Chemical bonding results from the attraction between nuclei and electrons. There are three main types of bonding: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons between atoms to form ions. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms through delocalized valence electrons. The type of bonding determines the physical properties of the substance.
The Avogadro constant, represents the number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. the value of Avogadro constant is 6.0221421 푥 10^23. How many atoms of K-40 (Radioactive isotope) are present in 225 mL of whole milk containing 1.65 mg K/mL?
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups.
The Avogadro constant, represents the number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. the value of Avogadro constant is 6.0221421 푥 10^23. How many atoms of K-40 (Radioactive isotope) are present in 225 mL of whole milk containing 1.65 mg K/mL?
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups.
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2. Chemical Bond
• A bond results from the attraction of nuclei
for electrons
– All atoms trying to achieve a stable octet
• IN OTHER WORDS
– the p+
in one nucleus are attracted to the e- of
another atom
• Electronegativity
3. Two Major Types of
Bonding
• Ionic Bonding
– forms ionic compounds
– transfer of e-
• Covalent Bonding
– forms molecules
– sharing e-
4. One minor type of bonding
• Metallic bonding
– Occurs between like atoms of a metal in the
free state
– Valence e- are mobile (move freely among all
metal atoms)
– Positive ions in a sea of electrons
• Metallic characteristics
– High mp temps, ductile, malleable, shiny
– Hard substances
– Good conductors of heat and electricity as (s) and (l)
5. It’s the mobile electrons
that enable me-
tals to
conduct electricity!!!!!!
6. IONic Bonding
• electrons are transferred between
valence shells of atoms
• ionic compounds are
made of ions
• ionic compounds are called Salts or
Crystals
NOT MOLECULES
7. IONic bonding
• Always formed between metals and
non-metals
[METALS ]+
[NON-METALS ]-
Lost e-
Gained e-
8. IONic Bonding
• Electronegativity difference > 2.0
– Look up e-neg of the atoms in the bond
and subtract
NaCl
CaCl2
• Compounds with polyatomic ions
NaNO3
9.
10. • hard solid @ 22o
C
• high mp temperatures
• nonconductors of electricity in solid
phase
• good conductors in liquid phase or
dissolved in water (aq)
SALTS
Crystals
Properties of Ionic
Compounds
11. Covalent Bonding
• Pairs of e- are shared
between non-metal atoms
• electronegativity difference < 2.0
• forms polyatomic ions
molecules
12. Properties of Molecular
Substances
• Low m.p. temp and b.p. temps
• relatively soft solids as compared
to ionic compounds
• nonconductors of electricity in
any phase
Covalent
bonding
13. Covalent, Ionic, metallic
bonding?
• NO2
• sodium
hydride
• Hg
• H2S
• sulfate
• NH4
+
• Aluminum
phosphate
• KH
• KCl
• HF
• CO
• Co
Also study
your
characteristics!
14. Drawing ionic compounds
using Lewis Dot Structures
• Symbol represents the KERNEL of the
atom (nucleus and inner e-)
• dots represent valence e-
15. NaCl
• This is the finished Lewis Dot
Structure
[Na]+
[ Cl ]
-
How did we get here?
16. • Step 1 after checking that it is IONIC
– Determine which atom will be the +
ion
– Determine which atom will be the -
ion
• Step 2
– Write the symbol for the + ion first.
• NO DOTS
– Draw the e- dot diagram for the –
ion
• COMPLETE outer shell
• Step 3
– Enclose both in brackets and show each charge
18. Drawing molecules using
Lewis Dot Structures
• Symbol represents the KERNEL of the
atom (nucleus and inner e-)
• dots represent valence e-
19. Always remember atoms are
trying to complete their
outer shell!
The number of electrons the atoms
needs is the total number of bonds
they can make.
Ex. … H? O? F? N? Cl? C?
one two one three one four
20. Methane CH4
• This is the finished Lewis dot structure
How did we get here?
21. • Step 1
– count total valence e-
involved
• Step 2
– connect the central atom (usually the first in
the formula) to the others with single bonds
• Step 3
– complete valence shells of outer atoms
• Step 4
– add any extra e-
to central atom
IF the central atom has 8 valence e-
surrounding
it . . YOU’RE DONE!
22. Sometimes . . .
• You only have two atoms, so there is
no central atom, but follow the same
rules.
• Check & Share to make sure all the
atoms are “happy”.
Cl2 Br2 H2 O2 N2 HCl
23. • DOUBLE bond
– atoms that share two e- pairs (4 e-)
O O
• TRIPLE bond
– atoms that share three e- pairs (6 e-)
N N
24. Draw Lewis Dot Structures
You may represent valence electrons
from different atoms with the
following symbols x, ,
CO2
NH3
25. Draw the Lewis Dot Diagram for
polyatomic ions
• Count all valence e- needed for
covalent bonding
• Add or subtract other electrons based
on the charge
REMEMBER!
A positive charge means it LOST
electrons!!!!!
27. Types of CovalentCovalent BondsBonds
• NON-Polar bonds
–Electrons shared evenly in the bond
–E-neg difference is zero
Between identical atoms
Diatomic molecules
28. Types of Covalent Bonds
Polar bond
–Electrons unevenly shared
–E-neg difference greater than zero
but
less than 2.0
closer to 2.0 more polar
more “ionic character”
29. non-polar MOLECULES
• Sometimes the bonds within a
molecule are polar and yet the
molecule is non-polar because its
shape is symmetrical. H
H
HH C
Draw Lewis dot first and
see if equal on all sides
30. Polar molecules (a.k.a.
Dipoles)
• Not equal on all sides
–Polar bond between 2 atoms makes a
polar molecule
–asymmetrical shape of molecule
34. Making sense of the polar
non-polar thing
BONDS
Non-polar Polar
Identical Different
MOLECULES
Non-polar Polar
Symmetrical Asymmetrical
35. IONIC bonds ….
Ionic bonds are
so polar that the electrons are
not shared but transferred
between atoms forming ions!!!!!!
36. C. Johannesson
VSEPR Theory
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory
• Electron pairs orient themselves in
order to minimize repulsive forces.
37. C. Johannesson
VSEPR Theory
• Types of e-
Pairs
– Bonding pairs - form bonds
– Lone pairs - nonbonding e-
Lone pairs repel
more strongly than
bonding pairs!!!
43. • Attractions between
molecules
– van der Waals forces
• Weak attractive
forces between
non-polar
molecules
– Hydrogen “bonding”
• Strong attraction
between special
polar molecules
Intermolecular attractions
44. van der Waals
• Non-polar molecules can exist in liquid
and solid phases
because van der Waals forces keep the
molecules attracted to each other
• Exist between CO2, CH4, CCl4, CF4,
diatomics and monoatomics
45. van der Waals periodicity
• increase with molecular mass.
• increase with closer distance between
molecules
– Decreases when particles are farther away
46. Hydrogen “Bonding”
• Strong polar
attraction
– Like magnets
• Occurs ONLY
between H of one
molecule and N, O,
F of another
H “bond”
47. H is shared between
2 atoms of OXYGEN or
2 atoms of NITROGEN or
2 atoms of FLUORINE
Of
2
different
molecules
48. Why does H “bonding”
occur?
• Nitrogen, Oxygen and Fluorine
– small atoms with strong nuclear charges
• powerful atoms
– very high electronegativities
49. Intermolecular forces
dictate chemical properties
• Strong intermolecular forces cause
high b.p., m.p. and slow evaporation
(low vapor pressure) of a substance.
50. Which substance has the
highest boiling point?
• HF
• NH3
• H2O
• WHY?
Fluorine has the highest e-neg,
SO
HF will experience the
strongest H bonding and ∴
needs the most energy to
weaken the i.m.f. and boil