Biochemsitry course by dr khayati santram.pdf
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Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms. It is an important subject for medical students, as a basic understanding of biochemistry is essential for understanding the functioning of the body and diagnosing and treating diseases. In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of biochemistry: 1. Structure and function of biomolecules: This includes the study of the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. 2. Enzymes and metabolic pathways: This involves the study of enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, and metabolic pathways, which are series of reactions that occur within cells to produce energy or build cellular components. 3. Carbohydrate metabolism: This involves the study of the breakdown and utilization of carbohydrates, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle. 4. Lipid metabolism: This involves the study of the breakdown and utilization of lipids, including fatty acid oxidation and the synthesis of lipoproteins. 5. Protein metabolism: This involves the study of the synthesis and degradation of proteins, including the process of transcription and translation. 6. Nucleic acid metabolism: This involves the study of the synthesis and degradation of nucleic acids, including DNA replication and RNA transcription. 7. Vitamin and mineral metabolism: This involves the study of the role of vitamins and minerals in the body, including how they are absorbed, transported, and utilized. 8. Hormonal regulation: This involves the study of hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate various functions in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproductive function. 9. Genetic information: This involves the study of genetics, including the structure and function of DNA, gene expression, and the regulation of gene expression. In the first year of medical school, students also learn about the basic biochemical techniques and methodologies used in medical research and diagnostics, such as spectrophotometry, chromatography, and molecular biology techniques. It is important for medical students to have a solid understanding of biochemistry, as it provides a foundation for understanding how the body works at the cellular and molecular level, and how diseases and injuries can affect these processes. Biochemistry also plays a crucial role in drug discovery and development, as drugs can target specific biochemical processes to treat or prevent diseases. In conclusion, biochemistry is an essential subject for medical students, as it provides a fundamental understanding of the chemical processes that occur within the body. A solid understanding of biochemistry is essential for understanding how the body works and for diagnosing and treating diseases.
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According to the data released by the NSO for the Financial Year 2021-22 on 31st May, 2022, the real GDP grew at the rate of 8.7 per cent. Thus, the growth rate of real GDP for India was higher than most of the other big economies. This is a clear indication that the Indian Economy is now on the path to recovery. But, challenges still remain in its way. The retail inflation is almost 8 per cent. The number of poor people is very high, the unemployment rate is at an alarming level, and a big part of the population is still grappling with malnutrition and undernutrition. According to the 'Report on Currency and Finance' published by the Reserve Bank of India on 28th April 2022, it will take another 10 years or more for the Indian Economy to recover fully from the adverse effects of COVID-19. All these issues have been adequately discussed in this 40th revised and updated edition of the book.
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Biochemistry is a scientific discipline that explores the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. It is an intersectional field that merges biology and chemistry, focusing on the molecular mechanisms that underlie various biological functions. This study is pivotal in understanding the complexities of life at a molecular level, including the roles of different molecules in cells, tissues, and organs.
Historical Background
The roots of biochemistry can be traced back to the early 19th century when scientists began to explore the chemical nature of biological molecules. One of the earliest milestones was the discovery of enzymes and their catalytic roles in biological processes. In 1833, the enzyme diastase was discovered by Anselme Payen, marking the first time a specific enzyme was identified and isolated. This discovery laid the groundwork for the understanding of metabolic pathways and the concept that biological reactions could be explained through chemistry.
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Biochemistry involves the study of a wide range of molecules, but some of the most critical include proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates.
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Nucleic Acids: These molecules, including DNA and RNA, are responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information. DNA's double helix structure, discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, is iconic in the field of biochemistry. RNA, on the other hand, plays crucial roles in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
Lipids: Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that form the basis of cellular membranes. They include fats, oils, and phospholipids. Phospholipids, in particular, are essential components of the lipid bilayer that makes up cell membranes, providing structural integrity and mediating cellular signaling.
Carbohydrates: These molecules serve as energy sources and structural components. Simple sugars like glucose are key energy sources, while complex carbohydrates like cellulose and chitin provide structural support in plants and arthropods, respectively.
Metabolic Pathways
Metabolism comprises all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism to maintain life. These reactions are categorized into catabolic pathways, which break down molecules to release energy, and anabolic pathways, which construct molecules from smaller units and consume.
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Part I of the book 'Economic Development: A Theoretical Background' is divided into three chapters. It discusses the concepts of economic growth and development, common characteristics of underdeveloped countries, the role of economic and non-economic factors in economic development, the concept of human development, human development index, gender inequality index, multidimensional poverty index, etc., and issues concerning the relationship between environment and development.
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Lipids: Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that form the basis of cellular membranes. They include fats, oils, and phospholipids. Phospholipids, in particular, are essential components of the lipid bilayer that makes up cell membranes, providing structural integrity and mediating cellular signaling.
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15Does Protein Affect th.docx
1
5
Does Protein Affect the Metabolic Rate of ZebraFish
Statement of the Problem
Dietary ingredients, and nutrients as well as anti-nutritional remain important factors that affect its growth and development. However, there lacks proper nutritional control due to the absence of standardized reference diet (Boyle et al. 5354). Moreover, numerous epidemiological studies undertaken indicate that several prenatal are important in the growth and development of Zebrafish (Daniorerio)(Acheson et al. 456) As a way of providing a standardized dietary framework, a need emerges for the provision of specific dietary and nutritional standard aimed at improving the growth and development of Zebra fish. Thus, the necessity to investigate the growth and metabolic rate of Zebrafish (Daniorerio) when fed with different commercial diets.
BACKGROUND
The consumption of proteins in a diet could have significant effects on the body metabolism. The high calories contents of proteins commonly require more calories for breakdown that carbohydrates and this could have significant effects of various metabolic aspects. The amount nature of proteins makes them significantly different from other dietary constitutes that people consume routinely. In general, proteins cause an increase in the metabolic rate of organisms because of a variety of reasons Like for instance, Weight maintenance is actually a simple matter of the energy balance and also energy balance is attained when "energy in" is corresponding to "energy out
Thermic affects accounts for the numerous ways in which proteins increase the metabolic rate of the body. Due to the strong bond making the protein molecules, a lot of energy is required to break down the high protein that has been consumed. The thermic effect of proteins means that about 30% of the calories in proteins are burned in the process of digesting proteins(Acheson et al. 528). The heat generated in the process increases the general body heat output hence influencing metabolism.
The consumption of protein in diet has been established as a factor that increases the metabolic rate in human beings (Howard et al. 117).This is mainly because proteins require a lot of energy to be broken down and the body must provide such energy, hence it increase the metabolic rate. The process of protein synthesis in the body causes the amino acid structures of the proteins consumed to begin the process of building body muscles. The construction of these tissues in the body is a process that consumes high amounts of energy hence the body requires increased energy to undertaken the process. As a result on the increased energy requirements, high metabolic rate occurs in order to maintain the required amount of energy necessary to sustain the activities of breaking down amino acids to form muscle tissues.
Within marine environments, hypoxia episodes remain prevalent due to a variety of reasons. The presence of oxygen within the marine environmen ...
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LEFT OVER PROTEIN IN THE BODY OF AN INDIVIDUAL
Leftover proteins, also known as protein remnants or protein degradation products, refer to the fragments or remnants remaining after the degradation of proteins during various cellular processes. These leftover proteins typically consist of partially hydrolyzed peptides and individual amino acids generated through proteolytic cleavage
Food Chemistry.pdf
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Eben Horsford of Lowell, Massachusetts, translated and published some of Liebig's studies on the chemistry of food in 1848.
The Society of Public Analysts was established in 1874 with the intention of using analytical techniques for the general public's benefit. It was also motivated by worries about the quality of the food supply, particularly difficulties with food adulteration and contamination, which by the 1950s had progressed beyond purposeful contamination to include chemical food additives. Food chemistry would emerge with the growth of schools and institutions across the world, most notably in the United States, along with dietary ingredient research, most notably the Single-grain experiment from 1907 to 1911. The United States Food and Drug Administration was established in 1906 as a result of more study conducted by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of Agriculture in the late 19th century. The Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society was founded in 1908, and the Institute of Food Technologists was founded in 1909.
Food physical chemistry serves as a foundation for food chemistry because it frequently draws from rheology, theories of transport phenomena, physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction forces, quantum mechanics, reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal interactions, nucleation, glass transitions, and freezing/disordered or noncrystalline solids
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Learn about ectoderm derivatives, their role in embryonic development, and their various functions in the human body. Discover the different disorders associated with ectodermal dysplasia and their impact on health.
The ectoderm is one of the three germ layers that forms during embryonic development. It gives rise to a variety of structures, including the skin, hair, nails, and nervous system. In this blog post, we will explore the different ectoderm derivatives, their development, functions, and disorders.
What are Ectoderm Derivatives?
Ectoderm derivatives are the structures that develop from the ectoderm layer during embryonic development. These structures can be broadly classified into two categories: surface ectoderm derivatives and neural crest derivatives.
Surface ectoderm derivatives include the epidermis, hair, nails, and glands of the skin. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and provides a protective barrier against the external environment. Hair and nails are also derived from the surface ectoderm and serve various functions, such as insulation, protection, and sensory perception.
Neural crest derivatives, on the other hand, give rise to a variety of structures throughout the body. These include the peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, craniofacial cartilage and bone, and pigment cells. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia that extend from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. The adrenal medulla is a part of the adrenal gland that produces hormones such as adrenaline. Craniofacial cartilage and bone form the structure of the face and skull, while pigment cells are responsible for skin and hair color.
Development of Ectoderm Derivatives
During embryonic development, the ectoderm layer undergoes a series of complex processes to give rise to the various ectoderm derivatives. The surface ectoderm is formed early on in embryonic development and begins to differentiate into the different structures that make up the skin and its appendages.
The neural crest, on the other hand, forms later in embryonic development and migrates throughout the body to give rise to various structures. The neural crest cells are highly multipotent, meaning they can differentiate into a variety of cell types depending on their location in the body.
Functions of Ectoderm Derivatives
Ectoderm derivatives play various roles in the human body. The skin, for example, serves as a protective barrier against the external environment and helps regulate body temperature. Hair and nails serve various functions, such as insulation, protection, and sensory perception.
The nervous system, which is derived from the neural crest, is responsible for transmitting s
Endoderm Anatomy.pdf
Endoderm anatomy The endoderm is one of the three germ layers formed during embryonic development. It is the innermost layer that gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, and various other organs. In this blog, we will explore the development of endoderm, its derivatives, and its clinical significance.
Development of Endoderm:
During gastrulation, the cells in the blastula rearrange to form three germ layers – endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. The endoderm is formed from the cells that migrate through the primitive streak and displace the hypoblast cells. These cells then form a layer that lines the embryonic yolk sac and the archenteron.
As the embryo develops, the endoderm folds inward to form the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut gives rise to the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, and the upper respiratory tract. The midgut forms the small intestine, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and transverse colon. The hindgut forms the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and the anal canal.
Derivatives of Endoderm:
The endoderm gives rise to a variety of organs and tissues, including:
Digestive System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the entire digestive tract, including the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and the anal canal. It also gives rise to the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Respiratory System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract, including the trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Endocrine System: The endoderm gives rise to the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and the thymus gland.
Urinary and Reproductive System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the urinary bladder and the urethra. In females, it forms the epithelial lining of the vagina and the cervix. In males, it contributes to the epithelial lining of the prostate gland.
Clinical Significance:
Endodermal Sinus Tumor: Endodermal sinus tumor, also known as yolk sac tumor, is a rare type of tumor that usually occurs in the ovaries or testes. It arises from the remnants of the yolk sac, which is a structure that forms during embryonic development and gives rise to the endoderm.
Anomalies of the Digestive System: Malformations of the digestive system can occur due to abnormalities in the development of the endoderm. For example, esophageal atresia is a condition where the esophagus does not develop properly, and there is a gap between the upper and lower parts of the esophagus.
Endocrine Disorders: The endocrine glands that arise from the endoderm can be affected by various disorders. For example, hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone.
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Dietary ingredients, and nutrients as well as anti-nutritional remain important factors that affect its growth and development. However, there lacks proper nutritional control due to the absence of standardized reference diet (Boyle et al. 5354). Moreover, numerous epidemiological studies undertaken indicate that several prenatal are important in the growth and development of Zebrafish (Daniorerio)(Acheson et al. 456) As a way of providing a standardized dietary framework, a need emerges for the provision of specific dietary and nutritional standard aimed at improving the growth and development of Zebra fish. Thus, the necessity to investigate the growth and metabolic rate of Zebrafish (Daniorerio) when fed with different commercial diets.
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The consumption of proteins in a diet could have significant effects on the body metabolism. The high calories contents of proteins commonly require more calories for breakdown that carbohydrates and this could have significant effects of various metabolic aspects. The amount nature of proteins makes them significantly different from other dietary constitutes that people consume routinely. In general, proteins cause an increase in the metabolic rate of organisms because of a variety of reasons Like for instance, Weight maintenance is actually a simple matter of the energy balance and also energy balance is attained when "energy in" is corresponding to "energy out
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The consumption of protein in diet has been established as a factor that increases the metabolic rate in human beings (Howard et al. 117).This is mainly because proteins require a lot of energy to be broken down and the body must provide such energy, hence it increase the metabolic rate. The process of protein synthesis in the body causes the amino acid structures of the proteins consumed to begin the process of building body muscles. The construction of these tissues in the body is a process that consumes high amounts of energy hence the body requires increased energy to undertaken the process. As a result on the increased energy requirements, high metabolic rate occurs in order to maintain the required amount of energy necessary to sustain the activities of breaking down amino acids to form muscle tissues.
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The ectoderm is one of the three germ layers that forms during embryonic development. It gives rise to a variety of structures, including the skin, hair, nails, and nervous system. In this blog post, we will explore the different ectoderm derivatives, their development, functions, and disorders.
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Ectoderm derivatives are the structures that develop from the ectoderm layer during embryonic development. These structures can be broadly classified into two categories: surface ectoderm derivatives and neural crest derivatives.
Surface ectoderm derivatives include the epidermis, hair, nails, and glands of the skin. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and provides a protective barrier against the external environment. Hair and nails are also derived from the surface ectoderm and serve various functions, such as insulation, protection, and sensory perception.
Neural crest derivatives, on the other hand, give rise to a variety of structures throughout the body. These include the peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, craniofacial cartilage and bone, and pigment cells. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia that extend from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. The adrenal medulla is a part of the adrenal gland that produces hormones such as adrenaline. Craniofacial cartilage and bone form the structure of the face and skull, while pigment cells are responsible for skin and hair color.
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The nervous system, which is derived from the neural crest, is responsible for transmitting s
Endoderm Anatomy.pdf
Endoderm anatomy The endoderm is one of the three germ layers formed during embryonic development. It is the innermost layer that gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, and various other organs. In this blog, we will explore the development of endoderm, its derivatives, and its clinical significance.
Development of Endoderm:
During gastrulation, the cells in the blastula rearrange to form three germ layers – endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. The endoderm is formed from the cells that migrate through the primitive streak and displace the hypoblast cells. These cells then form a layer that lines the embryonic yolk sac and the archenteron.
As the embryo develops, the endoderm folds inward to form the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut gives rise to the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, and the upper respiratory tract. The midgut forms the small intestine, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and transverse colon. The hindgut forms the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and the anal canal.
Derivatives of Endoderm:
The endoderm gives rise to a variety of organs and tissues, including:
Digestive System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the entire digestive tract, including the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and the anal canal. It also gives rise to the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Respiratory System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract, including the trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Endocrine System: The endoderm gives rise to the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and the thymus gland.
Urinary and Reproductive System: The endoderm forms the epithelial lining of the urinary bladder and the urethra. In females, it forms the epithelial lining of the vagina and the cervix. In males, it contributes to the epithelial lining of the prostate gland.
Clinical Significance:
Endodermal Sinus Tumor: Endodermal sinus tumor, also known as yolk sac tumor, is a rare type of tumor that usually occurs in the ovaries or testes. It arises from the remnants of the yolk sac, which is a structure that forms during embryonic development and gives rise to the endoderm.
Anomalies of the Digestive System: Malformations of the digestive system can occur due to abnormalities in the development of the endoderm. For example, esophageal atresia is a condition where the esophagus does not develop properly, and there is a gap between the upper and lower parts of the esophagus.
Endocrine Disorders: The endocrine glands that arise from the endoderm can be affected by various disorders. For example, hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone.
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Mesoderm Anatomy.pdf
Mesoderm anatomy Mesoderm is one of the three germ layers formed during embryonic development. It is the middle layer and is sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm. Mesoderm plays a crucial role in the development of various organs and tissues in the body. Here’s a breakdown of its development and functions:
Development of Mesoderm:
Mesoderm forms during gastrulation when the inner cell mass of the blastula transforms into three germ layers. The mesoderm arises from the primitive streak, which is a groove that forms on the surface of the embryonic disk. Mesodermal cells migrate to different regions of the embryo and give rise to various structures.
Types of Mesoderm:
Mesoderm is divided into three types based on its position in the embryo. These are:
Paraxial Mesoderm: It lies on either side of the neural tube and gives rise to somites, which develop into muscles, bones, and dermis of the skin.
Intermediate Mesoderm: It lies between the paraxial and lateral plate mesoderm and gives rise to the urogenital system.
Lateral Plate Mesoderm: It forms the lateral walls of the embryo and gives rise to the heart, blood vessels, and most of the connective tissue.
Functions of Mesoderm:
Mesoderm plays a vital role in the development of several organs and tissues, including:
Musculoskeletal system: Mesodermal cells give rise to muscles, bones, and cartilage.
Circulatory system: Mesoderm forms the heart and blood vessels.
Urogenital system: Mesoderm gives rise to kidneys, ureters, and reproductive organs.
Connective tissue: Mesodermal cells form various types of connective tissues like adipose tissue, tendons, and ligaments.
Dermis: Mesoderm forms the dermis of the skin.
Clinical Implications:
Mesodermal abnormalities can lead to several congenital disorders like congenital heart disease, kidney abnormalities, and musculoskeletal disorders.
Conclusion
In conclusion, mesoderm plays a critical role in the development of various structures in the body. Its proper development is essential for the normal functioning of different organ systems. Understanding the role of mesoderm in embryonic development can help medical students and professionals in diagnosing and treating various congenital disorders.
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Ectoderm Composition, Development, Nervous System & Diseases.pdf
Ectoderm Composition, Development, Nervous System & Diseases.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Ectoderm The development of an embryo is a complex process that involves the formation of different tissues and organs. One of the three primary germ layers that contribute to the development of various structures in the human body is the ectoderm. The ectoderm is responsible for the formation of several important structures, including the skin, hair, nails, and the nervous system. In this blog, we will discuss the ectoderm in detail and its role in embryonic development.
Composition
The ectoderm is the outermost layer of the three germ layers in the embryo. It originates from the epiblast, which is formed during the blastula stage of embryonic development. The cells of the ectoderm are tightly packed, and they give rise to the neural tube and the neural crest cells, which go on to form the nervous system.
Development
During embryonic development, the ectoderm plays a crucial role in the formation of the skin, hair, and nails. It also gives rise to the mammary glands and the lining of the mouth and anus. The cells of the ectoderm differentiate into several specialized cell types, such as melanocytes, which are responsible for skin pigmentation, and keratinocytes, which produce keratin, a protein that makes up the hair and nails.
Nervous System
Nervous system ectoderm
The most significant role of the ectoderm is in the development of the nervous system. The neural tube, which is formed by the folding of the ectoderm, gives rise to the brain and the spinal cord. The neural crest cells, which are formed by the separation of the neural tube, go on to form several important structures such as the cranial nerves, the autonomic ganglia, and the adrenal medulla.
Diseases
Any abnormal development of the ectoderm can lead to several disorders, such as neural tube defects, which can cause severe neurological problems, including paralysis. Defects in the development of hair, skin, and nails, such as alopecia and epidermolysis bullosa, are also associated with ectodermal disorders.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the ectoderm is an essential component of embryonic development. It gives rise to the skin, hair, nails, and the nervous system, and any abnormal development of this germ layer can lead to severe disorders. Understanding the development and function of the ectoderm is crucial for medical professionals, particularly for those in the field of embryology and anatomy.
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For more information about human body, heart anatomy, human body parts, or any other related topic, Best youtube channel for learning human anatomy course onlineheart anatomy by dr khayati santram.pdf
heart anatomy by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
HEART Anatomy ( cardiovascular anatomy):- it is an important circulatory organ .Parts of heart
APEX is formed by the tip of the left ventricle and rests on the diaphragm. It is directed anteriorly, inferiorly, and to the left.
BASE of the heart is its posterior surface. It is formed by the atria of the heart.
SURFACES
STERNOCOSTAL OR ANTERIOR SURFACE is deep to the sternum and ribs.
DIAPHRAGMATIC OR INFERIOR SURFACE is the part of the heart between the apex and right border.
PULMONARY OR LEFT SURFACE is occupies the cardiac notch of the left lung.
BORDERS
Right border is formed by right atrium extends from the inferior surface to the base.Inferior border is formed by right ventricle and partly left ventricle.Left border also called the pulmonary border, is formed by left ventricle and the left auricle, extends from the base to the apex.
Superior border is formed by both atria.
Grooves on the outer surface of the heart marking the division between the atria and the ventricles.
1. Atrioventricular sulcus
2. Anterior interventricular sulcus
3. Posterior interventricular sulcus
PERICARDIUM
The heart is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the pericardium
It consists of two main parts:
1. The fibrous pericardium
2. The serous pericardium
FIBROUS PERICARDIUMis composed of tough, inelastic, dense irregular connective tissue.The functions of fibrous pericardium is to Prevent overstretching of the heart,Protection of heart,Anchors the heart in the mediastinum
SEROUS PERICARDIUM is a thinner membrane that forms a double layer around the heart,the outer parietal layer: it is fused to thefibrous pericardium.the inner
visceral layer is also called the epicardium helps the layers of the heart wall to adheres tightly to the surface of the heart.
Pericardial sinuses:=The lines of reflection between visceral and parietal pericardium form two pericardial sinuses TRANSVERSE SINUS
Transverse passage between two tubular reflection of serous pericardium and is lined by the visceral layer only
OBLIQUE SINUS;=It is cul de sac behind the left atrium, enclosed on all the sides except below
Heart has four chambers. Two superior receiving chambers are the atria. Two inferior pumping chambers are the ventricles. AURICLE-Anterior surface of each atrium has a pouch like structure called an auricle. Auricle increases the capacity of an atrium so that it can hold a greater volume of blood.
Right atrium:- forms the right border of the heart and receives blood from three veins:the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus. 2–3 mm (0.08–0.12 in.) in thickness.The posterior wall is smooth but the anterior wall is rough due to the presence of muscular ridges called pectinate musclesThe right atrium and left atrium is separated by interatrial septum.
Right atrium consists of
1. smooth part known as SINUS VENARUM
Pharmacology Course by dr khayati santram.pdf
Pharmacology Course by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Pharmacology is the study of drugs and how they interact with living organisms, including humans. It is an important subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for understanding the therapeutic use of drugs and the management of drug therapy.
In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of pharmacology:
1. Drug classification: This involves the study of different types of drugs, including prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, and dietary supplements, and their therapeutic uses.
2. Mechanisms of drug action: This involves the study of how drugs interact with cells and tissues to produce their therapeutic effects, including the study of drug receptors, drug-receptor interactions, and the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs.
3. Drug-drug interactions: This involves the study of how different drugs interact with each other and with other substances in the body, including food, alcohol, and other drugs, and the implications of these interactions for drug therapy.
4. Therapeutic uses of drugs: This involves the study of the indications, contraindications, and dosage regimens for different drugs, as well as the potential side effects and adverse reactions associated with drug therapy.
5. Drug development and approval: This involves the study of the process by which drugs are developed, tested, and approved for use, including the clinical trial process and regulatory requirements.
6. Drug toxicity and overdose: This involves the study of the potential toxic effects of drugs, including the mechanisms of toxicity and the management of drug overdose.
7. Pain management: This involves the study of the pharmacologic management of pain, including the use of analgesics, adjuvant analgesics, and other pain management strategies.
Pharmacology is an essential subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for understanding the therapeutic use of drugs and the management of drug therapy. A solid understanding of pharmacology is critical for the safe and effective use of drugs in the treatment of disease and for promoting public health.
Additionally, in the study of pharmacology, medical students will also learn about:
8. Autonomic pharmacology: This involves the study of the drugs that affect the autonomic nervous system, including sympathomimetics and sympatholytics, and their therapeutic uses.
9. Cardiovascular pharmacology: This involves the study of the drugs that affect the cardiovascular system, including anti-hypertensive drugs, anti-arrhythmic drugs, and drugs used in the treatment of heart failure, and their therapeutic uses.
10. Respiratory pharmacology: This involves the study of the drugs that affect the respiratory system, including bronchodilators and anti-inflammatory drugs, and their therapeutic uses.Pathology Course by dr khayati santram.pdf
Pathology Course by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Pathology is the study of disease and the changes that occur in the body as a result of disease. It is an important subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of diseases and helps to guide the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of pathology
1. Cellular pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in cells and tissues in response to disease, including changes in cell structure, function, and gene expression.
2. Tissue pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in tissues and organs in response to disease, including inflammation, degeneration, and neoplasia (the development of abnormal growths).
3. Systemic pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in the body in response to disease, including changes in organ function and the body’s response to injury and inflammation.
4. Laboratory techniques in pathology: This involves the study of the techniques used to diagnose disease, including histology (the study of tissues), cytology (the study of cells), and molecular pathology (the study of changes in DNA and RNA).
5. Infectious disease pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in the body in response to infectious diseases, including the host response to infection and the mechanisms of disease caused by pathogens.
6. Neoplastic disease pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in the body in response to neoplastic (cancerous) diseases, including the mechanisms of tumor growth and the body’s response to cancer.
7. Forensic pathology: This involves the study of the changes that occur in the body after death and the use of pathology to support legal investigations and the determination of cause of death.
In conclusion, pathology is an essential subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of diseases and helps to guide the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A solid understanding of pathology is critical for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and for promoting public health.Microbiology Course by dr khayati santram.pdf
Microbiology Course by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, and their relationship to human health and disease. It is an important subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for understanding the causes, mechanisms, and effects of infectious diseases.
In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of microbiology:
1. Types of microorganisms: This involves the study of the different types of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, and their characteristics and classification.
2. Microbial growth and metabolism: This involves the study of the conditions required for microbial growth, including temperature, pH, and nutrient requirements, and the metabolic processes of microorganisms.
3. Microbial genetics: This involves the study of the genetic material of microorganisms and how it is passed from one generation to the next.
4. Microbial pathogenesis: This involves the study of the mechanisms by which microorganisms cause disease, including the interactions between microorganisms and host cells and the production of virulence factors.
5. Immune system and microbiology: This involves the study of the human immune system and how it responds to microorganisms, including the different types of immunity and the mechanisms of immunological defense.
6. Diagnostic microbiology: This involves the study of the methods used to diagnose infectious diseases, including laboratory tests, such as cultures and sensitivity tests, and the use of diagnostic imaging, such as X-rays and CT scans.
7. Antimicrobial therapy: This involves the study of the use of antibiotics and other agents to treat infectious diseases, including the mechanism of action of antibiotics and the development of antibiotic resistance
8. Epidemiology of infectious diseases: This involves the study of the distribution, causes, and control of infectious diseases in populations. It is important for understanding the public health implications of infectious diseases and for developing strategies to prevent and control disease outbreaks.
9. Vaccines and immunization: This involves the study of the use of vaccines to prevent infectious diseases and the importance of vaccination programs in promoting public health.
10. Hospital-acquired infections: This involves the study of the mechanisms by which microorganisms can cause infections in healthcare settings and the strategies used to prevent and control these infections.
11. Environmental microbiology: This involves the study of the role of microorganisms in the environment and their impact on human health, including the study of waterborne and foodborne illnesses.
12. Microbial biotechnology: This involves the study of the use of microorganisms for industrial and medical purposes, including the production of fermented foods and beverages, the production of biodegradable plastics, and the use of microbes for bioremediation.Medicine Course by dr khayati santram.pdf
Medicine Course by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Medical science, also known as medicine, is the study of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It is an essential subject for medical students, as it forms the basis of the practice of medicine.
In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of medicine:
1. Anatomy and Physiology: This involves the study of the structure and function of the human body, including the different systems, such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive systems.
2. Pathology: This involves the study of disease, including the causes, mechanisms, and effects of disease on the body.
3. Microbiology: This involves the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, and their relationship to human health and disease.
4. Pharmacology: This involves the study of drugs and their actions, including their mechanism of action, side effects, and interactions with other drugs.
5. Diagnostic methods: This involves the study of the methods used to diagnose diseases, including physical examination, imaging, and laboratory tests.
6. Treatment modalities: This involves the study of the different treatment options available for various diseases, including surgery, medication, and physical therapy.
7. Clinical skills: This involves the development of practical skills, such as taking a patient’s history, performing a physical examination, and presenting a case to a team of healthcare providers.
8. Epidemiology: This involves the study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations. It is important for understanding the public health implications of diseases and for developing strategies to prevent and control disease outbreaks.
9. Nutrition: This involves the study of the role of diet in maintaining health and preventing disease. It is important for understanding the importance of a balanced diet and the relationship between diet and various health conditions.
10. Mental health: This involves the study of the diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and psychotic disorders. It is important for understanding the importance of addressing mental health in the overall healthcare of patients.
It is important for medical students to have a solid understanding of medicine, as it provides a foundation for understanding how to diagnose and treat diseases, and how to provide safe and effective care to patients. A solid understanding of medicine is also essential for understanding the role of healthcare providers in the larger healthcare system, and for advocating for the health and well-being of their patients.
In conclusion, medicine is an essential subject for medical students, as it provides a foundation for the practice of medicine. A solid understanding of medicine is essential for providing safe and effective care to patients.anatomy course by dr khayati santram.pdf
anatomy course by dr khayati santram.pdfDr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh
Human anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the human body. It is a fundamental subject for medical students, as a basic understanding of anatomy is essential for understanding the functioning of the body and diagnosing and treating diseases.
In the first year of medical school, students typically learn about the following aspects of anatomy:
1. Gross anatomy: This involves the study of the external and internal structures of the body, such as bones, muscles, organs, and tissues.
2. Microscopic anatomy: This involves the study of the tiny structures of the body, such as cells and tissues, using a microscope.
3. Developmental anatomy: This involves the study of how the body develops from the embryonic stage to birth and beyond.
4. Systemic anatomy: This involves the study of the different systems of the body, such as the nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and musculoskeletal systems.
5. Regional anatomy: This involves the study of specific regions of the body, such as the head, neck, and limbs.
In the first year of medical school, students also learn about the basic functions of the body, such as respiration, circulation, digestion, and excretion. Understanding these functions is essential for understanding how the body works and how diseases and injuries can affect the body’s functioning.
The study of human anatomy includes the examination of the structure and functions of various systems of the body such as the musculoskeletal system, the digestive system, the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the urinary system. MBBS 1st year students and nursing students learn about the organs, tissues, and cells that make up these systems, as well as their specific functions and interactions.
In addition to learning about the anatomy of the body, MBBS 1st year students and nursing students also learn about the physiological processes that occur in the body. This includes understanding how the body’s systems work together to maintain homeostasis, or balance.
For example, the respiratory system brings in oxygen, which the circulatory system carries to the cells. The digestive system breaks down food and turns it into energy for the body. Understanding these processes helps MBBS 1st year students and nursing students understand how diseases and injuries can disrupt the normal functioning of the body.More from Dr Khayati Santram Anatomy tuition for MBBS ,BDS, Medical Chandigarh (10)
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- 1. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM COURSES O N L I N E & O F F L I N E
- 2. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Biochemistry Course Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms. It is an important subject for medical students, as a basic understanding of biochemistry is essential for understanding the functioning of the body and diagnosing and treating diseases.
- 3. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Structure and function of biomolecules Enzymes and metabolic pathways Carbohydrate metabolism Lipid metabolism Protein metabolism
- 4. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Nucleic acid metabolism Vitamin and mineral metabolism Hormonal regulation Genetic information
- 5. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Structure and function of biomolecules This includes the study of the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- 6. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Enzymes and metabolic pathways This involves the study of enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, and metabolic pathways, which are series of reactions that occur within cells to produce energy or build cellular components.
- 7. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Carbohydrate metabolism This involves the study of the breakdown and utilization of carbohydrates, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle.
- 8. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Lipid metabolism This involves the study of the breakdown and utilization of lipids, including fatty acid oxidation and the synthesis of lipoproteins.
- 9. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Protein metabolism: This involves the study of the synthesis and degradation of proteins, including the process of transcription and translation.
- 10. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Nucleic acid metabolism This involves the study of the synthesis and degradation of nucleic acids, including DNA replication and RNA transcription.
- 11. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Vitamin and mineral metabolism: This involves the study of the role of vitamins and minerals in the body, including how they are absorbed, transported, and utilized.
- 12. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Hormonal regulation This involves the study of hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate various functions in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproductive function.
- 13. Dr. KHAYATI SANTRAM Genetic information This involves the study of genetics, including the structure and function of DNA, gene expression, and the regulation of gene expression.