BOE_M1_Carbohydrates.pptx

BIOMOLECULES &
THEIR APPLICATIONS
MODULE - 1

WHAT IS A BIOMOLECULE?
Biomolecule, Also Called
Biological Molecule,
Any Of Numerous Substances
That Are Produced By
Cells & Living Organisms.

CARBOHYDRATES
A Carbohydrate Is A Biomolecule Consisting Of
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) & Oxygen (O)
Atoms, With The Empirical Formula Cm(H2O)n
(Where ‘m’May Or May Not Be Different From ‘n’)

CARBOHYDRATES
The Term Is Most Common In Biochemistry,
Where It Is A Synonym Of Saccharide; Derived
From Ancient Greek Word Sákkharon ‘Sugar’,
A Group That Includes Sugars, Starch, &
Cellulose.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates Are Classified According To
Their Degree Of Polymerization, & May
Be Divided Initially Into
3 Principal Groups

CARBOHYDRATES: CLASSIFICATION
SUGARS
(1–2)
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
(3–9)
POLYSACCHARIDES
(>9)
MONOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARIDES
POLYOLS
MALTO-OLIGOSACCHARIDES
OTHER OLIGOSACCHARIDES
STARCH
NON-STARCH
POLYSACCHARIDES
GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE,
FRUCTOSE, XYLOSE
SUCROSE, LACTOSE, MALTOSE,
ISO-MALTULOSE, TRE-HALOSE
SORBITOL, MANNITOL
MALTODEXTRINS
RAFFINOSE, STACHYOSE,
FRUCTO-OLIGOSACCHARIDES
AMYLOSE, AMYLO-PECTIN,
MODIFIED STARCHES
GLYCOGEN, CELLULOSE,
HEMI-CELLULOSE, PECTINS,
HYDRO-COLLOIDS
DEGREE OF
POLYMERIZATION
SUBGROUP COMPONENTS

CARBOHYDRATES: ROLES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
 Energy Store: Starch & Glycogen.
 Structural Components: Cellulose In Plants & Chitin In
Arthropods.
 Component Of Coenzymes (5-Carbon Monosaccharide
Ribose): Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), Flavin Adenine
Dinucleotide (FAD) & Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide (NAD) For Catalysing The Biochemical
Reactions.

CARBOHYDRATES: ROLES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
 The Backbone Of The Genetic Molecule Known As Ribo-Nucleic
Acid (RNA) For Transmitting The Genetic Codes.
 The Related Deoxyribose Is A Component Of Deoxyribo-Nucleic
Acid (DNA) For Storing The Genetic Codes.
 Saccharides & Their Derivatives Include Many Other Important
Biomolecules That Play Key Roles In:
 Immune System.
 Fertilization.
 Preventing Pathogenesis.
 Blood Clotting & Development.

CARBOHYDRATES: NUTRITION & OCCURRENCE
 Sugars Appear In Human Diet Mainly As:
 Table Sugar (Sucrose): Extracted From
Sugarcane Or Sugar Beets.
 Lactose: Abundant In Milk.
 Glucose & Fructose: Both Of Which Occur
Naturally In Honey, Many Fruits, Some
Vegetables.

 Starch Is A Polysaccharide (Complex
Carbohydrate) & Is Abundant In:
 Cereals: Wheat, Maize, Rice.
 Potatoes.
 Cereal Flour: Bread, Pizza, Pasta.

 Cellulose, A Polysaccharide (Complex
Carbohydrate) Consisting Of 3,000 Or More
Glucose Units Found In:
 Cell Walls Of All Plants.
 Insoluble Dietary Fibre: Generally Help
Maintain A Healthy Digestive System By
Facilitating Bowel Movements.

BIOMOLECULE – CELLULOSE: ADVANTAGES
 It Is Extremely Abundant.
 Easily Renewable.
 Biodegradable.
 Difficult To Dissolve With Common Organic
Solvents.

 The Interest In The Use Of Biobased Filters For
Water Purification Has Increased In Recent Years,
As Such Filters Have The Potential To Be:
 Affordable.
 Lightweight.
 Biodegradable.
CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTERS

 Research Has Been Focused On Creating
Sustainable Biobased Nanomaterial Membranes
For Micro Filtration (MF), Ultra Filtration (UF) &
Nano Filtration (NF) From Cellulose
Nanomaterials (CNs):
 Cellulose Nano-Crystals (CNCs).
 Cellulose Nano-Fibrils (CNFs).
 Bacterial Nano-Cellulose (BNC).

CELLULOSE: TYPES OF NANOCELLULOSE

CELLULOSE: STRUCTURE OF NANOCELLULOSE

 5 STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT:
 COAGULATION: The Action Or Process Of A
Liquid Changing To A Solid Or Semi-Solid State.
 FLOCCULATION: Bonding Between Particles,
Creating Larger Aggregates Which Are Easier To
Separate.
 SEDIMENTATION: The Process Of Settling Or
Being Deposited As A Sediment.

 5 STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT:
 FILTRATION: Physical Separation Process That
Separates Solid Matter & Fluid From A Mixture Using
A Filter Medium That Has A Complex Structure
Through Which Only The Fluid Can Pass.
 DISINFECTION: The Process To Inactivate Or
Destroy Microorganisms, Especially With A Chemical,
In Order To Destroy Bacteria.

 Cellulose Filter Papers Are Versatile & Diverse
Tools For Microfiltration, That Work By Trapping
Particulates Within A Random Matrix Of
Cellulose Fibers.

 Filters Based On Cellulose Pulp Fibers Do Usually Have
Large Pores That Facilitate Water Percolation, But They
Do Not Sufficiently Remove Bacteria Through Size
Exclusion; Therefore Other Techniques Are Needed To
Achieve A Bacteria Reducing Effect.
 By Incorporating Antibacterial Metal Nanoparticles;
Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) & Copper Nanoparticles
(CuNPs) Are Known To Have Good Antibacterial
Effects.

Bioplastic Is A Biodegradable Material
That Come From Renewable Sources &
Can Be Used To Reduce The Problem Of
Plastic Waste That Is Suffocating The
Planet & Polluting The Environment.
BIOPLASTICS

BIOPLASTICS: ADVANTAGES
 Can Be Generated From Renewable Biomass Sources, Such
As Vegetable Fats & Oils, Corn Starch, Straw, Woodchips,
Sawdust, Recycled Food Waste, Etc.
 By Processing Directly From Natural Biopolymers Including
Polysaccharides (e.g., Starch, Cellulose, Chitosan, &
Alginate) & Proteins (e.g., Soy Protein, Gluten, & Gelatin).
 Chemically Synthesised From Sugar Derivatives (e.g., Lactic
Acid) & Lipids (Oils & Fats) From Either Plants Or Animals,
Or Biologically Generated By Fermentation Of Sugars Or
Lipids.

 Bioplastics Are Said To Be Biodegradable If They Are Broken
Down With The Effect Of The
& Which In Turn Use Them As A Food
Source.
 The Bioplastics Are Considered Compostable If Within 180
Days, A Complete Microbial Assimilation Of The Fragmented
Food Source Takes Place In A Compost Environment.

 Few Commercial Applications Exist For Bioplastics.
 Bioplastics Are Used For Disposable Items, Such As
Packaging, Crockery, Cutlery, Pots, Bowls, &
Straws.
 Cost & Performance Remain Problematic.

BIOPLASTICS: TYPES
Polysaccharide Based Bioplastics.
 Starch Based Plastics.
 Cellulose Based Plastics.
 Other Polysaccharide Based Plastics.
Protein Based Plastics.
Some Aliphatic Polyesters.
 Poly-Lactic-Acid (PLA)
 Poly-3-Hydroxy-Butyrate (PHB)
 Poly-Hydroxy-Alkanoates (PHA)

BIOPLASTICS: STARCH BASED PLASTICS
 Starch Is Cheap, Abundant, & Renewable.
 Thermoplastic Starch Represents The Most Widely Used
Bioplastic, Constituting About 50 Percent Of The Bioplastics
Market.
 Pure Starch Is Able To Absorb Humidity, & Is Thus A Suitable
Material For The Production Of By The
Pharmaceutical Sector.
 Starch Based Films Mostly Used For Packaging Purposes.
 These Films Are Seen Specifically In Consumer Goods
Packaging Of Magazine Wrappings & Bubble Films.
 In Food Packaging, These Films Are Seen As Bakery Or Fruit
& Vegetable Bags.

BIOPLASTICS: CELLULOSE BASED PLASTICS
Cellulose Bioplastics Are Mainly The Cellulose
Esters Including Cellulose Acetate & Nitro-
Cellulose & Their Derivatives, Including Celluloid.
Cellulose Can Become Thermoplastic When
Extensively Modified.
An Example Of This Is Cellulose Acetate, Which Is
Expensive & Therefore Rarely Used For Packaging.

BIOPLASTICS: OTHER POLYSACCHARIDE BASED
 Other Polysaccharides Such As Chitosan & Alginate Can Also Be
Processed Into Plastic Forms.
 Chitosan Is A Studied Biopolymer That Can Be Used As
Packaging Alternative That Increases Shelf Life & Reduces Use
Of Synthetic Plastics.
 Chitosan Is Compiled Of Antimicrobial Activities & Film
Forming Properties Which Make It Biodegradable & Deter
Growth Of Spoilage.
 In Comparison To Degrading Synthetic Plastics, Which May Take
Years, Biopolymers Such As Chitosan Can Degrade In Weeks.

BIOPLASTICS: PROTEIN BASED PLASTICS
 Bioplastics Can Be Made From Proteins From Different Sources.
 Wheat Gluten & Casein Show Promising Properties As A Raw
Material For Different Biodegradable Polymers.
 Soy Protein Is Being Considered As Another Source Of
Bioplastics.
 Soy Proteins Have Been Used In Plastic Production For Over One
Hundred Years (Body Panels Of An Original
Were Made Of Soy Based Plastic).
 There Are Difficulties With Using Soy Protein Based Plastics Due
To Their Water Sensitivity & Relatively High Cost.

Poly-Lactic-Acid (PLA) Is A Transparent Plastic
Produced From Maize Or Dextrose.
Superficially, It Is Similar To Conventional Petrochemical
Based Mass Plastics Like Poly-Styrene (PS).
Its Advantages Are That It Is Derived From Plants, & It
Biodegrades Readily.
Unfortunately, It Exhibits Inferior Impact Strength,
Thermal Robustness, & Barrier Properties (Blocking Air
Transport Across The Membrane).
BIOPLASTICS: ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS PLASTICS

PLA & PLA Blends Generally Come In The Form
Of Granulates.
PLA Is Used On A Limited Scale For The Production
Of Films, Fibers, Plastic Containers, Cups, &
Bottles.
PLA Is Also The Most Common Type Of Plastic
Filament Used For Home Fused Deposition
Modeling or Fused Filament Fabrication (3D
Printing).

Biopolymer Poly-3-Hydroxy-Butyrate (PHB) Is A
Polyester Produced By Certain Bacteria Processing
Glucose, Corn Starch Or Wastewater.
Its Characteristics Are Similar To Those Of The
Petroplastic Polypropylene.
PHB Is Distinguished Primarily By Its Physical
Characteristics.
It Can Be Processed Into A With A
Melting Point Higher Than 130 Degrees Celsius, & Is
.

Poly-Hydroxy-Alkanoates (PHA) Are Linear
Polyesters Produced In Nature By Bacterial
Fermentation Of Sugar Or Lipids.
They Are Produced By The Bacteria To Store
Carbon & Energy.
In Industrial Production, The Polyester Is Extracted
& Purified From The Bacteria By Optimizing The
Conditions For The Fermentation Of Sugar.

More Than 150 Different Monomers Can Be
Combined Within This Family To Give Materials
With Extremely Different Properties.
PHA Is More Ductile & Less Elastic Than Other
Plastics, & It Is Also Biodegradable.
These Plastics Are Being Widely Used In The
Applications Such As Sutures,
Slings, Bone Plates & Skin Substitutes; It Is Also
Used For Single Use Food Packaging.

BOE_M1_Carbohydrates.pptx

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