be located using sequence tagged sites and expressed sequence tagged sites, and genetic mapping aims to locate genes on chromosomes.
This document reviews various techniques that have been used to study neural crest cell migration, including:
1. Classic ablation experiments, which remove neural folds to observe structure development but have interpretive issues.
2. Explantation experiments, which culture neural crest cells but their potential varies depending on location.
3. Cell marking techniques like radioactive labeling but the label is diluted over generations.
4. The quail-chick chimera technique, which grafts quail neural tissue into chicks to track migration based on nuclear differences.
5. Cell lineage studies using fluorescent dyes to label and track single cells and their descendants.
6. Cell lineage studies using retroviruses to incorporate genetic markers into mouse
Dp53 and DDNp53 are two isoforms of the p53 gene in Drosophila that differentially regulate apoptosis and apoptosis-induced proliferation. Both isoforms induce apoptosis, but through distinct mechanisms - Dp53 activates reaper and hid, while DDNp53 activates reaper. Additionally, DDNp53 (but not Dp53) induces expression of the mitogen Wingless and enhances proliferation in surrounding tissues in response to apoptosis. This suggests DDNp53 has a unique role in regulating apoptosis-induced compensatory proliferation, providing insights into the functions of p53 isoforms in tissue repair and regeneration.
1. DNA can be extracted from cells by breaking open the nucleus and cell membranes to release the DNA, then using alcohol to precipitate the DNA out of solution for purification.
2. Genetic engineering involves isolating genes from DNA and transferring them between organisms or modifying genes within an organism. It is used to produce proteins like insulin, improve crop traits like pest resistance, and enhance animal traits such as wool or milk production.
3. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, leaving "sticky ends" that can be joined with other DNA fragments during genetic manipulation and engineering of organisms.
This document describes a study that uses next-generation re-sequencing and bioinformatics to analyze presence/absence variation of accessory chromosomes across isolates of the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. The genome of the reference isolate IPO323 contains 21 chromosomes including 8 accessory chromosomes. Low-cost next-generation sequencing of 13 novel Z. tritici isolates is performed and the reads are aligned to the IPO323 reference genome to determine if accessory chromosomes present in IPO323 are also present in the novel isolates based on read coverage. De novo assembly of reads from the novel isolates is also conducted and compared to IPO323 to identify any additional accessory chromosomes or sequences not present in IPO323. This
nucleo-cytoplasmic intraction,Anterograde and Retrograde singnalingBalaji Rathod
This document discusses nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions and signal transduction between the nucleus and organelles. It provides examples of non-Mendelian inheritance from the cytoplasm, including chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA inheritance. The document outlines anterograde and retrograde signaling pathways between the nucleus and organelles, as well as cross-talk between mitochondria and chloroplasts. Maintaining organellar genomes provides benefits like preventing total organelle loss and generating cytoplasmic variation, which can be useful under environmental stress. However, more research is still needed to fully understand how organelle and nuclear genomes coordinate gene expression.
The document describes an experiment analyzing the presence of an Alu sequence in the PV92 locus on chromosome 16 in DNA samples from students. PCR and gel electrophoresis were used to amplify and visualize segments of DNA containing the Alu sequence. Students were found to be homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive for the sequence. The results demonstrate the potential of using SINEs like the Alu sequence to identify individuals through their DNA profiles.
It is a circular DNA molecule 4.6 million base pairs in length, containing 4288 annotated protein-coding genes (organized into 2584 operons), seven ribosomal RNA (rRNA) operons, and 86 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes.
Theories regarding origin of Mitochondria and ChloroplastsGuttiPavan
The document summarizes the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. It states that mitochondria likely evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells, eventually becoming specialized organelles. Similarly, chloroplasts may have evolved from photosynthetic prokaryotes that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells already containing mitochondria. This endosymbiotic theory was first proposed by Lynn Margulis and has received significant evidentiary support.
Abnormalities 0f mitotis By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MITOSIS
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS
SOURCE & REASON OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
EFFECTS OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
ABNORMALITIES OF MITOSIS IN PLANTS
ABNORMALITIES OF MITOSIS IN ANIMALS & HUMAN BEINGS
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR MITOTIC ABNORMALITY
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ABNORMAL MITOSIS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
This document discusses various methods of genetic recombination including transformation, conjugation, transduction, and protoplast fusion. It provides definitions and examples of key terms. Transformation involves the direct uptake of exogenous DNA by a cell. Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct contact. Transduction is the transfer of genes between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. Protoplast fusion involves fusing plant protoplasts using electric shock or chemicals to produce somatic hybrid plants. The document also discusses applications of these techniques such as gene cloning, production of monoclonal antibodies, and genetic engineering.
Microsatellite analysis in organelle genomes of chlorophyta(論文討論)Yi-Hung Peng
The document analyzes the frequency and distribution of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) in the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes of chlorophyta algae. It finds that SSRs are more common in non-coding regions than coding regions. The most frequent SSRs are mono-nucleotide repeats, with poly A/T repeats being most common. Dinucleotide repeats are also present but less frequent, with poly AT/TA repeats being the most abundant. The SSR patterns in chlorophyta organellar genomes are similar to those in organelle and nuclear genomes of higher taxa. The study provides insight into SSR patterns in lower plant organellar genomes and their potential use as genetic markers.
Five attenuated Francisella novicida transposon mutants (with mutations corresponding to dsbB, FTT0742, pdpB, fumA, and carB in F. tularensis) were identified that provided protection against challenge with over 8 x 105 CFU of wild-type F. novicida in mice. The mutants were screened by examining their ability to grow in mouse macrophages and their virulence in mice. These attenuated mutants were then tested for their ability to protect mice against challenge with high doses of wild-type bacteria. The findings from this study could be useful in the design of a vaccine against tularemia.
The document discusses the results of a study on the effects of exercise on memory and thinking abilities in older adults. The study found that regular exercise can help reduce the decline in thinking abilities that often occurs with age. Older adults who exercised regularly performed better on cognitive tests and brain scans showed they had greater activity in areas important for memory and learning compared to less active peers.
The document summarizes Rahwa Mahari's work on various tasks for an A2 Media Studies course. It discusses analyzing trailers to understand their effectiveness, creating a synopsis and changing the storyboard for a horror film trailer, researching conventions of the horror genre used in films like Scream and Insidious, targeting an audience of teens and young adults, applying techniques like close-ups and lighting to build atmosphere, crafting mise-en-scene, using practical and post-production elements like costumes, props, sound, and editing the trailer. Rahwa took responsibility for various production roles along with classmates and provides a production schedule and comparisons of the original and new storyboards.
Lightning talk at the London Content Strategy Meetup, 17 June 2013.
'A&E' is Accident and Emergency – ER in the UK.
Video here: http://vimeo.com/70232969
You've already got what you wanted: how to realise your dreamsGabriel Smy
From the talk at #dareconf mini, 20 January 2014.
View the whiteboard animations from slides 3, 12, 17 and 25 separately on YouTube: http://youtu.be/tAIXMaO9Hhw
kykloud whole life costing and carbon efficiency planningnkgraham
Slides showing how kykloud software has been used to compare cost and CO2 for building elements. Enabling effective decision making around cost over time and carbon over time.
Slides describing how carbon data can be used within the kykloud SaaS product for asset management, providing option appraisal CO2 comparison of specific elements in building refurbishment and new build design.
The document provides a series of yes or no questions about best practices for presentations. It asks whether it is good to engage the audience, have background presentations or distractions, speak clearly, use good body language, have spelling mistakes, proofread work, or take notes. The overall message is that effective presentations engage the audience, have no distractions, clear speaking, proper language and proofreading, and note taking.
This document describes the key steps and processes involved in commercial laundry operations, including:
1) Collecting soiled linen from rooms and sorting items based on degree of soiling, color, and fabric type to efficiently clean different materials.
2) Using washers, dryers, ironing machines, and folders to clean, dry, press, and finish linen items. A variety of chemicals are added to water in the washing process to aid in soil removal and disinfection.
3) Ensuring linen is properly cleaned, rinsed, slightly moist, and free of wrinkles before folding and returning to rooms. Large properties benefit from automated folding machines for productivity.
This document provides information about simple present tense verbs in English. It lists the affirmative, interrogative, and negative forms of the verb "to work" for the first, second, third person singular and plural subjects. Examples are given to illustrate the use of simple present tense verbs in sentences. Different types of questions are also defined, including wh-questions using question words like what, when, where and how, as well as yes/no questions using auxiliary verbs.
Chapter 1 : Introduction of Housekeeping DepartmentSyara Ramlee
The document outlines the structure and responsibilities of the housekeeping department in hotels. It describes the typical roles and hierarchy within housekeeping, including executive housekeepers, supervisors, attendants, and more. It also details the key responsibilities of housekeeping which include cleaning guest rooms, public areas, and other hotel facilities. Maintaining cleanliness is important for guest satisfaction and maximizing room sales and revenue. The housekeeping department aims to provide a comfortable environment and fulfill guests' needs and preferences.
Cellular damage to phytophthora infestans in tomato leaves treated with oxadi...dinomasch
The document describes an ultrastructural study of cells of Phytophthora infestans, the pathogen that causes late blight in tomatoes and potatoes, after treatment with the fungicide oxadixyl. The study found that in some hyphae and haustoria of P. infestans in infected tomato leaves treated with oxadixyl, there was massive accumulation of electron-dense deposits near the plasma membrane and mitochondria. This led to mitochondrial degeneration and likely cell death. However, no changes were observed in the endoplasmic reticulum or number of ribosomes. Some hyphal cell walls were also thickened after oxadixyl treatment. The damage to fungal cells from oxadix
The document describes the intracellular organization of a liver cell (hepatocyte). It includes a table showing the relative volumes occupied by major intracellular compartments, including the cytosol (54% of cell volume), mitochondria (22%), rough endoplasmic reticulum (9%), and nucleus (6%). It notes that the endoplasmic reticulum forms a single large compartment, while the Golgi apparatus is organized into discrete stacked cisternae.
Los profesores Jonathan P. Wojciechowski y Molly M. Stevens, nota realizada en la revista Science, con motivo del artículo publicado por Ivan Sasselli. Revista Science, 374 (6569), • DOI: 10.1126/science.abh3602
Epithelial reticular Cells of Egyptian Water buffalo (Bosbubalis)IOSRJAVS
Thymus obtained from10 clinically healthy Egyptian water male buffalo (Bosbubalis). Their ages ranged between 2to 3 years old. The thymus of Egyptian water buffalo was divided by septa into many lobules; each lobule had outer, cortex and inner medulla. The epithelial reticular cells were classified according to their staining affinity, morphology and position into 4 types, three were found within the cortex and one in the medulla. In cortex epithelia reticular cells type I (ER 1) had elongated nucleus of irregular or triangular shape with marginal heterochromatin clumps along the nuclear membrane. Epithelial reticular cells type II(ER II) were irregular in shape with pale stained cytoplasm and the nuclei were large and spherical having euchromatin. Epithial reticular cells type III(ERIII) were characterized by large nucleus of irregular shape having marginal heterochromatin .In medulla epithelial reticular (ER) cells of type IV, they were the largest epithelial cells forming the unique elements of the thymic medulla (Hassall's corpuscles)). Cytoplasm was occupied by many small vacuoles ,very large vacuole appeared in the cytoplasm pushed the nucleus into one side.
ARTICLE IN PRESShttpwww.elsevier.deprotisPublished onl.docxfredharris32
ARTICLE IN PRESS
http://www.elsevier.de/protis
Published online date 7 August 2006
1
Correspondin
fax +81 29 853
e-mail iinouye
2Current addr
Parkville, Victo
& 2006 Elsev
doi:10.1016/j
157, 401—419, August 2006
Protist, Vol.
ORIGINAL PAPER
Hatena arenicola gen. et sp. nov., a Katablepharid
Undergoing Probable Plastid Acquisition
Noriko Okamoto2, and Isao Inouye1
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba,
Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
Submitted February 27, 2006; Accepted May 27, 2006
Monitoring Editor: Robert A. Andersen
Hatena arenicola gen. et sp. nov., an enigmatic flagellate of the katablepharids, is described. It shows
ultrastructural affinities to the katablepharids, including large and small ejectisomes, cell covering,
and a feeding apparatus. Although molecular phylogenies of the 18S ribosomal DNA support its
classification into the katablepharids, the cell is characterized by a dorsiventrally compressed cell
shape and a crawling motion, both of which are unusual within this group. The most distinctive feature
of Hatena arenicola is that it harbors a Nephroselmis symbiont. This symbiosis is distinct from
previously reported cases of ongoing symbiosis in that the symbiont plastid is selectively enlarged,
while other structures such as the mitochondria, Golgi body, cytoskeleton, and endomembrane
system are degraded; the host and symbiont have developed a morphological association, i.e., the
eyespot of the symbiont is always at the cell apex of Hatena arenicola; and only one daughter cell
inherits the symbiont during cell division, resulting in a symbiont-bearing green cell and a symbiont-
lacking colorless cell. Interestingly, the colorless cells have a feeding apparatus that corresponds to
the location of the eyespot in symbiont-bearing cells, and they are able to feed on prey cells. This
indicates that the morphology of the host depends on the presence or absence of the symbiont. These
observations suggest that Hatena arenicola has a unique ‘‘half-plant, half-predator’’ life cycle; one cell
divides into an autotrophic cell possessing a symbiotic Nephroselmis species, and a symbiont-lacking
colorless cell, which later develops a feeding apparatus de novo. The evolutionary implications of
Hatena arenicola as an intermediate step in plastid acquisition are discussed in the context of other
examples of ongoing endosymbioses in dinoflagellates.
& 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
Key words: Hatena arenicola; Katablepharidophyta/Kathablepharida; Nephroselmis symbiont; plant
evolution; plastid acquisition via secondary endosymbiosis; ultrastructure.
Abbreviations: EM ¼ electron microscopy; ER ¼
endoplasmic reticulum; ICBN ¼ International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature; ICZN ¼ International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature; LM ¼ light mi-
croscopy; SEM ¼ scanning electron microscopy;
SSU rDNA ¼ small subunit ribosomal DNA; TEM ¼
transmission electron microscopy.
g author;
4533
...
This document summarizes a study examining the effects of cortisol on rainbow trout monocytes and macrophages in culture. Specifically, it found that high concentrations of cortisol (300ng/ml) decreased monocyte adhesion and macrophage numbers. It also downregulated expression of inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, and transcription factor PU.1, suggesting cortisol activates homeostatic processes. However, conditions mimicking chronic stress (30ng/ml cortisol) did not elicit these effects, indicating the cellular response depends on cortisol concentration and context. The study provides a basis for an in vitro model investigating immune-endocrine interactions at the transcriptome level.
This document provides an overview of microbiology concepts including:
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3) It summarizes key discoveries and advances in microbiology, infectious disease, and molecular biology from the 18th century to present.
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4. 2 Intracellular Binding Partners Of Podocalyxin Lab StudyStephanie Roberts
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Troy University Tissue Culture Biology Discussion.pdfsdfghj21
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Morphological and molecular analysis was used to identify parasites collected from Lake Winnibigoshish in Minnesota. Parasites were stained and examined under microscopy to measure morphological characteristics, which supported identification as Cotylurus brevis, Cotylurus flabelliformis, and Apatemon gracillis based on comparisons to previous studies. Genetic sequencing of the COX1 gene was initiated but not completed. Results from staining were consistent with identification of the three species based on features such as testis shape, ovary placement, and body ratios being within reported ranges. Molecular analysis may further support identifications but has not been finished.
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Acanthamoebais known to host a variety of viruses: Mimivirus, Marseillevirus, Tupanvirus, Catovirus, and Pandoravirus (P. quercus, P. inopinatum, P. macleodensis, P. neocaledonia, and P. salinus), coxsackievirus, adenovirus, poliovirus, echovirus, enterovirus, or virus vesicular stomatitis. Yeasts such as Cryptococcus neoformans, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Exophiala dermatitidis. Pathogenic bacteria include: Aeromonas spp, Bacillus cereus, Bartonella spp, Burkholderia spp, Burkholderia pickettii, Campylobacter jejuni, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Coxiella burnetti, Escherichia coli 0157, neuropathogenic Escherichia coli K1, Flavobacterium spp, Francisella tula rensis, Helicobacter pylori , Legionella pneumophila, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicilin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacteria tuberculosis, M. avium, M. leprae, Pastereulla multocida, Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromona gingivalis, Pseudomona aeruginosa, Rickettsia, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, S. sonnei, Vibrio cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, Wadd lia chondrophila (Winiecka-Krusnell, et al., 2002). Among the protists are Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma gondii.
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This document discusses Ectocarpus, a filamentous brown algae, as a model marine organism. Ectocarpus is found in temperate coastal regions worldwide and is used to study brown algal biology, including life cycle regulation, sex determination, morphogenesis, ecology, and stress response. Its genome was sequenced, revealing over 16,000 genes and repeated sequences that may play a role in silencing transposable elements. The sequencing also found an integrated DNA virus sequence that is silenced in some Ectocarpus strains. Ectocarpus has adapted well to survive in the intertidal zone through complex photosynthesis genes and enzymes that help with stress responses.
Introduction
Definition
History
Evolution and origin of apoptosis
Significance
Purpose of apoptosis
Steps /process
Morphological and biochemical changes
Mechanism of apoptosis
Caspases
Regulation of apoptosis
Disorders of apoptosis
Application
Conclusion
Referances
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Brayner,2005
1. Micron 36 (2005) 359–367
www.elsevier.com/locate/micron
Ultrastructural characterization of the hemocytes of Culex
quinquefasciatus (DIPTERA: Culicidae)
F.A. Braynera,b,*, H.R.C. Araujoa,b, M.G.S. Cavalcantia,b, L.C. Alvesa,b, C.A. Peixotoa,b,1
´
a
˜
Departamento de Biologia Celular e Ultraestrutura, Centro de Pesquisas Aggeu Magalhaes (FIOCRUZ), Av. Moraes Rego s/n, Recife 50670-420, Brazil
b
´
Laboratorio de Imunopatologia Keizo Asami (LIKA) da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Received 20 May 2004; revised 30 November 2004; accepted 30 November 2004
Abstract
Six hemocytes cell types from Culex quinquefasciatus were identified by light and transmission electron microscopy: They are
prohemocytes (9.3%), spherulocytes (1.6%), adipohemocytes (0.8%), oenocytoids (4.6%), plasmatocytes (43.4%) and granulocytes (40.3%).
The prohemocytes were the smallest hemocytes encountered in the hemolymph, displaying a large and centrally located nucleus, almost
filling the whole cell. The spherulocytes, which were small hemocytes, presented small and numerous spherules with a lamellar pattern and
an electron-dense core. Rare adipohemocytes were observed in the C. quinquefasciatus hemolymph, presenting large nucleus with an evident
nucleolus, cytoplasm containing rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), mitochondriae and lipid inclusions. C. quinquefasciatus oenocytoids
showed homogeneous cytoplasm with several granules, completely or partially filled with amorphous material. These cells showed abundant
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and dense mitochondriae. By light microscopy analysis we identified two morphological types of
plasmatocytes, granular and agranular. However, ultrastructural investigation revealed that the granular cells contained lipid inclusion
between RER membranes, instead of membrane-bounded granules. The granulocytes presented a fusiform or circular profile and displayed a
unique and very complex process of granules formation, including organization of polysomes inside vesicles that protrude from the Golgi
system, synthesis of a proteinaceous material, condensation of the granule matrix and recycling of endoplasmic membranes. Intense
endocytic pathways were also observed in the granulocytes.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Culex quinquefasciatus (Insecta); Hemocytes; Light microscopy; Electron microscopy; Morphology; Mosquito
1. Introduction immune responses, like phagocytosis, nodulation and
encapsulation (Pech and Strand, 2000). However, accord-
In insects, the immune system includes both humoral ing to Lavine and Strand (2002) this subdivision of the
and cellular components. Humoral defenses involve the insect immune system into cellular and humoral
production of antimicrobial peptides (Lowenberger, responses is somewhat arbitrary since humoral factors
2001), reactive free radical intermediates of oxygen or affect hemocyte function and on the other hand,
nitrogen (Vass and Nappi, 2001), and the complex hemocytes are an important source of many humoral
enzymatic cascades that regulate coagulation or melani- molecules.
zation of hemolymph (Muta and Iwanaga, 1996). The hemocytes have the ability to defend insects against
In contrast, cellular defense refers to hemocyte-mediated pathogens, parasites and other foreign bodies, which entered
in the hemocoel. These defense reactions are mediated by
phagocytosis, encapsulation, wound repair and coagulation
* Corresponding author. Address: Laboratorio de Imunopatologia Keizo
´ (Lavine and Strand, 2002; Falleiros et al., 2003). The
Asami (LIKA) da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil.
Tel.: C55 81 3301 2540; fax: C55 81 3453 2449.
population of circulating hemocytes is an important tool to
E-mail addresses: brayner@cpqam.fiocruz.br (F.A. Brayner), understand the host–parasite interactions, since enhance-
cpeixoto@cpqam.fiocruz.br (C.A. Peixoto). ment in the total and differential number of hemocyte may
1
Tel.: C55 81 3301 2557; fax: C55 81 3453 2449. contribute to the protection against a specific parasite
0968-4328/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. (Nappi and Christensen, 1986; Christensen et al., 1989;
doi:10.1016/j.micron.2004.11.007 Da Silva et al., 2000).
2. 360 F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367
Studies by means transmission electron microscopy pH 7.2 and post-fixed with osmium tetroxide in cacodylate
(TEM) have produced hemocyte classification by identifi- buffer for 1 h. After dehydration in graded acetone series,
cation of seven morphological types: prohemocytes, the cells were embedded in EMBED 812/Araldite (Electron
plasmatocytes, granulocytes, spherulocytes, adipohemo- Microscopy Sciences, Fort Washington, PA).
cytes, oenocytoids and coagulocytes (Beeman et al., 1983;
ˇ
Hypsa and Grubhoffer, 1997; Giulianini et al., 2003;
3. Results
Falleiros et al., 2003). However, several authors have
found between three and four hemocyte types in different
´ Six morphological types of the circulating cells can be
genera of mosquitoes (Hernandez et al., 1999; Da Silva
recognized in the hemolymph of adult C. quinquefasciatus.
et al., 2000; Hillyer and Christensen, 2002; Hillyer et al.,
They are prohemocytes, spherulocytes, adipohemocytes,
2003). Culex quinquefasciatus is a culicid mosquito that
oenocytoids, plasmatocytes and granulocytes.
transmits several pathogens, including Wuchereria ban-
crofti and arboviruses, such as St Louis encephalitis (SLE)
in Western States and Oropouch virus in the north of Brazil 3.1. Prohemocytes
(Da Silva et al., 2000). Conversely, there are very few
papers about the morphological characterization of hemo- Prohemocytes are the smallest cells encountered in the
cytes of C. quinquefasciatus and this is due in large part to hemolymph, displaying a spherical profile with w5–8 mm
the small size of these insects, which is difficult to perform in diameter, which represents 9.3% of the total hemocyte
manipulative experiments. The aim of the present study was population. The large and centrally located nucleus
to characterize by the first time distinct morphological types almost fills the whole cell, so that the cytoplasm
of hemocytes of C. quinquefasciatus by transmission occupies only a narrow area around the nucleus
electron microscopy. (Figs. 1A and 2A and B). The chromatin is scattered,
and in some cells the presence of nucleoli is evident.
Only a few organelles can be seen, with a conspicuous
2. Materials and methods development of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and
mitochondriae (Fig. 2A and B).
2.1. Insects
3.2. Spherulocytes
Laboratory bred C. quinquefasciatus (Recife strain) were
used throughout this study. Adults were maintained in cages Spherulocytes shows an oval cell profile with average
(30!30!30 cm3) at room temperature (27G3 8C) with diameter of 8–10 mm, displaying a round nucleus and a
85G10% relative humidity and fed with 10% (w/v) sucrose condensed chromatin with a large nucleolus (Fig. 2C). Several
solution. small spherules (1–1.5 mm in diameter) (Figs. 1B and 2C
and D) containing a lamellar pattern with an electron-dense
2.2. Hemocytes characterization core region (Fig. 2C and D). The cytoplasm also contained
other organelles such as RER and mitochondriae (Fig. 2C).
For light microscopy (LM), the adult insects were washed The spherulocytes represented 1.6% of the total hemocytes.
in PBS and placed on ice (1–2 min) for immobilization. The
hemolymph of 10 insects (4-day-old) was obtained by 3.3. Adipohemocytes
perfusing the thorax with anticoagulant II solution (Mead
et al., 1986) and bled directly on to a glass slide and allowed Adipohemocytes are rare small and elongated cells
dry in natural air conditions for 20–30 min. Cells were then measuring 8–15 mm in length. In the adipohemocytes
fixed in methanol for 10 min. After natural air-drying of the observed in this study, a round nucleus could be
fixative, hemocytes were stained with Giemsa (diluted 1:9 in observed (Fig. 1C). Inside the cytoplasm several large
buffered distilled water) for 10–15 min and slides were rapidly lipid vesicles and mitochondriae (Figs. 1C and 2E and F)
washed with buffered distilled water (Da Silva et al., 2000; were observed. They were the less frequent hemocytes,
Silva et al., 2002). After air drying the slides were dehydrated with 0.8%.
and mounted in Entellan.
For transmission electron microscopy (TEM), hemo- 3.4. Oenocytoids
lymph of at least 300 insects (4-day-old) was collected from
a punctured thorax perfused directly with fixation solution Oenocytoids presents a round shape, approximatelly
and the obtained hemolymph was pooled and centrifuged at 6–13 mm in diameter, with small and eccentric nucleus
500g for 5 min. The pellet was resuspended and fixed in 4% (Figs. 1D and 3A) or oval with chromatin showing lumps of
glutaraldehyde in 0.2 M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2, over- condensation. The ultrastructure revealed a cytoplasm
ˇ
night (Hypsa and Grubhoffer, 1997). The samples were rich in vacuoles, some filled with a hetrogeneous electron-
washed in 5% sucrose solution in 0.2 M cacodylate buffer, dense material and others completely empties. It presents
3. F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367 361
Fig. 1. Light microscopy of hemocytes from C quinquefasciatus. (A) A prohemocyte with a large nucleus (thin arrow) containing a prominent
nucleolus (arrowhead). (B) A spherulocyte showing an oval profile and numerous spherules within the cytoplasm (thin arrows). (C) An adipohemocyte
showing an irregular cell profile and lipid vesicles in the cytoplasm (thin arrows). (D) A oenocytoid with a round eccentric nucleus (thin arrow). (E) A
granular plasmatocyte exhibiting a central nucleus with nucleolus (thin arrow). In the cytoplasm, vacuoles (short arrows) and granules (arrowheads) are
shown. Observed also a phylopodium process (open arrow). (F) An agranular plasmatocyte spreading a lobular pseudopodia (arrowhead). Note also the
eccentric nucleus (thin arrow). (G) A granulocyte displaying a large mass of heterochomatin (long arrow) inside the nucleus. Observe also several
granules in the cytoplasm (arrowheads) and a short phylopodium (large arrow). (H) A granulocyte with multiple pseudopodia (short arrow). Observe
also the large nucleus and several dense compact granules (arrowheads). BarsZ5 mm.
4. 362 F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367
Fig. 2. (A–F) Electron micrographs of hemocytes from C. quinquefasciatus. (A and B) Prohemocytes displaying spherical profiles with a large central nucleus
(N) containing nucleolus (Nu) and a thin cytoplasm with few organelles. Note lumps of heterochromatin (arrows). Mitochondriae (m) and RER (arrowheads)
are also indicated. (C) A spherulocyte with numerous spherules showing a round nucleus with condensed chromatin (N) and nucleolus (Nu), RER complex
(thin arrow) and mitochondrion (m). (D) Magnification of the spherules showing a lamellar pattern with an electron-dense core region (arrows). (E–F)
Adipohemocytes with oval profile showing large nucleus (N) containing evident nucleolus (Nu). Observe cytoplasm with several lipid vesicles inside (stars)
and mitochondriae (m). BarsZ0.5 mm.
a homogeneous cytoplasm with abundant SER and dense philopodia and pseudopodia (Fig. 1E and F). The majority
mitochondriae. Sparce RER is also present (Fig. 3A). They of the plasmatocytes were mononucleated but some
are presented 4.6% of the total circulating hemocytes. binucleated cells were occasionally observed. In electron
micrographs agranular plasmatocytes presented a lobated
3.5. Plasmatocytes nucleus with evident nucleoli in a pericentral position
(Fig. 3B). The chromatin was finely distributed but some
The plasmatocytes were the most cellular types fre- heterochromatin clumps were present. Within the cytoplasm
quently observed, representing 43.4%. Two types of several elongated and round mitochondria were observed.
plasmatocytes were observed, granular and agranular The reticular cytoplasm showed well-developed RER,
plasmatocytes. These cells are very polymorphic, varying Golgi system and some vacuoles. Also patches of smooth
from spindle-shaped to round cells, w6–22 mm in diameter. endoplasmic reticulum SER were present at the cell poles
The plasma membrane exhibit irregular processes, (Fig. 3B). The granular plasmatocytes showed elongated or
5. F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367 363
Fig. 3. (A) An oenocytoide showing an eccentric lobated nucleus (N) with clumps of hetrochromatin (short arrows). Several cytoplasmic vacuoles are
present, some filled with a heterogeneous electron-dense material (large arrowheads) and others completely empty (thin arrows). Note also electron-
dense mitochondriae (arrows), abundant SER (small arrowheads) and few RER (open short arrow). (B) An agranular plasmatocyte showing a lobated
nucleus (N) with nucleolus (Nu) in a pericentral position. Some heterochromatin lumps are present (arrows). Within the cytoplasm several elongated
and round mitochondria are present (thin arrows). Note the well-developed RER (arrowheads) and isles of SER were presented (stars). (C) A granular
plasmatocyte showing elongated nucleus (N) with a scattered mass of heterochromatin. Abundant RER (arrowheads), lipid inclusions located among
endoplasmic membranes (thin arrows), and electron-dense inclusions (open arrow) are indicated. Part of adjacent granular plasmatocyte contains lipid
inclusions (thin arrow). BarsZ0.5 mm.
circular nucleus displaying a scattered mass of hetero- 3.6. Granulocytes
chomatin, and in some cells a large nucleolus could be
observed (not shown). The cytoplasm was rich in RER and Granulocytes present a circular to fusiform profile
Golgi system. The numerous granules seen by LM were w8–13 mm in diameter, which represents 40.3% of the
observed by EM with no limiting membrane, similar to total hemocyte population. The plasma membrane is
cellular inclusions, showing a homogeneous matrix and irregular displaying pseudopodia and philopodia in its
located among endoplasmic membranes. Some of the surface (Fig. 1G and H). In electron micrographs, these
inclusions show an electron-dense core, possibly indicating hemocytes show important morphological characteristics.
a dual constitution (Fig. 3C). The lobated nucleus has a large mass of heterochomatin and
6. 364 F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367
Fig. 4. A granulocyte showing a lobated nucleus (N) with a large mass of heterochomatin (large short arrows) and an active nucleolus (Nu). Endocytic process
with the presence of numerous coated vesicles (short arrows) and coated pits (open short arrow) and mitochondria (m). The cytoplasm contains sparce RER
(thin arrows), abundant free ribosomes (small arrows) with formation of numerous polysomes (arrowheads). A well-developed Golgi complex displays vesicle
production (G). The following steps of the granule synthesis are indicated. (1) Large vesicles containing engulfed cytoplasm with polysomes (arrowheads), free
ribosomes (small arrow) and occasional mitochondria (m). (2) Vesicles containing large empty vacuoles (V) and ribosomes, organized as small polysomes
(arrowheads). (3) Initial synthesis of a dense proteinaceous matrix (M) by polysomes (arrowheads). (4) Fusion of multiple polysomes (arrowheads) and
formation of the granule matrix (M). (5) Condensation of the granule with production small vesicles in order to eliminate ribosomes and recycle endoplasmic
membranes (r). (6) A mature granule inside the cytoplasm. (7) A granule being exocytosed by the cell. BarZ0.5 mm.
an active nucleolus and a clear endocytic process with the final stage, the granule expells the ribosomes and produces
presence of numerous coated vesicles and coated pits is small vesicles in order to condense the proteinaceous matrix
present. Round or elongated mitochondria are also detected. and recycle intracellular membranes. (6) The mature
The cytoplasm contains dilated RER, formation of poly- granule is then free inside the cytoplasm. (7) Finally, the
somes and abundant ribosomes. Also, a well-developed granule is exocysed by the cell.
Golgi complex displays large vesicle production (Fig. 4). Synthesis of a second type of granule is also shown.
All the steps of the granule synthesis machinary can be A vesicle containing several sites of membranes of
observed, as follows: (1) large vesicles containing engulfed endoplasmic membranes producing a very electron-dense
cytoplasm with free ribosomes and occasional mitochon- matrix was observed (Fig. 5). A large electron-dense
dria; (2) some vesicles contain large empty vacuoles granule is shown, probably due to the fusion of the products
possibly, due to the membrane fusion with other empty of several synthesis sites.
vacuoles. Also, ribosomes are organized as numerous large It is important to note that near to this synthesis granule
polysomes, some of which show the formation of other machinery several elongated or round mitochondria are
small polysomes. (3) Initial synthesis of a proteinaceous present. In addition, in many other granulocytes we found
matrix inside the polysomes; (4) fusion of multiple mitochondria inside the vesicle of synthesis of the granule
polysomes and formation of the granule matrix. (5) At the (Figs. 4 and 5).
7. F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367 365
Fig. 5. A granulocyte showing a lobated nucleus (N) with a large mass of heterochromatin (short arrows) and an active nucleolus (Nu). Several elongated
mitochondria (m) are also present. The cytoplasm contain sparce RER (thin arrows), abundant free ribosomes (small arrows) and formation of numerous
polysomes (arrowheads). The following steps of the granule machinary synthesis are indicated. (1) Not shown. (2) Vesicle containing empty vacuoles (V)
and free ribosomes organized as numerous polysomes, some of which are small polysomes (arrowheads). Note the elongated mitochondrion attached to the
vesicle membrane (open short arrow). (3) Initial synthesis of a dense proteinaceous matrix by polysomes (M). Note also the multiple polysomes
(arrowheads). (4) Fusion of multiple polysomes and formation of the granule matrix (M). Multiple polysomes (arrowheads) are also present. (5)
Condensation of granule and recycle of endoplasmic membranes (r). (6) Not shown. (7) A granule exocyted by the cell. Note also a second type of granule
synthesis: a vesicle containing several sites of synthesis of very an electrondense matrix (small short arrows) and the formation of a large granule inside
(white asterisk). BarZ0.5 mm.
4. Discussion recognized as the spherulocyte. Recently, Hillyer et al.
(2003) described only four morphological cell types in
C. quinquefasciatus adults possess six different types of Armigeres subalbatus, a natural vector of Japanese ence-
hemocytes, which vary considerably in their morphology and phalitis and filarial nematodes: granulocytes, oenocytoids,
size, namely: prohemocytes, spherulocytes, adipohemo- adipohemocytes and thrombocytoids.
cytes, oenocytoids, plasmatocytes and granulocytes. Silva In the present study, we observed that prohemocytes
et al. (2002) studying Anastrepha obliqua instar larva, which displayed unmistakable characteristics such as small size
is a member of the Diptera Order, described a similar range of and large nuclear–cytoplasmic ratio, with a morphology
morphological types of hemocytes by LM analysis. Analo- identical to that described in previous hemocyte studies
gous results were also obtained by Kaaya and Ratcliffe ˇ
(Hypsa and Grubhoffer, 1997; Falleiros et al., 2003;
(1982) who performed an important morphological com- Giulianini et al., 2003).
parison of hemocytes from several medical important Some studies have described spherulocytes as hemocytes-
dipterans, including the C. quinquefasciatus. However, in containing large membrane-bound spherules that deform the
these LM studies, they did not identify the hemocyte cellular surface. In C. quinquefasciatus, these cells presented
8. 366 F.A. Brayner et al. / Micron 36 (2005) 359–367
similar organelles, showing moderated electron density with of a proteinaceous material, and condensation of the
an electron dense core, as described for other species granule matrix with recycling of endoplasmic membranes.
(Beeman et al., 1983; Falleiros et al., 2003). However, the Synthesis of a second type of granule was also observed,
size of spherules of these hemocytes was smaller than those occurring inside vesicles almost free of ribosomes, which
described previously and did not protrude from the cellular contained an electron-dense matrix probably composed of
surface. Giulianini et al. (2003) observed a similar spherule substances other than proteins. On the other hand,
size in Cetonischema aeruginosa larvae (Coleoptera, granular plasmatocytes showed no such machinery for
Scarabaeidae). synthesis of granules, instead they display several small
Rarely, adipohemocytes were observed in the present lipid inclusions among ER membranes. So, we not agree
work, mostly because of the instability of these cells. ˇ
with Hypsa and Grubhoffer (1997) since plasmatocytes
Besides large lipid vesicles, other cellular organelles could (granular and granular) and granulocytes presented a
be readily identified, i.e., scarce RER and mitochondria. completely different morphology, and thus may belong to
Conversely, Hillyer et al. (2003) described that these cells a distinct class of hemocytes, however, functional studies
were the second most common cells obtained from naive are necessary to confirm this.
mosquitoes. In our study, adipohemocytes presented similar
size to granulocytes and oenocytoids, whereas Hillyer et al.
(2003) found that these cells were w30 mm in diameter,
being several times the size of granulocytes and oenocy-
toids. Some authors do not regard the adipohemocyte as a Acknowledgements
distinct hemocyte type, since they considered their mor-
phology to be very similar to that of granulocytes, and also The authors are grateful to Rafael Padilha, Raimundo
indicated that these cells are most similar to the fat body ´
Pimentel and Sergio Santos for the precious technical
cells (Kaaya and Ratcliffe, 1982). However, we did not support. This work has been supported by Fundacao ¸˜
observe any similarity between these two cellular types and Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ).
therefore further studies are necessary to clarify this
controversial matter.
Oenocytoids have been described as cells typically
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