The document provides an outline and discussion of post-laboratory exercises covering the respiratory, digestive, circulatory, and urogenital systems. It discusses key aspects of each system, including respiration and the respiratory organs and processes in various animal kingdoms. For the digestive system, it covers the major organs and their histology as well as important digestive hormones and facts. The circulatory system section compares open and closed systems. It also outlines the heart, blood vessels, and circulatory system of frogs. Finally, it provides an overview of the urogenital system and its excretory and reproductive functions.

1. POST-LABORATORY
DISCUSSION FOR
EXAMINATION 3
Respiratory, Digestive, Circulatory and Urogenital

2. DISCUSSION
OUTLINE
• Exercise 14: Respiratory System
• Exercise 16: Digestive System
• Exercise 18: Circulatory System
• Exercise 20: Urogenital System
• Physiology of Respiration, Digestion and
Circulation shall be taken cared of by the
reporters

3. THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
• RESPIRATION: process by which gaseous
exchange occurs between organism and its
environment
• RESPIRATORY PROCESS: involves diffusion of
gases through moist semi-permeable
membranes
• simple organisms: simple diffusion via
integument
• complex organisms: Respiratory System

4. RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
OF THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM
• Sponges and
Jellyfish lack
specialized organs
for gas exchange
and take in gases
directly from the
surrounding
water

5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
OF THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM
• GILLS
• internal
• external

6. Gills greatly increase the
surface area for gas exchange
Water flows over gills in one
direction while blood flows
in the opposite direction
through gill capillaries

7. RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMS OF THE
ANIMAL KINGDOM
• TRACHEA
• tubes that carry air
directly to cells for gas
exchange
• Spiracles: openings at
the body surface that
lead to tracheae
(branch into smaller
tubes known as
tracheoles)
• LUNGS

8. LUNGS: birds
• Birds depend on their respiratory system
for temperature control and to provide a
tremendous amount of oxygen to
support the production of energy
needed during flight
• have evolved air sacs that extend off
their lungs
• air sacs occupy space within the body
cavity = help to reduce weight as well
• the air in the air sacs moves into the
lungs when bird exhales = allows the
lungs to be filled with large volumes
air
• ROUTE: posterior air sac->lungs-
>anterior air sac->out of body

9. LUNGS : frogs
• Gas exchange in frogs and toads is
through:
• cutaneous respiration (1/3)
• via skin
• pulmonary respiration (2/3)
• via lungs
• buccopharyngeal respiration (small
amount)
• via mouth and lining of pharynx

10. HOW DO FROGS RESPIRE
WHEN UNDERWATER
• SKIN: a uniform capillary
network lies in a plane directly
beneath the epidermis facilitates
gas exchange between the capillary
bed and the environment by both
diffusion and convection (mucus
layer aids in this gas exchange by
dissolving respiratory gases)
• Internal Nares (nostrils):
opening to allow air in helps frog
breathe while floating on water

11. NEGATIVE vs POSITIVE
PRESSURE BREATHING
• NEGATIVE: small throat pouch pulls down drawing air through the
nostrils into the mouth
• POSITIVE: valves in the nostrils close and the throat pouch pushes
upwards forcing the air into the lungs
• With the valves in the nostrils still closed, the throat pouch pulls
down sucking the air from the lungs back into the mouth
• The valves in the nostrils open, the tongue blocks passage to the
lungs, and the throat pouch pushes the air from the mouth back into
the atmosphere
• A rich supply of blood vessels to its thin skin enables it to absorb large
amounts of oxygen while under water

12. WHAT YOU NEED
TO KNOW
• PARTS AND GLOTTIS
FUNCTION OF lungs
FROG
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
• COMPARE
BREATHING IN
FROG AND MAN

13. VOCAL CORDS VS
VOCAL SACS
• vocal cords: two muscular cords that run longitudinally along the
larynx
• PURPOSE: croaking sound is produced by air passing over the
vocal cords in the larynx of the throat, so it continues a true voice
(loud call is produced usually by males during the breeding season)
• vocal sac: a flap of skin in the front of their throats which allows
frogs to croak, trill and ribbit
• HOW: frog inhales = vocal sac filled with air = vocal sac stretch
out like a balloon (with its mouth closed, frog forces air from this
sac back and forth over its vocal cords, producing a loud, repetitive
sound

14. RESPIRATION: IMPORTANT
POINTS TO REMEMBER
• MOIST SEMIPERMEABLE
MEMBRANE: moisture allows
oxygen gas to dissolve and at the
same time allow it to diffuse
across the membrane
• RESPIRATION AND
CIRCULATION:
cardiovascular system carries
exchanges gases with respiratory
system for transport of
important gases throughout the
body

15. EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL RESPIRATION
• EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
• gas exchange
• between lungs (alveoli)
and blood
• INTERNAL RESPIRATION
• gas transport
• between blood to
tissues

16. EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL RESPIRATION

17. INHALATION &
EXHALATION

18. THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Ingestion and
Mechanical
Digestion
Defecation
Chemical
Digestion

19. HOW DO
ORGANISMS EAT?
• Modes of Nutrition
• Autotrophy
• Heterotrophy
• Types of Digestion
• Intracellular
• Extracellular
• Modes of feeding
• Filter feeding
• Fluid feeding
• Bulk feeding

20. DIGESTIVE
SYSTEMS
• INCOMPLETE
• single opening
• both for input and output
• sponges, cnidarians, ctenophores, flatworms
• COMPLETE
• two openings
• one for input and the other for output
• nematodes, annelids, molluscs, arthropods,
echinoderms and chordates

21. WHAT YOU NEED
TO KNOW
• PARTS AND
FUNCTION OF FROG
DIGESTIVE TRACT
(review!)
• DIGESTIVE GLANDS
AND THEIR FUNCTION
• HISTOLOGY: HOW
THEY RELATE WITH
THEIR FUNCTION

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25. IMPORTANT DIGESTION
FACTS YOU NEED TO
KNOW
• SUSPENSORY STRUCTURES AND FUNCTION
• PYLORIC SPHINCTERS AND FUNCTION
• MICROVILLI AND FUNCTION
• GOBLET CELLS AND FUNCTION
• ACINAR CELLS AND CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN
AND FUNCTION

26. SUSPENSORY STRUCTURES
• mesogastrium
• membrane suspending the
stomach
• mesenterium
• membrane suspending the
small intestines
• mesorectum
• membrane suspending the
large intestines

27. SUSPENSORY STRUCTURES
•gastroduodenal
omentum
•connects duodenum to
the stomach
•hepatoduodenal
omentum
Mesentery: organ to
•connects liver to body wall
duodenum
Omentum: organ to
organ

28. HISTOLOGY IN RELATION
TO FUNCTION: STOMACH
RUGAE
• tunica serosa
• tunica muscularis
• submucosa
• tunica mucosa
• muscularis mucosa
• lamina propria
• simple columnar
epithelium

29. • tunica mucosa • simple columnar
epithelium
• muscularis mucsa
• lamina propria

30. HISTOLOGY IN RELATION TO
FUNCTION: SMALL INTESTINE VILLI
• tunica serosa
• tunica muscularis
• tela submucosa
• tunica mucosa
• lamina propria
• simple columnar epithelium
• goblet cells
• crypts of Lieberkuhn

31. • BRUSH BORDER/MICROVILLI: increase
area for absorption
• GOBLET CELLS: secretes mucus which
protects the digestive organs digest
themselves; eases passage of food
• CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN: secretes
sucrase, maltase, endopeptidase and
exopeptidase

32. HISTOLOGY IN RELATION
TO FUNCTION: LIVER
HEPATIC TRINITY
• hepatic trinity/triad
• bile duct
• hepatic artery
• hepatic vein

33. HISTOLOGY IN RELATION
TO FUNCTION: PANCREAS
ACINAR CELLS
• acinar cells
(exocrine)
• zymogen granules:
secretory vesicles
• islets of
Langerhans
(endocrine)
• release insulin and
glucagon to regulate
blood glucose level

34. CIRCULATORY
SYSTEMS
• OPEN: • CLOSED:
• Circulatory medium directly bathes • Circulatory medium in vessels;
peripheral tissues tissues are not bathed in CM
• Blood is conveyed directly to organs • Blood is conveyed directly to organs
• Less readily regulated blood • Well-regulated blood distribution (via
distributed the sphincters, valves and hormones)
• Usually a low pressure system • Usually high pressure system
• Sustained pressure is possible (due to • Hydraulic pressure sustained
small body size)
• requires high peripheral resistance
• Return to heart is often slow (provided by arteries’ elastic vessels)

37. THE FROG’S
HEART
• PARTS: pericardial
cavity; pericardium;
ventricle; atria/auricle;
conus arteriosus; sinus
venosus
• HEART: pumps blood to
different parts of the body
• VALVES: prevents back flow
of blood
• spiral valves: prevents mixing
of deoxygenated and
oxygenated blood

38. THE BLOOD VESSELS:
ARTERY, VEIN AND
CAPILLARIES

39. FROG ARTERIAL AND
VENOUS SYSTEM

40. CHALLENGE: Can you trace the path of blood?

41. UROGENITAL
SYSTEM
• EXCRETORY
• elimination of metabolic wastes
• Example: urea, uric acid, ammonia
• REPRODUCTIVE
• production of sex cells or gametes

42. EXCRETION BY ANIMALS
Excretory system of an
earthworm:
metanephridium
Many invertebrates such as flatworms use Paired Kidneys of
a nephridium as their excretory organ. At Vertebrates
the end of each blind tubule of the
nephridium is a ciliated flame cell. As
fluid passes down the tubule, solutes are
reabsorbed and returned to the body fluids.
Body fluids are drawn into the
Malphigian tubules by osmosis due to
large concentrations of potassium inside the
tubule. Body fluids pass back into the body,
nitrogenous wastes empty into the insect's
gut. Water is reabsorbed and waste is
expelled from the insect.

43. URINE FORMATION
IN VERTEBRATES
1 3
Urine Production
5
1.
Filtration in the glomerulus and
nephron capsule.
2.
Reabsorption in the proximal
2 4 tubule.
3.
Tubular secretion in the Loop of
Henle.

44. KIDNEYS: histology
Bowman’s capsule:
simple squamous
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Glomerulus: simple
cuboidal epithelium

45. REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
• MALE
• TESTIS/
TESTES
• FEMALE
• OVARY
• OVIDUCT

46. MALE:
histology
• spermatocysts • spermatids
• seminiferous • spermatozoa
tubules
• leydig cells:
• spermatogonia synthesis of
testosterone
• primary
spermatocytes • sertoli cells:
nourishment of
• secondary the
spermatogenic
spermatocytes
cells

47. FEMALE:
histology
• oogonium:
• oocyte:
• nucleolus:
• follicle cells:

48. IMPORTANT POINTS
• arrangement of cells in seminiferous tubules: man vs frog

49. IMPORTANT POINTS
• SPERMATOGENESIS: male form of gametogenesis;
results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the
normal complement of genetic material
• SPERMIOGENESIS: the spermatids begin to grow a tail,
and develop a thickened mid-piece, where the mitochondria
gather and form an axoneme
• OOGENESIS: process of meiosis in female organisms from
an oogonium to a primary oocyte, to a secondary oocyte, and
then to an ovum
• connective tissue covering developing oocytes: theca
externa and theca interna

50. end of exam
coverage