This document provides information about bog mummies that have been discovered across Northern Europe. It summarizes that thousands of bog mummies have been found dating from 1000 BC to 250 AD, with many showing signs of violent deaths. The document describes the process of natural mummification in bogs and some of the most famous bog mummies that have been discovered, such as Tollund Man and Lindow Man. It also discusses what is known about the people who lived in this region during the time based on archaeological evidence and historical accounts.

1. ANTH 3969
Death, Rituals, and Mummification
Spring Semester 2011
Dr. Ewa Wasilewska
Presentation by: Elizabeth Hogan
ANTH 4950-14

2. “The dead and the sleeping, how they resemble each
other.”
-Gilgamesh
Bog mummies are naturally preserved bodies,
often found in the sphagnum bogs of Northern
Europe. Many of them are so well preserved, that in
their early discovery they were mistaken for recent
murder victims. Some archaeologists have even said
that their appearance resembles that of someone in a
peaceful slumber...

3. There are many questions about these bodies
that remain unanswered. Thousands of bog mummies
have been recovered. The majority of them appear to
have experienced deliberate and violent deaths. Since
their discovery, archaeologists have been attempting
to put the pieces of the puzzle together and to make
sense of these mysterious mummies

4. Most bog mummies
appear in wetland areas of
Northwestern Europe
A majority of them found
in the peat bogs of
Denmark
Other European bog
mummies found in:
western Ireland,
northwestern England,
Holland, Germany, and
even Russia
Early Native American
bog burials have also been
discovered in Windover,
Florida

5. Bogs
- wetlands filled by deposits
of dead mosses, and lichens
- usually fed by acidic
ground water , or by
precipitation
(ombrotrophic)
- located in areas with cold
climates, also sometimes in
tropic regions (i.e. Florida)

6. -A majority of bogs are mainly
comprised of Sphagnum moss
-Sphagnum moss grows upward,
and will grow around and
“encase” objects that fall into
the bogs
-As Sphagnum moss decays it
eventually becomes “peat”
-When dried out peat can be used
as fuel
-During the 1800’s, peat
exploitation for fuel was a major
industry
-Over the years, peat harvesting
and cutting aided in the
discovery (and sometimes the
destruction) of hundreds of bog
mummies

7.  Earliest accounts of bog mummy
discoveries date back to the early
1400s
- June 24, 1450: Peasants in
Bonsdorp, Germany come
across the remains of man
while cutting peat
- After reporting the remains
to a priest, they are advised to
“leave the body alone, as bogs
are inhabited by elves, who
lured the man to his death”
-Due to superstition and fear,
many bog bodies receive the
same fate and are never seen
again

8. Throughout 1600’s -1800’s more reports appear
-English records predating 1700, make note that “sometimes in
mosses are found human bodies entire and uncorrupted”
-1773: While cutting peat, a peasant accidentally cuts of a
human foot with his shovel. The local judge was informed and a
detailed report was written
-During the late 1800s-early 1900s, the peat harvesting industry
uncovers many more bog bodies as well as artifacts eventually
this leads to the advent of wetland archaeology
-Unfortunately, once exposed/removed from their waterlogged
environments many bodies and artifacts decayed and were lost

9. Best conditions for preservation:
1) Placed in dark, deep, still water  Creates anaerobic
environment (no oxygen), and limits decomposition
from insects, scavengers, and bacteria
2) Deposited during the winter For a few months
after the body is deposited water temperature must be
at 4˚C, otherwise soft tissues will decompose
3) Sufficient amounts of tannic acid in the water This
will begin the “tanning” process and preserve soft tissue
layers (similar to the process of treating leather, or
pickling fruit) dyes the skin a blackish/brown color
and makes hair appear to be bright orange/red

10.  Bog mummies are mostly made up
of preserved soft tissues internal
organs, hair, skin, and ligaments
 Specifically, the brain preserves very
well underwater, many bog bodies
have been found with brains that
are nearly fully preserved, even in
bog bodies where the remains are
skeletonized In nor mal
conditions the brain is often first to
decompose, thus, in many
embalming practices it is usually
removed
 Skeletal materials do not tend to
preserve very well, water leaches
organic material from bones, while
the acidic environment of bogs
dissolves hydroxyapatite (inorganic
matrix of bone)

11. Nearly 2000 bodies have been found in Europe, only 100 of
which have been dated by C14
Most mummies date: 1,000 B.C.- 250 A.D.
Earliest body found in Denmark Female, around 20 yrs of age,
dates to about 10,000 Y.B.P. no flesh just a skeleton
Neolithic bog bodies  date 4,000-3,200 B.C.  35 found in
Denmark, one in Ireland, and one in England
Bronze age bodies date 2,500-1,000 B.C. 12 bodies found in
England, and 4 in Denmark and Holland
Some of the bodies found are from the Roman period (up to 500
A.D
A few more modern bodies have been discovered (including the
remains of a WWII soldier and a Russian woman who commit
suicide), but these are usually rare

12. Early Neolithic mummies:
- Large concentration of these mummies have been found in Denmark
- Many of the remains were most likely between 16-20 years of age at
time of death
- Lots of disarticulated skeletal material possibly dismemberment
or evidence of cannibalism
- Evidence that some individuals were disabled
- Trepanation or trephination (act of drilling or scraping holes in the
human skull) visible in some remains
- Some bodies with arrows in them
- Some bodies found in pairs at a site in Bolkilde a man and a 16
year old boy were found together
- Many grave goods/funerary items were also recovered with the
bodies items such as, pottery, axes, beads, even animal remains

13. Iron age bog mummies (1st
millenium B.C.)
-Some bodies appear to have been pinned down with
sticks/branches, and weights bodies of two women in
Haradskjaer and Avningmose, Denmark were found pinned
down in this manner
-Bodies discovered with items that indicate high status amber
beads, wearing capes and clothing, etc. also, many bodies have
clean and neatly manicured fingernails, as well as smooth
fingerprints indicating that they were not involved in any type
of heavy manual labor (something to take note of since they
subsisted mainly on farming/agricultural practices)
-Bodies at Borremose (Jutland, Denmark) show evidence of
violent behavior bodies found with rope around their necks,
blunt force trauma to the skull, many broken bones

14.  Overall it appears that many of bog mummies suffered death by
unnatural causes
- evidence of murder/violent behavior stab wounds,
dismemberment, decapitation, strangulation/hanging, and slit throats
(many display more than one of these)
- evidence of drowning bodies pinned down with sticks, some
with arms extended and grasping reeds/plant material as if attempting
to pull themselves out of the bog
- possible religious practices or sacrifices/criminal
executions Many of the individuals were young, some also showed
signs disabilities, also evidence that they were not involved in manual
labor during their lifetime. some bodies buried with funerary goods
and animals , some found blindfolded, also some remains show traces
of ergot fungus (hallucinogenic fungus, what LSD is derived from),
some remains also show signs of trepanation/trephination (holes
drilled into the skull, possibly for spiritual or medical purposes

15. Discovered in central Jutland, Denmark (May 8, 1950)
Archaeologist P.V. Glob, received a call from the police saying
that there was a body found by peat cutters in Tollund Fen near
Bjaeldskov bog bodies were often found in this area so it was
common for police to call archaeologists before ruling out
homicide
Body dated ca. 200 B.C.-100 B.C.
Age at death: 40-50 years
Stature estimate: 1.61 m relatively short
One of the best preserved bog bodies
Found wearing only a leather belt, sheepskin cap, and with a
leather cord around his neck
Analysis of stomach content/last meal: cereals, weeds, oats, and
many other starches

17.  Discovered in Central Jutland, Denmark at Nebelgard Fen near Grauballe by a
group of peat cutters (April 26, 1952) In 1887, a peat cutter referred to as “Red
Christian”, had disappeared near Grauballe. At first many people thought that
the body was his
 Rabiocarbon dating from his liver shows he most likely died near the end of
the 3rd
century B.C.
 Age at death: 20 years
 Stature estimation: 5’’7’ however his body may be slightly shrunken after
centuries in the bog
 Antemortem Pathology: extremely bad teeth evidence of
malnourishment/calcium deficiencies as a child, deformed/arthritic vertebrae
 Peremortem Pathology: Throat was slit from ear to ear , severing the trachea
and esophagus, cracked skull/blunt force trauma, very high amount of ergot
in his system at time of death
 Stomach contents/last meal: cereal/soup, meat/pork, many grains/wild seeds

19. Discovered by peat cutters in Shleswig, Northern Germany in a
peat bog near Windeby (1952)
Died: 1st
century A.D.
Age at death: around 14 years old
Sex determination: because of Windeby’s slight build the
remains were believed to be female DNA analysis has recently
shown that Windeby is actually a male
Half of the Windeby’s head appears to be shaven may just be
due to decay
Found with a woolen band covering the eyes might have been
used to tie the hair back, but slipped down after burial
Body found underneath heavy logs and branches other than
that there is no evidence of a violent death

21. Discovered in the Stijfveen peat bogs near Yde,
Netherlands (May 12, 1897)
Date of death: ca. 54 B.C.- 128 A.D.
Age at death: about 16 years old
Antemortem pathology: suffered from scholiosis
Peremortem pathology: stab wound near her collar
bone, and a band around her neck possible
strangulation
She was found wearing a cape, and half of her head
was shaved as well

23.  Also referred to as “Pete Marsh” by locals
 Discovered by peat cutters in Lindow Moss near Cheshire, North West
England (August 1, 1984)
 One of the best preserved British mummies
 Date of death: ca. 1st
-2nd
century A.D.
 Age at death: mid- 20’s
 Stature estimation: 5’6’’-5’8’’(difficult because only the top half of his body is
present, so had to be determined by measurements of the humerii and
humerofemoral index)
 Antemortem pathology: teeth appear to be healthy and there is no evidence of
hard/manual labor
 Peremortem pathology: violent death/“triple killing” blunt force trauma to
the head, ligature marks on the neck/a cord wrapped around his neck,
multiple stab wounds and broken bones
 Found wearing a fox fur armband
 Last meal: cereals/grains, charred bread, and mistletoe (mistletoe was a
sacred plant to the Gauls and Druids, it can also be used as a sedative)

25. Discovered in Bourtanger Moor near Drenthe, Netherlands
(1904)
Date of deaths: ca. 160 B.C.-220 A.D.
Ages at death: One of the men was middle aged, and the other
appears to be in his late teens
Weerdinge couple?Through analysis of the innominate bones
(pelvis), it was determined that one of the bodies was male,
skeletal material in the other body had deteriorated, but due to
its small stature it was believed to be female
It was later discovered through DNA analysis that both were
male and were not related homosexuality?
Violent deaths? one of the men had a chest wound and his
entrails were “spilling” out, however, both bodies were carefully
arranged in a “loving’ embrace

27. Large concentration of the bodies that have been found
date between ca. 700 B.C.-200 A.D.  they are referred to
as “Bog People”
So who exactly were the bog people?
-Earliest known settlers to invaded NW Europe “Battle-axe
People”
-Present in the region at least 4,000 years ago
-Possibly spoke an Indo-European language (P.I.E.)
-Came from the Central Asian Steppes possibly
related/connected to the Pazyrks/Scythians, maybe even the
Tocharians/Takalamakan
-Possible ancestors of modern scandinavians said to have
been tall with fair hair and skin

28. Before the arrival of the Romans, the people of these
regions (celtic/germanic groups) could not read or write,
thus we can look to written accounts by the Romans for
more information on who these people were
These people farmed crops, raised animals, and also
hunted/fished
Most popular funerary practice at the time: cremation
The Romans referred to them as “barbarians”, and arranged
them into distinct tribes (Cimbri, Angles, and Jutes)
They are often described as fierce fighters, (fought among
themselves and the Celts) while they sometimes rode on
horseback, they were not renowned for this, they often
fought on foot

29. Celtic tribes:
-Spoke languages from a major branch of the Indo-
European family
-Evidence suggests that they interacted with the Germans,
and may have shared similar belief systems/ritual
practices
Ancient Germanic tribes:
-Also fierce fighters
-Often celebrated war victories/conquests
-Worshiped many gods, but most important was Nerthus,
the Earth Mother goddess of fertility

30. Famous Historical Accounts
Tacitus (Germania) 98 A.D.
-Described the region as being covered in “bristling forests, and foul
swamps
-People either ran naked or wore short capes, only the wealthy wore
undergarments
-Used spears and shields during battle, to leave behind a shield in
battle was a punishable offense. Warriors who did this were often
publicly shamed and then hung
-Traitors/deserters: punished by hanging
-Cowards, shirkers, and sodomites: “pressed down under a wicker
hurdle into the slimy mud of a bog”
-Unfaithful women: husbands cut of their hair, took their clothes,
and then flogged them through the village

31. Tacitus contd.:
-made note of elaborate
hairstyles of germanic tribes:
Subi only free men could
wear their hair in a Sueban
knot
-Important Suebi the
Sennones held sacred rituals:
would meet at a sacred grove
and make a human sacrifice,
each individual could only
enter the grove if bound by a
chord, if they fall they are not
to get up, and must roll out
over the ground

32. Tacitus contd.:
-Anglii/Engels: worshiped Nerthus, Mother Earth
-They believed that she sometimes roamed earth with
humans, when she decided to return to her sacred
grove, she and her chariots must be cleansed in a lake.
This riutal was to be performed by slaves who would
then be drowned in the lake
- Slaves were also drowned in lakes for fertility ceremonies
- Problems with these accounts: no reports of mass bog
graves, many of the remains appear to belong to people
of high nobility, not necessarily slaves perhaps they
were noble war prisoners?

33. Strabo (Geographica) ca. 23 A.D.
- Germanic tribe Cimbri: had priestesses who would slit
throats/disembowel war prisoners over large bronze
cauldrons and then read their blood or entrails to predict
vicotries/defeats in upcoming battles
Other references:
-Germans and Celts both revered groves/trees their
ability to die in winter/be reborn in spring, as well as
their relations to the cosmos (roots in the underworld,
trunks the mortal world, branches touching the heavens
-Also strong reverence for water/watery places: making
offerings to water spirits was common practice

34. -Celtic belief that deep water was a link to the underworld
-Also belief that lakes/bodies of water had healing powers this
belief might be a predecessor to modern day “wishing wells”
-Reverence to the sun the sun is a universal symbol of
nourishment/growth as well as rebirth, it would be especially
important to agricultural/farming societies
-During the fall/winter months in Northern Europe the sun does
not come out as long there many celtic/germanic rituals
based on the annual cycle of the sun
-The Number 3: For the Celts, three is a magic number Events
in myths occur three times, important deities are usually in
triple form, also the practice of “triple killing”

35. Besides human remains, a large number of artifacts
ranging from weaponry, pottery, carts/wagon wheels
and jewelry have been recovered from bogs possible
offerings to water gods?
Specifically, large caches of “war booty” have been
recovered (saddles, bridles, bow/arrows, swords,
sheilds, etc.)
Many of these items appear to have been deliberately
broken making them useless in the mortal world, or
possibly useless to their fallen enemies in the
underworld? Also, could the multiple wounds found
on some of the bog bodies hold the same meaning?

36. Many goblets, chalices, and cauldrons have been
recovered
Symbolism: used to hold liquids/water in a confined
space miniature ponds?
Also, cauldrons are used for cooking so they provide
“life-support”, another consideration can be seen in
Strabo’s accounts of blood letting/reading entrails in
cauldrons
Cauldrons also important to Indo-European steppe
nomads who are possibly related to Celtic/Germanic
tribes

37. Gundestrup Cauldron:
- Discovered in a Danish peat bog
- Broken into 6 pieces
- Appears to have been deposited around 100 B.C.
- Made of silver
- After piecing it back together it appears to depict
scenes that match up to historical accounts of the bog
people
- Images include: human sacrifice, warriors, tree of life,
and dogs (Celtic symbol of death), goddesses, mythical
creatures, etc.

40. Sun: many people have been buried with discs/solar
wheels  possibly to give them light/guidance in the
afterlife?
Dogs: symbol of death a man’s body was recovered
with two dogs, his legs and stomach were badly
bitten/torn indicating that they were put into the bog
while still alive (dogs also seen on the Gundestrup
Cauldron)
Clothing: most bog bodies are found naked but a few
are wearing cloaks/undergarments matches up with
Roman accounts of these “barbarians”

41. Slit throats: match up with accounts of blood letting
possible war prisoners
Shaved heads: match description of punishments for
adultery hanging/placing bodies in bogs also match
up to punishments for various crimes
“Triple killings”: some bog bodies appear to have three
types of injuries
-Possibly to give sacrificial offering to different sets of gods
-Drowing/placing bodies in bogs to appease water
gods/underworld
-Stabbing/strangling to appease the earth gods
-Hanging to appease the sky gods

42. Tacitus’ accounts of Suebian rituals match up with
chords/ropes found around the necks of individuals,
as well as broken bones (when individuals fell they
were not allowed to get up)
Entire wagons/carts have been recovered matches
Tacitus’ accounts of rituals where the goddess
Nerthus returns to the underworld
Last Meals: stomach contents with a large array of
herbs, seeds, and oats indicate death during winter
possible ritual to insure a good agricultural season

43. A few more things to consider:
- Traces of ergot/sedatives & hallucinogens found in
stomachs of bog bodies common with religious
sacrifices in many cultures
- Some “disabled” individuals in many cultures the
disabled are viewed as “special/mystical”
- Many remains do not show evidence of hard labor
throughout life possible nobiliy

44. Did these people know about the natural embalming
properties of the bogs/is this a form of intentional
mummification?
-lived near bogs for over a 1,000 year period, possibility
that animals/ppl who accidentally fell in and were later
found is high
-used peat as fuel source they probably found remains
of animals while cutting peat
-such an “auspicious” occurrence would most likely been
taken note of we can assume that ppl placed in bogs
had some sort of special status

45. - There are accounts that the Celts believed in cycles of
rebirth after death, but many other cultures that
mummify remains believe in a long afterlife possibly
placing bodies in the bog (underworld), and then
preserving them forever would trap them in the
underworld
In the case of sacrifice, did these people volunteer
themselves for the good of the community or were
they war prisoners?
- In many societies human sacrifice= balance
- Especially among agricultural societies “the loss of
one for the welfare of all” volunteers would prob.
receive special status

46. -Warfare: in times of famine people will almost always
raid others to gain materials/supplies, possibility that
these bodies are war captives is also considerable
-It is mentioned that they were fierce warriors/unafraid of
death, perhaps giving one’s life in sacrifice would be
considered noble
If cremation was a popular funerary custom during
the Iron Age, why place a body in the bog?
-If these bodies were meant to be sacrificial offerings to
the gods, ashes would be useless
-If these were criminals, they might not deserve proper
burial/funerary rights

47. These people subsisted agriculturally obvious that
great value was placed on crops/ensuring a plentiful
harvest
Natural forces (seasonal rythms/weather, plant cycles
annual life/death/rebirth) probably played a major
role in shaping the beliefs and understandings of
human life for these people
Victory in war/battle was also of major importance in
the lives of these people it should therefore be
considered when analyzing the cultural,
archaeological, and physical remains of these people

48. Like many mummies found around the world, bog
mummies have become symbols of national pride and
identity among many of the people of north western
europe
Many modern artisits have constructed sculptures,
sketches, and artistic photographs of the mummies
Also, there are many famous danish poets and
authors who have written about the mummies