Blood supply (anatomy)
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The document discusses the blood supply to different parts of the body including the brain, upper extremities, and branches of the abdominal portion of the aorta. It likely provides details on the arteries that carry oxygenated blood to these key areas.
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lecture 9 dr.fawizy 4/3/2013
The document discusses the electrical activity and cardiac output of the heart. It explains that the sinoatrial node acts as the natural pacemaker by producing pacemaker potentials that stimulate action potentials throughout the heart via gap junctions. Cardiac output is defined as the volume of blood pumped per minute, which is the product of heart rate and stroke volume. The document lists several factors that regulate cardiac output, including neural influences on heart rate, venous return, contractility, total peripheral resistance, end diastolic volume, and blood pressure in the arterioles.
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lecture 9 dr.fawizy 4/3/2013
The document discusses the electrical activity and cardiac output of the heart. It explains that the sinoatrial node acts as the natural pacemaker by producing pacemaker potentials that stimulate action potentials throughout the heart via gap junctions. Cardiac output is defined as the volume of blood pumped per minute, which is the product of heart rate and stroke volume. The document lists several factors that regulate cardiac output, including neural influences on heart rate, venous return, contractility, total peripheral resistance, end diastolic volume, and blood pressure in the arterioles.
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Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds. Peptides are short chains of amino acids, while proteins can be made of long chains of amino acids folded into shapes. Proteins can be classified based on their size and shape as globular or fibrous proteins, or based on their functions such as structural, regulatory, catalytic, transport, genetic, storage and defense proteins. Some peptides act as toxins or have important roles as hormones, antibiotics, or in oxidation reduction systems.
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The document discusses the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the peptide chain. The secondary structure involves hydrogen bonding that causes the chain to fold into structures like alpha helices or beta sheets. Tertiary structure describes further folding and interactions that result in the protein's three-dimensional shape. Quaternary structure refers to multiple peptide chains linked together in a protein.
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This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It begins by defining lipids and listing their main functions in the body. It then classifies lipids as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. The document further describes the chemistry and classification of fatty acids, including saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also discusses the nomenclature and isomerism of fatty acids. The key reactions of triacylglycerols are described.
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3. The urea cycle serves two major biological roles - detoxification of ammonia into urea and biosynthesis of the amino acid arginine from ornithine in tissues like liver, kidney, and intestine.
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1) Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to break them down into acetyl-CoA units, releasing energy.
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Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the blood by endocrine glands and have profound effects on metabolic processes and cellular communication. They can be classified based on their chemical composition, location of receptors, or solubility. The major classes of hormones include steroids such as sex and adrenal hormones, peptides/proteins such as insulin and growth hormone, and amines such as epinephrine. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and include estrogens, androgens, progesterone, corticosteroids, and aldosterone. Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin which are secreted by the pancreas, as well as hormones from the pituitary, parathyroid,
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Urea cycle
1. The urea cycle is a series of enzymatic reactions that occurs primarily in the liver to convert toxic ammonia produced from amino acid catabolism into urea for excretion.
2. The cycle involves five principal reactions: carbamoyl phosphate synthesis, citrulline synthesis, argininosuccinate synthesis, argininosuccinate cleavage, and arginine cleavage into ornithine and urea.
3. The urea cycle serves two major biological roles - detoxification of ammonia into urea and biosynthesis of the amino acid arginine from ornithine in tissues like liver, kidney, and intestine.
Lipid catabolism (fatty acid oxidation)
1) Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to break them down into acetyl-CoA units, releasing energy.
2) Beta-oxidation involves a four-step cycle that removes two-carbon acetyl-CoA units from the fatty acid.
3) The complete breakdown of a fatty acid like stearic acid yields 9 acetyl-CoA molecules which enter the citric acid cycle, producing a total of 146 ATP molecules through electron transport chain reactions.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Glycogen metabolism
This document discusses glycogen metabolism. It notes that glycogen is a readily available form of glucose storage found primarily in the liver and muscles. Glycogen synthesis, or glycogenesis, occurs in the fed state in these tissues and involves three steps - isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate, activation of glucose-1-phosphate to UDP-glucose, and linkage of UDP-glucose to a glycogen chain catalyzed by glycogen synthase. Glycogen branching is accomplished by the enzyme amylo-(1,4-1,6)-trans-glycosylase which transfers glycogen segments to form branches. The synthesis and breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate materials to maintain blood glucose levels during periods without food intake. It takes place primarily in the liver and involves bypasses of three irreversible steps in glycolysis. Precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids are converted to pyruvate and then glucose. The pathway requires energy in the form of 6 ATP molecules to synthesize one glucose molecule from two pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis is important for supplying glucose to tissues like the brain and helps maintain normal blood sugar through processes like the Cori cycle.
Citric acid cycle (2)
The citric acid cycle is the principal process for generating reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2, which are necessary for ATP synthesis. It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and involves eight steps catalyzed by different enzymes. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and the reduced coenzymes that fuel ATP production. Regulation occurs at three steps to precisely adjust the cycle's rate according to cellular energy needs. Overall, 12 ATP molecules are generated for each acetyl-CoA molecule that completes the citric acid cycle.
Cholesterol biosynthesis
This document provides an overview of cholesterol biosynthesis, which occurs in most cells but primarily in the liver and intestine. There are 5 stages: 1) acetyl-CoA is converted to mevalonate, 2) mevalonate is converted to activated isoprene units, 3) six isoprene units condense to form squalene, 4) squalene is cyclized to lanosterol, and 5) lanosterol is converted to cholesterol over 20 steps. HMG-CoA reductase, which converts HMG-CoA to mevalonate, is the rate-limiting step and is regulated by feedback from cholesterol and bile acids as well as hormones like insulin, glucagon
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This document provides information on carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and explains their four main functions in living organisms. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document focuses on monosaccharides, describing their structures, classifications, stereochemistry including D and L isomers, anomers, mutarotation, and important naturally occurring monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose. It also outlines important reactions of monosaccharides such as oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation, and phosphate ester formation.
Carb lec 2 & 3 slides
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate biochemistry. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them based on molecular size into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are further classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. The document discusses carbohydrate stereochemistry, including D and L isomers, enantiomers, and diastereomers. It also covers optical activity and how carbohydrate enantiomers can rotate plane-polarized light. Epimers are described as diastereomers that differ at only one chiral carbon.
Transcription translation
This document summarizes the processes of transcription and translation. It explains that during transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a gene from DNA. The mRNA then moves to the ribosomes in the rough ER for translation. During translation, ribosomes and tRNA molecules work together to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA's codon sequence. The process continues until a stop codon is reached, and the polypeptide chain is released. Mutations can occur during these processes, potentially resulting in non-functional or disease-causing proteins. Examples of different mutation types and their effects are provided.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules made of nucleotides that contain three components: a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and has a double helix structure, while RNA contains the sugar ribose and is single-stranded. Both are composed of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds and function to carry genetic information for protein synthesis. Their primary differences are that DNA contains the base thymine while RNA contains uracil, and RNA is found in the cytoplasm while DNA remains in the nucleus.
Tissues
Tissues are aggregations of cells that perform specific functions. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. Epithelial tissues cover surfaces, line cavities, and form glands. There are two categories of epithelial tissue: membranous and glandular. Membranous epithelial tissues are classified based on cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and cell layer arrangement (simple, stratified, pseudostratified, transitional). Glandular epithelial tissues are specialized secretory tissues that form exocrine and endocrine glands. Exocrine glands are further classified based on their duct system and secretory structures.
Urinary system
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood in the form of urine, which travels through the ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, when it is expelled through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which filter the blood and reabsorb necessary substances, producing urine that is collected and excreted.
Tissues (1)
Tissues are aggregations of cells that perform specific functions. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. Epithelial tissues cover surfaces, line cavities, and form glands. There are two categories of epithelial tissue: membranous and glandular. Membranous epithelial tissues are classified based on cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and cell layer arrangement (simple, stratified, pseudostratified, transitional). Glandular epithelial tissues are specialized secretory tissues that form exocrine and endocrine glands. Exocrine glands are further classified based on their duct system and secretory structures.
Planes of refrences
Transverse planes divide the body horizontally into superior and inferior portions. Frontal planes pass lengthwise and divide the body into anterior and posterior portions. A mid sagittal plane extends vertically through the body and divides it lengthwise into equal right and left halves.
The meninges
The three meninges that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the outermost layer and is a thick, fibrous membrane that divides the cranial cavity into compartments. It contains venous sinuses that drain blood from the brain. The arachnoid mater is the intermediate layer separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The pia mater is the innermost layer that is closely applied to the surface of the brain.
Skin
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and glands. The skin is the largest organ of the body and has three main layers - the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis is made up of stratified squamous epithelium in multiple layers that acts as a protective barrier. Below this is the dermis, which contains hair follicles, sweat and oil glands, nerves, and supplies the epidermis with nutrients. The deepest layer, the hypodermis, connects the skin to underlying tissue. Together these layers allow the skin to regulate temperature, protect the body, and sense the environment.
The liver as an organ
The liver performs many vital functions: (1) It filters blood from the digestive system and removes toxins. (2) It regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism, storing glucose and producing cholesterol. (3) It synthesizes proteins and aids in protein metabolism, forming urea to remove ammonia from the body. The liver's high blood flow and unique lobule structure enable these diverse metabolic roles.
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Some ideas take a year to make, some take 8 years. I want to share two projects that best illustrate this and why it is never good to stop at “no”.
Information and Communication Technology in Education
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 2)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐂𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Students will be able to explain the role and impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. They will understand how ICT tools, such as computers, the internet, and educational software, enhance learning and teaching processes. By exploring various ICT applications, students will recognize how these technologies facilitate access to information, improve communication, support collaboration, and enable personalized learning experiences.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭:
-Students will be able to discuss what constitutes reliable sources on the internet. They will learn to identify key characteristics of trustworthy information, such as credibility, accuracy, and authority. By examining different types of online sources, students will develop skills to evaluate the reliability of websites and content, ensuring they can distinguish between reputable information and misinformation.
Creation or Update of a Mandatory Field is Not Set in Odoo 17
In this slide we will discuss Creation or Updation of a mandatory field is not set in Odoo 17.
220711130082 Srabanti Bag Internet Resources For Natural Science
Internet resources for natural science
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https://app.box.com/s/nrwz52lilmrw6m5kqeqn83q6vbdp8yzpRecently uploaded (20)
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220711130083 SUBHASHREE RAKSHIT Internet resources for social science
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Creative Restart 2024: Mike Martin - Finding a way around “no”
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Information and Communication Technology in Education
Information and Communication Technology in Education
Creation or Update of a Mandatory Field is Not Set in Odoo 17
Creation or Update of a Mandatory Field is Not Set in Odoo 17
220711130082 Srabanti Bag Internet Resources For Natural Science
220711130082 Srabanti Bag Internet Resources For Natural Science
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Blood supply (anatomy)
- 1. BLOOD SUPPLY TO BRAIN
- 3. BLOOD SUPPLY TO UPPER EXTREMETIES
- 4. BRANCHES OF ABDOMINAL PORTION OF AORTA