1) The document discusses bearing capacity of shallow foundations, including definitions of terms like ultimate bearing capacity, net ultimate bearing capacity, and modes of shear failure.
2) It summarizes Terzaghi's bearing capacity analysis, which assumes failure planes do not extend above the base of the footing. His equation considers cohesion, surcharge pressure, and a factor related to the soil's friction angle.
3) Settlement of foundations is also discussed, distinguishing between immediate elastic settlement and long-term consolidation settlement. Methods for estimating settlement in cohesive and cohesionless soils are presented.
1) Bearing capacity of shallow foundations is the ability of soil to support the load from the foundation without shear failure or excessive settlement. It depends on factors like soil type, density, depth of water table, and foundation shape and size.
2) Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory provides an equation to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity considering soil cohesion, unit weight, depth factors, and bearing capacity factors. The water table depth is also accounted for.
3) Foundation settlement includes immediate elastic settlement and long-term consolidation settlement. Settlement is estimated using methods like plate load tests, standard penetration tests, and theories for different soil types. Differential settlement between foundation parts needs to be limited.
1. This document discusses bearing capacity of shallow foundations, including definitions of ultimate, net ultimate, net safe, and gross safe bearing capacities.
2. It covers Terzaghi's bearing capacity analysis and equations, incorporating factors like soil type, shape of foundation, and water table level.
3. Settlement of foundations is also addressed, distinguishing between immediate elastic settlement and consolidation settlement over time. Methods for estimating settlement in cohesive and cohesionless soils are presented.
1) The document discusses various topics related to soil science engineering including bearing capacity of shallow foundations, consolidation settlement, slope stability analysis, earth pressures, and deep foundations.
2) Key concepts covered include Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, consolidation theory, factors affecting slope stability, and methods of soil stabilization.
3) Settlement of foundations can include elastic, consolidation, and secondary consolidation components, with total settlement calculated as the sum of these.
This document provides information on shallow foundations, including raft foundations. It discusses the bearing capacity of shallow foundations and factors that influence it, such as soil type, water table level, and loading conditions. Equations for calculating ultimate bearing capacity are presented, including Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation. The document also covers settlement of foundations, differential settlement, and allowable settlement values.
Regarding Types of Foundation, Methods, Uses of different types of foundation at different soil properties. Methods of construction of different types of foundation, Codal Provisions etc.
This document provides an introduction to foundation engineering and different types of foundations. It discusses shallow foundations, which have a depth to width ratio of less than 4, including spread, strip, continuous, combined and raft foundations. It also discusses deep foundations, which have a depth to width ratio greater than 4, such as piles and drilled shafts. The document further explains bearing capacity and settlement criteria for foundations. It provides details on Terzaghi's and Skempton's bearing capacity theories and includes examples of calculating ultimate and allowable bearing capacities.
This document discusses methods for determining the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, net ultimate, net safe bearing capacity. It describes Rankine's analysis and Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory for calculating ultimate capacity. It also discusses standard penetration tests, cone penetration tests, and plate load tests which can be used to determine soil properties and estimate foundation settlement and bearing capacity. Examples of calculations using these methods are provided.
This document discusses bearing capacity and shallow foundations. It defines bearing capacity as the maximum average pressure a soil can support before failing. There are two failure criteria: shear failure and settlement. Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory is then explained, with soil divided into three zones. Factors influencing bearing capacity are also listed, such as soil type, foundation properties, water table level, and loading eccentricity. Finally, common bearing capacity determination methods are outlined, including analytical calculations, load tests, and laboratory tests.
1) Bearing capacity of shallow foundations is the ability of soil to support the load from the foundation without shear failure or excessive settlement. It depends on factors like soil type, density, depth of water table, and foundation shape and size.
2) Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory provides an equation to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity considering soil cohesion, unit weight, depth factors, and bearing capacity factors. The water table depth is also accounted for.
3) Foundation settlement includes immediate elastic settlement and long-term consolidation settlement. Settlement is estimated using methods like plate load tests, standard penetration tests, and theories for different soil types. Differential settlement between foundation parts needs to be limited.
1. This document discusses bearing capacity of shallow foundations, including definitions of ultimate, net ultimate, net safe, and gross safe bearing capacities.
2. It covers Terzaghi's bearing capacity analysis and equations, incorporating factors like soil type, shape of foundation, and water table level.
3. Settlement of foundations is also addressed, distinguishing between immediate elastic settlement and consolidation settlement over time. Methods for estimating settlement in cohesive and cohesionless soils are presented.
1) The document discusses various topics related to soil science engineering including bearing capacity of shallow foundations, consolidation settlement, slope stability analysis, earth pressures, and deep foundations.
2) Key concepts covered include Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, consolidation theory, factors affecting slope stability, and methods of soil stabilization.
3) Settlement of foundations can include elastic, consolidation, and secondary consolidation components, with total settlement calculated as the sum of these.
This document provides information on shallow foundations, including raft foundations. It discusses the bearing capacity of shallow foundations and factors that influence it, such as soil type, water table level, and loading conditions. Equations for calculating ultimate bearing capacity are presented, including Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation. The document also covers settlement of foundations, differential settlement, and allowable settlement values.
Regarding Types of Foundation, Methods, Uses of different types of foundation at different soil properties. Methods of construction of different types of foundation, Codal Provisions etc.
This document provides an introduction to foundation engineering and different types of foundations. It discusses shallow foundations, which have a depth to width ratio of less than 4, including spread, strip, continuous, combined and raft foundations. It also discusses deep foundations, which have a depth to width ratio greater than 4, such as piles and drilled shafts. The document further explains bearing capacity and settlement criteria for foundations. It provides details on Terzaghi's and Skempton's bearing capacity theories and includes examples of calculating ultimate and allowable bearing capacities.
This document discusses methods for determining the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, net ultimate, net safe bearing capacity. It describes Rankine's analysis and Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory for calculating ultimate capacity. It also discusses standard penetration tests, cone penetration tests, and plate load tests which can be used to determine soil properties and estimate foundation settlement and bearing capacity. Examples of calculations using these methods are provided.
This document discusses bearing capacity and shallow foundations. It defines bearing capacity as the maximum average pressure a soil can support before failing. There are two failure criteria: shear failure and settlement. Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory is then explained, with soil divided into three zones. Factors influencing bearing capacity are also listed, such as soil type, foundation properties, water table level, and loading eccentricity. Finally, common bearing capacity determination methods are outlined, including analytical calculations, load tests, and laboratory tests.
This document summarizes bearing capacity theory for shallow foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, net ultimate, and safe bearing capacities. It describes Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, which considers soil shear strength parameters (c, φ), surcharge loads, and bearing capacity factors (Nc, Nq, Nr). It outlines the failure geometry Terzaghi assumed, with five distinct failure zones. It also distinguishes between general shear, local shear, and punching shear failures based on soil properties and characteristics. Empirical modifications are suggested for local shear failures. Charts summarize the bearing capacity equations for different shaped footings based on experimental results.
The document provides information on shallow foundations, including definitions, design criteria, methods for determining bearing capacity, and modes of failure. It discusses Prandtl's analysis, Rankine's analysis, and Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory. Terzaghi's theory assumes a shallow strip footing fails along a composite shear surface through five zones: an elastic zone under the footing, two radial shear zones, and two linear shear zones forming a triangular shape. The theory is used to derive an expression for ultimate bearing capacity considering the soil's shear strength properties.
This document discusses the bearing capacity of soils and foundations. It defines bearing capacity as the load per unit area that can be supported by a foundation without failing. Several methods for calculating ultimate bearing capacity are presented, including Terzaghi's method, which uses bearing capacity factors that depend on soil properties. The document also discusses factors that affect bearing capacity like the water table, foundation shape and depth, layered soils, sloped ground, and estimates from standard penetration or cone penetration tests. Failure modes like general, local, and punching shear are described along with calculations for eccentric and two-way loading.
Shallow foundation(by indrajit mitra)01Indrajit Ind
Shallow foundations transmit structural loads to near-surface soils and are used when the upper soil layer is sufficiently strong. They include spread, combined, strap, and raft foundations. Design considers factors like bearing capacity, settlement, and water table effects. Plate load tests determine ultimate capacity and settlement by measuring pressure-displacement curves. Terzaghi's theory and IS codes provide design guidance.
1. Load-settlement curves for footings on dense sand or stiff clay show a pronounced peak and failure occurs at very small strains, with sudden sinking or tilting and surface heaving of adjoining soil.
2. For medium sand or clay, failure starts at a localized spot and migrates outward gradually, with large vertical strains and small lateral strains. Failure planes are not clearly defined.
3. Failure zones for footings on slopes do not extend above the horizontal plane through the base, and failure occurs when downward and upward pressures are equal.
This document defines foundations and foundation engineering. It discusses shallow and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread, combined, wall/strip, and mat foundations. Deep foundations include piles and piers. It describes factors in foundation design such as ultimate bearing capacity, settlement, and differential settlement. Footing failures by shear, tension, or bearing capacity are addressed. Examples of isolated, combined, and wall footings are provided along with factors in selecting the appropriate foundation type.
The document discusses stresses in soil. It defines total stress, neutral stress (pore water pressure), and effective stress. Total stress is the stress from overburden soil and applied loads. Neutral stress is the pressure of water in soil voids. Effective stress is carried by soil particles and influences shear strength. The document also covers Boussinesq's method for estimating stresses in soil from point loads, assuming the soil is elastic, homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-infinite.
lecturenote_1463116827CHAPTER-II-BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATION SOIL.pdf2cd
The document discusses bearing capacity of soils and methods to calculate the ultimate and safe bearing capacities of different types of foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, gross, net and safe bearing capacities. It describes Terzaghi's, Meyerhof's and Skempton's methods to calculate the bearing capacity based on the soil properties and foundation geometry. It provides examples to calculate the ultimate and safe bearing capacities of strip, square, circular and rectangular foundations in cohesive and cohesionless soils using these methods.
This document provides an overview of shallow foundation types and soil bearing capacity. It discusses the different failure modes of shallow foundations, including general shear, local shear, and punching shear failure. Terzaghi's theory of bearing capacity is explained, including his equations. Factors that affect bearing capacity like foundation shape, depth, load inclination, and water table are also covered. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating ultimate and allowable bearing capacity using Terzaghi's equations and accounting for factors like eccentric loading.
This document defines foundations and foundation engineering. It discusses:
1. Foundations transmit structural loads to the soil and come in two types - shallow and deep. Shallow foundations are placed at a shallow depth, typically less than 6m, and include spread footings and strip footings. Deep foundations like piles are embedded much deeper.
2. Foundation engineering involves evaluating soil load capacity and designing foundations to safely transmit loads to the soil while considering economics. It must prevent shear failure, settlement, overturning and sliding.
3. Foundations can fail due to shear, tension or excessive settlement, which depends on factors like soil type and load. Design considers ultimate and allowable bearing capacity as well as allowable settlement.
1) The bearing capacity of a shallow foundation is the maximum pressure it can support before failing. It depends on factors like the soil's strength properties, drainage conditions, foundation shape, and water table level.
2) Two common methods to analyze bearing capacity are the lower bound approach, which finds stresses that cause failure everywhere, and upper bound approach, which assumes a failure mechanism and calculates loads that cause it.
3) The general bearing capacity equation accounts for surcharge loads, soil weight, cohesion, and bearing capacity factors that depend on the soil's friction angle.
4) Short-term undrained and long-term drained analyses consider total and effective stresses, using saturated unit weight and water levels appropriately
This document discusses stress distribution in soil due to various types of loading. It begins by introducing key concepts like how applied loads are transferred through the soil mass, creating stresses that decrease in magnitude but increase in area with depth. The factors that affect stress distribution, like loading size/shape, soil type, and footing rigidity are also covered. The document then examines specific load types - point loads, line loads, rectangular/triangular strip loads, and circular loads - providing the equations to calculate vertical stress increases below each. Several examples demonstrate calculating stress increases below compound load arrangements. The summary provides an overview of the key topics and calculations presented in the document.
This document provides lecture notes on slope stability analysis. It begins with an introduction to slopes, defining slopes and discussing natural and man-made slope failures. It then discusses various methods of slope stability analysis, including infinite slope analysis for cohesionless, cohesive, and cohesive-frictional soils, considering factors like seepage. Finite slope analysis methods are also introduced, including total stress analysis for cohesive and c-φ soils. Key concepts covered include factor of safety, failure surfaces, driving and restoring moments. Factors affecting slope stability like rainfall, earthquakes, and tension cracks are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of earth pressure theories and calculations in GEO 5 software. It discusses active and passive earth pressure theories including Rankine, Coulomb, Caquot-Kerisel, as well as earth pressure at rest. It covers how to calculate earth pressures considering effects of sloped ground, structure inclination, friction, cohesion, water pressure, and surcharge loads. The document is a manual for using GEO 5 to analyze retaining walls and excavations.
This document discusses methods for determining soil bearing capacity from standard penetration test (SPT) numbers. It provides Meyerhof and Bowles equations that relate allowable soil bearing capacity (Qa) to SPT numbers (N) and footing parameters. It also gives examples of using the equations to calculate Qa for different soil and footing conditions.
1. Foundation settlement includes immediate, primary consolidation, and secondary consolidation settlements. Immediate settlement occurs after construction, primary consolidation is due to pore pressure dissipation and water expulsion, and secondary consolidation is long-term rearrangement of soil particles under constant effective stress.
2. Vertical stress distribution in soil must be determined to calculate settlement. Several methods are described to calculate stress, including Boussinesq analysis and Westergaard's method. Simplified methods and charts like Newmark's can also be used.
3. Settlement is calculated using soil properties like compression index, preconsolidation pressure, and void ratio. Methods are described for cohesive and cohesionless soils using parameters from tests like
This document provides information on bearing capacity of soil and foundations. It defines key foundation terms like contact pressure, foundation depth, shallow and deep foundations. It describes different types of shallow foundations like spread footing, continuous footing, combined footing, strap footing, and mat or raft footing. Factors for selecting a foundation type and comparing shallow vs deep foundations are also discussed. Design criteria of safety against bearing capacity failure and limiting settlement are covered.
This document provides information about bearing capacity of soil and different types of foundations. It discusses key topics like:
- Types of foundations including shallow foundations like spread footings, continuous footings, combined footings, strap footings, and mat/raft foundations. It also discusses deep foundations.
- Factors that determine the selection of a foundation type including the structure's function/loads, sub-surface soil conditions, and cost.
- Comparison of shallow and deep foundations in terms of depth, load distribution, construction, cost, structural design considerations, and settlement.
- Criteria for foundation design including safety against bearing capacity failure and limiting settlement, especially differential settlement.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
This document summarizes bearing capacity theory for shallow foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, net ultimate, and safe bearing capacities. It describes Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation, which considers soil shear strength parameters (c, φ), surcharge loads, and bearing capacity factors (Nc, Nq, Nr). It outlines the failure geometry Terzaghi assumed, with five distinct failure zones. It also distinguishes between general shear, local shear, and punching shear failures based on soil properties and characteristics. Empirical modifications are suggested for local shear failures. Charts summarize the bearing capacity equations for different shaped footings based on experimental results.
The document provides information on shallow foundations, including definitions, design criteria, methods for determining bearing capacity, and modes of failure. It discusses Prandtl's analysis, Rankine's analysis, and Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory. Terzaghi's theory assumes a shallow strip footing fails along a composite shear surface through five zones: an elastic zone under the footing, two radial shear zones, and two linear shear zones forming a triangular shape. The theory is used to derive an expression for ultimate bearing capacity considering the soil's shear strength properties.
This document discusses the bearing capacity of soils and foundations. It defines bearing capacity as the load per unit area that can be supported by a foundation without failing. Several methods for calculating ultimate bearing capacity are presented, including Terzaghi's method, which uses bearing capacity factors that depend on soil properties. The document also discusses factors that affect bearing capacity like the water table, foundation shape and depth, layered soils, sloped ground, and estimates from standard penetration or cone penetration tests. Failure modes like general, local, and punching shear are described along with calculations for eccentric and two-way loading.
Shallow foundation(by indrajit mitra)01Indrajit Ind
Shallow foundations transmit structural loads to near-surface soils and are used when the upper soil layer is sufficiently strong. They include spread, combined, strap, and raft foundations. Design considers factors like bearing capacity, settlement, and water table effects. Plate load tests determine ultimate capacity and settlement by measuring pressure-displacement curves. Terzaghi's theory and IS codes provide design guidance.
1. Load-settlement curves for footings on dense sand or stiff clay show a pronounced peak and failure occurs at very small strains, with sudden sinking or tilting and surface heaving of adjoining soil.
2. For medium sand or clay, failure starts at a localized spot and migrates outward gradually, with large vertical strains and small lateral strains. Failure planes are not clearly defined.
3. Failure zones for footings on slopes do not extend above the horizontal plane through the base, and failure occurs when downward and upward pressures are equal.
This document defines foundations and foundation engineering. It discusses shallow and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread, combined, wall/strip, and mat foundations. Deep foundations include piles and piers. It describes factors in foundation design such as ultimate bearing capacity, settlement, and differential settlement. Footing failures by shear, tension, or bearing capacity are addressed. Examples of isolated, combined, and wall footings are provided along with factors in selecting the appropriate foundation type.
The document discusses stresses in soil. It defines total stress, neutral stress (pore water pressure), and effective stress. Total stress is the stress from overburden soil and applied loads. Neutral stress is the pressure of water in soil voids. Effective stress is carried by soil particles and influences shear strength. The document also covers Boussinesq's method for estimating stresses in soil from point loads, assuming the soil is elastic, homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-infinite.
lecturenote_1463116827CHAPTER-II-BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATION SOIL.pdf2cd
The document discusses bearing capacity of soils and methods to calculate the ultimate and safe bearing capacities of different types of foundations. It defines key terms like ultimate, gross, net and safe bearing capacities. It describes Terzaghi's, Meyerhof's and Skempton's methods to calculate the bearing capacity based on the soil properties and foundation geometry. It provides examples to calculate the ultimate and safe bearing capacities of strip, square, circular and rectangular foundations in cohesive and cohesionless soils using these methods.
This document provides an overview of shallow foundation types and soil bearing capacity. It discusses the different failure modes of shallow foundations, including general shear, local shear, and punching shear failure. Terzaghi's theory of bearing capacity is explained, including his equations. Factors that affect bearing capacity like foundation shape, depth, load inclination, and water table are also covered. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating ultimate and allowable bearing capacity using Terzaghi's equations and accounting for factors like eccentric loading.
This document defines foundations and foundation engineering. It discusses:
1. Foundations transmit structural loads to the soil and come in two types - shallow and deep. Shallow foundations are placed at a shallow depth, typically less than 6m, and include spread footings and strip footings. Deep foundations like piles are embedded much deeper.
2. Foundation engineering involves evaluating soil load capacity and designing foundations to safely transmit loads to the soil while considering economics. It must prevent shear failure, settlement, overturning and sliding.
3. Foundations can fail due to shear, tension or excessive settlement, which depends on factors like soil type and load. Design considers ultimate and allowable bearing capacity as well as allowable settlement.
1) The bearing capacity of a shallow foundation is the maximum pressure it can support before failing. It depends on factors like the soil's strength properties, drainage conditions, foundation shape, and water table level.
2) Two common methods to analyze bearing capacity are the lower bound approach, which finds stresses that cause failure everywhere, and upper bound approach, which assumes a failure mechanism and calculates loads that cause it.
3) The general bearing capacity equation accounts for surcharge loads, soil weight, cohesion, and bearing capacity factors that depend on the soil's friction angle.
4) Short-term undrained and long-term drained analyses consider total and effective stresses, using saturated unit weight and water levels appropriately
This document discusses stress distribution in soil due to various types of loading. It begins by introducing key concepts like how applied loads are transferred through the soil mass, creating stresses that decrease in magnitude but increase in area with depth. The factors that affect stress distribution, like loading size/shape, soil type, and footing rigidity are also covered. The document then examines specific load types - point loads, line loads, rectangular/triangular strip loads, and circular loads - providing the equations to calculate vertical stress increases below each. Several examples demonstrate calculating stress increases below compound load arrangements. The summary provides an overview of the key topics and calculations presented in the document.
This document provides lecture notes on slope stability analysis. It begins with an introduction to slopes, defining slopes and discussing natural and man-made slope failures. It then discusses various methods of slope stability analysis, including infinite slope analysis for cohesionless, cohesive, and cohesive-frictional soils, considering factors like seepage. Finite slope analysis methods are also introduced, including total stress analysis for cohesive and c-φ soils. Key concepts covered include factor of safety, failure surfaces, driving and restoring moments. Factors affecting slope stability like rainfall, earthquakes, and tension cracks are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of earth pressure theories and calculations in GEO 5 software. It discusses active and passive earth pressure theories including Rankine, Coulomb, Caquot-Kerisel, as well as earth pressure at rest. It covers how to calculate earth pressures considering effects of sloped ground, structure inclination, friction, cohesion, water pressure, and surcharge loads. The document is a manual for using GEO 5 to analyze retaining walls and excavations.
This document discusses methods for determining soil bearing capacity from standard penetration test (SPT) numbers. It provides Meyerhof and Bowles equations that relate allowable soil bearing capacity (Qa) to SPT numbers (N) and footing parameters. It also gives examples of using the equations to calculate Qa for different soil and footing conditions.
1. Foundation settlement includes immediate, primary consolidation, and secondary consolidation settlements. Immediate settlement occurs after construction, primary consolidation is due to pore pressure dissipation and water expulsion, and secondary consolidation is long-term rearrangement of soil particles under constant effective stress.
2. Vertical stress distribution in soil must be determined to calculate settlement. Several methods are described to calculate stress, including Boussinesq analysis and Westergaard's method. Simplified methods and charts like Newmark's can also be used.
3. Settlement is calculated using soil properties like compression index, preconsolidation pressure, and void ratio. Methods are described for cohesive and cohesionless soils using parameters from tests like
This document provides information on bearing capacity of soil and foundations. It defines key foundation terms like contact pressure, foundation depth, shallow and deep foundations. It describes different types of shallow foundations like spread footing, continuous footing, combined footing, strap footing, and mat or raft footing. Factors for selecting a foundation type and comparing shallow vs deep foundations are also discussed. Design criteria of safety against bearing capacity failure and limiting settlement are covered.
This document provides information about bearing capacity of soil and different types of foundations. It discusses key topics like:
- Types of foundations including shallow foundations like spread footings, continuous footings, combined footings, strap footings, and mat/raft foundations. It also discusses deep foundations.
- Factors that determine the selection of a foundation type including the structure's function/loads, sub-surface soil conditions, and cost.
- Comparison of shallow and deep foundations in terms of depth, load distribution, construction, cost, structural design considerations, and settlement.
- Criteria for foundation design including safety against bearing capacity failure and limiting settlement, especially differential settlement.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
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at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
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pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
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The CBC machine is a common diagnostic tool used by doctors to measure a patient's red blood cell count, white blood cell count and platelet count. The machine uses a small sample of the patient's blood, which is then placed into special tubes and analyzed. The results of the analysis are then displayed on a screen for the doctor to review. The CBC machine is an important tool for diagnosing various conditions, such as anemia, infection and leukemia. It can also help to monitor a patient's response to treatment.
2. Bearing Capacity Of Shallow Foundation
* A foundation is required for distributing
the loads of the superstructure on a large
area.
* The foundation should be designed
such that
a) The soil below does not fail in shear &
b) Settlement is within the safe limits.
3. Basic Definitions :
1) Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) :
The ultimate bearing capacity is the
gross pressure at the base of the
foundation at which soil fails in shear.
2) Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu) :
It is the net increase in pressure at the
base of foundation that cause shear failure
of the soil.
Thus, qnu = qu – γDf (ovrbruden pressure)
4. 3) Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) :
It is the net soil pressure which can be
safely applied to the soil considering only shear
failure.
Thus, qns = qnu /FOS
FOS - Factor of safety usually taken as 2.00 -3.00
4) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) :
It is the maximum pressure which the soil can
carry safely without shear failure.
qs = qnu / FOS + γ Df
5. 5)Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp) :
It is the net pressure which the soil can
carry without exceeding allowable
settlement.
6) Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna ):
It is the net bearing pressure which can be
used for design of foundation.
Thus,
qna = qns ; if qnp > qns
qna = qnp ; if qns > qnp
It is also known as Allowable Soil Pressure
(ASP).
6. Modes of shear Failure :
Vesic (1973) classified shear failure of
soil under a foundation base into three
categories depending on the type of
soil & location of foundation.
1) General Shear failure.
2) Local Shear failure.
3) Punching Shear failure
7. General Shear failure –
Strip footing resting on surface Load –settlement curve
of dense sand or stiff clay
* The load - Settlement curve in case of footing resting on surface of dense sand
or stiff clays shows pronounced peak & failure occurs at very small stain.
* A loaded base on such soils sinks or tilts suddenly in to the ground showing a
surface heave of adjoining soil
* The shearing strength is fully mobilized all along the slip surface & hence
failure planes are well defined.
* The failure occurs at very small vertical strains accompanied by large lateral
strains.
* ID > 65 ,N>35, Φ > 360, e < 0.55
8. 2) Local Shear failure -
* When load is equal to a certain value qu(1),
* The foundation movement is accompanied by sudden jerks.
* The failure surface gradually extend out wards from the foundation.
* The failure starts at localized spot beneath the foundation & migrates out
ward part by part gradually leading to ultimate failure.
* The shear strength of soil is not fully mobilized along planes & hence
failure planes are not defined clearly.
* The failure occurs at large vertical strain & very small lateral strains.
* ID = 15 to 65 , N=10 to 30 , Φ <30, e>0.75
Strip footing resting on surface Load –settlement curve
Of Medium sand or Medium clay
9. 3) Punching Share failure -
* The loaded base sinks into soil like a punch.
* The failure surface do not extend up to the ground surface.
* No heave is observed.
* Large vertical strains are involved with practically no lateral
deformation.
* Failure planes are difficult to locate 222
10. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Analysis –
Terzaghi (1943) analysed a shallow continuous footing by
making some assumptions –
11. * The failure zones do not extend above the
horizontal plane passing through base of footing
* The failure occurs when the down ward pressure
exerted by loads on the soil adjoining the inclined
surfaces on soil wedge is equal to upward
pressure.
* Downward forces are due to the load (=qu× B) &
the weight of soil wedge (1/4 γB2 tanØ)
* Upward forces are the vertical components of
resultant passive pressure (Pp) & the cohesion (c’)
acting along the inclined surfaces.
12. For equilibrium:
ΣFv = 0
1 γ B2tan ø + quxB = 2Pp +2C’ × Li sinø’
4
where Li = length of inclined surface CB
( = B/2 /cosø’)
Therefore,
qu× B = 2Pp + BC’ tanø’ - ¼ γ B2tanø’ –------ (1)
The resultant passive pressure (Pp) on the surface
CB & CA constitutes three components ie. (Pp)r,
(Pp)c & (Pp) q,
Thus,
Pp = (Pp)r + (Pp)c + (Pp)q
13. qu× B= 2[ (Pp)r +(Pp)c +(Pp)q ]+ Bc’tanø’-¼ γ B2 tanø’
Substituting; 2 (Pp)r - ¼rB2tanø1 = B × ½ γ BNr
2 (Pp)q = B × γ D Nq
& 2 (Pp)c + Bc1 tanø1 = B × C1 Nc;
We get,
qu =C’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 γ B N γ
This is Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity equation for
determining ultimate bearing capacity of strip footing.
Where Nc, Nq & Nr are Terzaghi’s bearing capacity
factors & depends on angle of shearing resistance (ø)
15. Important points :
* Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity equation is applicable
for general shear failure.
* Terzaghi has suggested following empirical reduction to
actual c & ø in case of local shear failure
Mobilised cohesion Cm = 2/3 C
Mobilised angle of øm = tan –1 (⅔tanø)
Thus, Nc’,Nq’ & Nr’ are B.C. factors for local shear failure
qu = CmNc’+ γ Df Nq’+ 0.5 γ B Nr’
* Ultimate Bearing Capacity for square & Circular footing -Based
on the experimental results, Terzaghi’s suggested following
equations for UBC –
Square footing qu = 1.2c’ Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.4 γ BNr
Circular footing qu = 1.2c1Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.3 γ BNr
16. Effect of water table on Bearing
Capacity :
* The equation for ultimate bearing
capacity by Terzaghi has been
developed based on assumption that
water table is located at a great depth .
* If the water table is located close to
foundation ; the equation needs
modification.
17. i) When water table is located above the base of
footing -
* The effective surcharge is reduced as the
effective weight below water table is
equal to submerged unit weight.
q = Dw.r +x.γsub
put x = Df-Dw
q = γsub Df +( γ- γsub)Dw
19. ii) When water table is located at depth y below base :
* Surcharge term is not affected.
* Unit weight in term is γ = γsub + y ( γ – γsub)
B
Thus,
qu = c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5B γ Nr
When y = B ; W.T. at B below base of footing.
qu = c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 B γ Nr
Hence when ground water table is at b ≥ B, the equation is not
affected.
20. Hansen’s Bearing Capacity Equation :
Hansen’s Bearing capacity equation is :
qu = cNcScdcic + qNqSqdqiq + 0.5 γ BNrSrdr ir
where,
Nc,Nq, & Nr are Hansen’s B.C factors which are
some what smaller than Terzaghi’s B.C. factors.
Sc.Sq &Sr are shape factors which are
independent of angle of shearing resistance;
dc,dq, & dr are depth factors ;
Ic, iq & ir are iodination factors
21. The same form of equation has been
adopted by I.S. 6403 –1971 & may be used
for general form as
qnu = c Nc Sc dc ic + q(Nq-1)Sqdqiq + 0.5 γ BNrSrdr ir W’
22. Settlement of foundation :
a) Settlement under loads
Settlement of foundation can be classified as-
1. Elastic settlement (Si): Elastic or immediate
settlement takes place during or immediately after
the construction of the structure. It is also known as
the distortion settlement as it is due to distortions
within foundation soil.
2. Consolidation settlement (Sc): Consolidation
settlement occurs due to gradual expulsion of water
from the voids at the soil. It is determined using
Terzaghi's theory of consolidation.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss): The
settlement occurs after completion of the primary
consolidation. The secondary consolidation is non-
significant for inorganic soils.
23. Thus,
Total settlement (s) = Si+ Sc + Ss
b) Settlement due to other causes
1. Structural collapse of soil.
2. Underground erosion.
3. Lowering of water table. .
4. Thermal changes.
5. Subsidence etc.
24. Elastic settlement of foundation :
a) On Cohesive soils
According to schleicher, the vertical settlement
under uniformly distributed flexible area is,
Si = q B 1- μ2/Es I
where
q -uniformly distributed load.
B - characteristic length of loaded area,
Es - modulus of elasticity of the soil.
μ - poisson's ratio.
I - influence factor which dependent upon
elastic properties of base & shape at base.
Alternatively, the value of [1- μ2/Es] I can be
determined from the plate load test.
25. b) On Cohesionless Soils
According to Stuartmann & Hartman immediate
settlement on Cohesionless soils is given by -
Where, C1 -Correction factor for depth of foundation
embedment
C2 - correction factor for creep is soils.
q - pressure at the level of foundation
q -surcharge (γ Df)
Es- modulus of elasticity = 766 N (KN/m2) from SPT
= 2qc from SCPT
ZB
Z S
i
E
I
q
q
C
C
S
0
2
2
1
26. Settlement of foundation on Cohesionless Soils
Settlement of foundations on Cohesionless soils are
generally determined indirectly using the semi-empirical
methods.
1. Static Cone Penetration method
In this, the sand layer is divided into small layers such
that each small layer has approximately constant value
of the cone resistance. The average value of the cone
resistance of each small layer is determined.
The settlement of each layer is determined using the
following equation-
S = H/C Log (σ0 + Δ σ) / σ0
Where, c = 1.5 qc/ σ0
27. in which qC - static cone resistance
σ0 - mean effective overburden pressure,
Δ σ - Increase is pressure at center of layer
due to net foundation pressure.
H - thickness of layer.
The total settlement of the entire layer is
equal to the sum of settlements of individual layers.
2. Standard Penetration Test
IS 8009 (part I) 1976 gives a chart for the calculation of
settlement per unit pressure as a foundation of the width
of footing & the standard penetration number.
3. Plate Load Test
The settlement of the footing can be determined from
the settlement of the plate in the plate load test.
28. Differential Settlement :
* The difference between the magnitudes of
settlements at any two points is known as
differential settlement.
* If there is large differential settlement
between various part of a structure, distortion
may occur due to additional moments
developed.
* The differential settlement may caused due
to tilting of a rigid base, dishing of flexible
base or due to non uniformity of loading.
* If S1 & S2 are the settlements at two
points,then differential settlement is
= S1 -S2
Angular distortion = (S1- S2 ) / L = /L
29. * It is difficult to predict the differential
settlement.
* It is generally observed indirectly
from the maximum settlement.
* It is observed that the differential
settlement is less than 50% of the
maximum settlement is most of the
cases.
The differential settlement can be
reduced by providing rigid rafts,
founding the structures at great depth
& avoiding the eccentric loading.
30. Allowable Settlement
* The allowable maximum settlement
depends upon the type of soil, the type of
foundation & the structural framing system.
* The maximum settlement ranging from
20mm to 300mm is generally permitted for
various structures.
* IS 1904-1978 gives values of the maximum
& differential settlements of different type of
building.
31. Sand & hard
Clay
Plastic clay
Max.Settle. Diff.Settl Angular
distortion
Max.Settle Diff.
Settle.
Angular
distortion
Isolated
foundation
i) steel struct
ii) RCC struct
50mm
50mm
0.0033L
0.0015L
1/300
1/666
50mm
75mm
0.0033L
0.0015L
1/300
1/666
Raft
foundation
i) steel struct
ii) Rcc struct.
75mm
75mm
0.0033L
0.002L
1/300
1/500
100mm
100mm
0.0033L
0.002L
1/300
1/500
Theoretically, no damage is done to the superstructure
if the soil settles uniformly.
However, settlements exceeding 150mm may cause
trouble to utilities such as water pipe lines, sewers,
telephone lines & also is access from streets.
32. Consolidation Settlement :
* Compressibility of soil is the property of the soil due to
which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive
forces.
* The compression of soils can occurs due to-
A) Compression of solid particles & water in the voids.
B) Compression & expulsion of air in the voids.
C) Expulsion of water in the voids.
* The compression of a saturated soil under a steady
pressure is known as consolidation. It is entirely due to
expulsion of water from the voids. Due to expulsion of
water, the solid particle shift from one position to the other
by rolling & sliding & thus attain a closer packing causing
reduction in volume.
33. Consolidation of laterally confined soil:
When a pressure , is applied to a saturated soil
sample of unit cross- sectional area, the pressure is
shared by the solid particles & water as
+ u = ,
Initially, just after the application of pressure, the
entire load is taken by water in form of excess
hydrostatic pressure ( u ), thus,
0 + ( u , ) = ,
The excess hydrostatic pressure so developed sets
up a hydraulic gradient, & the water starts escaping
from the voids. As the water escapes, the applied
pressure is transferred from the water to the solids.
Thus at t = tf,
+ 0 = ,
As the effective stress increases the volume of soil
decreases & consolidation completes under , load.
34. Laboratory Consolidation Test:
* The consolidation test is conducted in a laboratory study
the compressibility of soil.
* Consolidation test apparatus, known as consolidometer or
an odometer consists a loading device & a cylindrical
container called as consolidation cell. Consolidation cell are of
two types, i) free ring or floating ring cell &
ii) fixed ring cell
* The internal diameter of the cell is 60 mm & thickness of
sample taken is usually 20 mm.
* The consolidometer has arrangements for application of
the desired load increment,saturation of sample &
measurement of change in thickness of sample at every stage
of consolidation process
35. * An initial setting load of about 5 kN/ m 2 is applied to sample.
* The first increment of load to give a pressure of 10 KN/ m2 is then
applied to the specimen, the dial gauge readings are taken after 0.25,
1.0, 2,4,9,16,…… etc up to the 24 hours.
* The second increment of load is then applied. The successive
pressures usually applied are 20,40, 80, 160 & 320 KN/ m 2 etc till the
desired maximum load intensity is reached.
( Actual loading on soil after construction of structure)
* After consolidation under final load increment is complete, the load
is reduced to ¼th of final load & allowed to stand for 24 hours. The
sample swells & reading of dial gauge is taken when swelling is
complete. The process is repeated till complete unloading.
Immediately after complete unloading, the weight of ring & sample is
taken. The sample is dried in over for 24 hours & its dry mass Ms is
taken.
36. Consolidation test results
1) Dial gauge reading time plot :
Plotted for each load increment
Required for determining the coefficient of consolidation.
Useful for obtaining the rate of consolidation in field.
37. 2) Final void ratio – effective stress plot:
Plotted for entire consolidation process under
desired load.
Required for determination of the magnitude of the
consolidation settlements in field.
40. Important Definations
1) Coefficient of compressibility ( av) is defined as
decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress.
av = -de/d = -e/ ( slope of e - curve units – m 2 /KN )
2) Coefficient of volume change ( mv) is defined as the
volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress.
mv = - (v / v o)/ in which,
vo – initial volume,
v – change in volume
- change in effective stress
a) mv = -(e / 1+ eo)/
b) for one dimension, v = H
mv = - (H / Ho) /
also mv = av / (1+ eo )
in which, eo- initial void ratio.
e - change in void ratio.
Ho initial thickness.
H – change in thickness.
41. 3) Compression index ( Cc) is equal to the slope
of the linear portion of the void ration versus log
plot.
Cc = - e/ log 10 ( 0 + ) / 0
in which, 0 = initial effective stress.
- change in effective stress.
Empirical relationship after Terzaghi & Peck;
a) for undisturbed soils Cc = 0.009 ( W L- 10 )
b) for remoulded soils Cc = 0.007 ( W L- 10 )
c) Also Cc = 0.54 ( eo – 0.35 )
Cc = 0.0054 ( 2.6 wo- 35 )
42. Normally consolidated soil :- A normally
consolidated soil is one which had not been
subjected to a pressure greater than the
present existing pressure. The portion AB
of loading –unloading curve represent the
soil in normally consolidated condition.
Over consolidated soil: - A soil is said to
over consolidated if it had been subjected in
the past to a pressure in excess of the
present pressure. The soil in the range CD
(loading –unloading curve) when it
recompressed represent overconsolidated
condition.
43. Normally consolidated soils &
Overconsolidated soils are not different types of
soils but these are conditions in which a soil
exists.
Preconsolidation Pressure- The maximum
pressure to which an overconsolidated soil had
been subjected in the past is known as
preconsolidation pressure or overconsolidation
pressure ( c)
When a soil specimen is taken from a natural
deposit, the weight of overlying material is
removed. This causes an expansion soil due to
reduction in pressure. Thus the specimen is
generally preconsolidated.
44. Final Settlement Of Soil Deposit In The Field
For computation of final settlement, the coefficient of
volume change or compression index (Cc) is required. For
time rate of computation, the Terzaghi’s theory is used.
Final settlement using coefficient of volume change :
Let Ho = initial thickness of clay deposit.Consider a small
element of thickness Δz at depth z.
= effective pressure increment causing settlement.
Then H = mv Ho (σ )
Representing the final settlement as sf & taking Ho = z
Thus, total settlement of the complete layer,
alternatively
-
1
)
........(2
i
)
z
(
i
)
(
i
)
mv
(
n
i
Sf
1)
(
........
Ho
,
tan
&
mv
both
mv
0
mv
SF
t
cons
are
if
z
H
SF
sf Ho
Ho
45. Final Settlement Using Void Ratio
The value of e corresponding to the
given load increment is read off from e – σ
plot & substituted in –
H = Ho ( e / 1 + eo )
i.e Sf = Ho ( e / 1 + eo )……. (1)
where eo is the initial void ratio. The usual
practice is not to use e but to use the
coefficient of compression (Cc) or
coefficient of recompression index ( Cr)
46. a) Normally Consolidated Soils - The compression index of
a normally considered soil is constant.
Cc σ0 + Δσ
Sf = Ho Log
1+e0 10 σ0
b) Pre Consolidated Soils -
Cr σ0 + Δσ
Sf = Ho Log
1+e0 10 σ0
The above equation is applicable when (σ0 + Δσ) < σc.