Batek Of Malyasia

Batek of Malyasia
The Batek of Malaysia
The Batek of Malaysia The Batik is an indigenous tribes living in the rainforest of the peninsula of
Malaysia. They live in camps composed of five to six nuclear families. They are mostly foragers
although the occasionally practice horticulture. To survive the tribes relies on hunting, gathering and
trading rattan or forest products. Malaysia is on the south Malay Peninsula and stretches from the
Thai border down to the island of Singapore. The population of Malaysia is about twenty–three
million. The main idea of the research is to provide a basic understanding of the Batek behavioral
and cultural lifestyle. In this paper, you will see how this culture shares their kinship, the role of
gender relation, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If someone in the group did not want to follow, the headman does not have the power to force
anyone to follow his ideas, to move the camp, or were to hunt.
The Batek people are a very simply people who rely on the forest to provide their needs to sustain
life. These indigenous people have very little need for an economic system. They do not own
anything nor do they want to. They will produce items from the forest know as rattan. These good
often traded for other rattan that is not native to them. The Batek might do some light agriculture
work, but mostly, they are foragers that live off the land and enjoy the peace that comes with
common wealth. The Batek have "no concept of land ownership – the idea is absurd to them – and
natural resources in the forest cannot be owned until someone harvests them" (Peaceful n.d).
Without ownership and money, there is no greed or lust of what another person has.
Simplicity is that of the Batik; they are peaceful, helpful and encouraging. They are able to form a
band that is looking out for each other, they are economically peaceful, and believe in a higher
power that gets them through life. Normally, the Batek people live in domestic groups of not less
than three together forming a camp. These groups mainly reside in tents, each housing
approximately ten per tent. The preferred
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Being In Foraging Societies
Being in a foraging society had some advantages and disadvantages and being in an urbanized
society also had some advantages and disadvantages Foraging societies of the paleolithic age are
made up of many social economical and political structures, as well as urbanized societies. Foraging
societies relied on the weather greatly.they had to go out and look for their own food and that was a
great disadvantage due to the fact that if the weather was bad they couldn't go out and look for food.
in foraging societies they migrated to many different places in search of better living and goods or
they wouldn't survive. They relied primarily on nature In harsher environments, such as grasslands
and semi–deserts, the foraging way of life is not possible.

Social Animal Paper
Dolphins are highly social animals that travel in schools. It makes sense that they would sometimes
forage as a cooperative group. Several species have been observed to be group foragers. Some of
these species include spotted dolphins, Clymene dolphins, and bottlenose dolphins. The species
most associated with group foraging has been the dusky dolphin. Scientists have been trying to
determine how many dolphins actually forage in groups, and how they do it. It is hard to concretely
determine these, because quite a bit of foraging takes place under water. Scientists are still trying to
fully understand how these complex animals work.
Foraging is defined as "feeding and all behaviors associated with it (Dugatkin 2014)." There are
many different theories that researchers have used to show how foraging works. In a study about
foraging in groups, researchers Krause and Ruxton found that "increasing foraging group size
increases the amount of food each forager receives (Dugatkin)." This may ... Show more content on
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It was observed that dusky dolphins traveled in groups of 6–15 individuals. 20–30 of these small
groups may be in a 100 square km area. These small groups suddenly stop moving when a school of
fish is seen. Dolphins begin swimming around and underneath the school. They also leap at the
sides of the school. Observations show that the group of dolphins herd the fish to the surface so they
cannot escape. While the other dolphins maintain the bubble, one individual at a time will break
ranks and collect up to five anchovies. They will then join back into the barrier and another dolphin
will take its chance to eat. It was also observed that the group of dolphins did not feed for a long
time. The average time spent feeding on one group was five minutes. Eventually that school of fish
will escape and the group will move on and begin to hunt for some more fish for several

Comparing Societies Vs Foraging Societies
Living the life in a foraging society, people had no control of the source of food and it could be
brutal. They depended on the food that they hunted and gathered. These societies didn't have an
efficient system of obtaining food. The men and women both spent their time searching for food,
which could've showed gender equality. Searching for food could be dangerous for these people
because they could be attacked/killed by animals or even humans. They were demographically small
and always on the move, they did not build permanent shelters or dwellings and had few personal
possessions. In contrast to foraging societies, state societies exhibit to some degree of complexity
with their social organizations and government structures. These people

Female Polar Bears
Polar bears are a unique animal all their own. Male polar bears have a versatile diet and foraging
strategy compared to female polar bears, which is proving helpful with recent climate changes.
Throughout this paper, the foraging techniques of male and female polar bears will be discussed
along with increasing climate temperatures and how it is affecting polar bears. Male polar bears are
more versatile when foraging for food compared to female polar bears. Thiemann et al. (2011)
found that males would have a wider range in food selection due to the size of the adult male polar
bears giving it a greater opportunity to hunt larger animals. Therefore the males could better forage
because of more options available to them. Thiemann et al. (2011) ... Show more content on
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Since the ice is slowly breaking away, it is causing a negative effect for polar bears and their
foraging ability by not allowing an area for hunting of ringed seals (Elvin, 2014). Rockwell and
Gormezano (2009) talk about how the breaking apart of the ice disrupts the amount of time the polar
bears have for hunting seals which in return is causing the polar bears to travel to land sooner.
Rockwell and Gormezano (2009) state that as the polar bears are coming to shore sooner, they are
interfering with the hatching season of snow geese. Due to the polar bears intruding on the nests,
this gives the polar bears the opportunity to consume the offspring of the snow geese and obtain any
energy still required (Rockwell and Gormezano, 2009). Even though the polar bears may not get the
energy they need from seals, they are still able to get it by other means because of the climate
changing. Overall, male and female polar bears have their own ways of hunting and foraging.
Although the females have their physical limitations due to size or their cubs, they still find a way to
survive like the males do by feeding off carcasses and hunting. Climate change is the other limiting
factor that is changing the way polar bears forage, but is also providing new ways as well through
nesting grounds. As the world keeps changing, the polar bears are changing as well to adapt and
survive the best way

Bill Morphology
Several examples of bill morphology describing foraging behavior and efficiency have been
discussed in class. The examples are Natural Selection in the wild with Medium ground Finches,
Sunbirds, and Crossbills extracting seeds. All of these examples show how bill morphology can
affect foraging. Foraging describes how birds look for food within their environment. Foraging
behavior was studied in Medium ground finches living on Daphne Major. In 1976 there were 1400
birds living on the island. The same year, the island received 122 mm of rain in the wet season. The
next year the island had a drought and only received 24 in of rain. The year after the island received
128 mm of rain. This drought contributed to mortality of some of the birds. It was found that out of
a total of 388 juveniles only 1 survived. Most of the smaller birds died due to lack of smaller seeds.
In 1976, 17% of seeds eaten were large. The number jumped to 49% in 1977. The smaller birds
were mostly females. This lead to a depletion in the sex ratio. Before 1977, there was one female to
every male. However, in 1977 there was inly one female to every six males. During this same time
the amount of seed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In order to further test this a 3 cone treatment was used. The three cones were: closed, opened and
reclosed, and open cones. Some of the birds also had their bills shortened. The results were
dependent on the upper mandible length and if the cone was opened or closed. As expected, the
open cones were the easiest for the the birds to extract the seeds from. The mandible length of the
birds affected how efficient the birds were at opening the reclosed cones. The birds did a slightly
better job at opening the closed cones. However, towards the end of experiment the birds ran out of
cones. Therefore, the experiment using the closed cones was only done over a short

The Four Advantages Of A Foraging Society
I normally consider myself to be a person who appreciates simplicity, so my initial reaction to this
question was that I would prefer a foraging society to an industrial society. By the time I had
finished thinking it through, however, I was less certain of my preference. Four advantages of a
foraging society that I find particularly compelling (in addition to "simplicity," to whatever extent
that assumption is true) relate to human health, population control, egalitarianism, and sustainability.
The need to hunt and gather for subsistence means that people are active through the day and
unlikely to indulge in laziness and in wasteful overeating habits that can wreak havoc on human
health. Therefore, it stands to reason that lifestyle–linked health problems, such as diabetes,
coronary disease, obesity, and in some cases, cancer are less commonplace or non–existent in
foraging societies. In an industrial society, we have the technical ability to alter things not intended
for human consumption into "food" with questionable safety. I'm thinking about everything from
aspartame to Twinkies, to genetically modified organisms... there is no shortage of examples of
consumables in an industrialized society that should be considered eat–at–your–own–risk. We have
moved away from consuming simple, whole foods and toward an array of fast–food habits just
because we can. Unfortunately, the negative health impacts of some of these habits are becoming
clearer all the time.
In biology I

Foraging Behavior Observation Report
Dr. Janzen,
I was glad to receive such a hearty and informational response. I really appreciate you taking the
time to reply. I do have some research under my belt, I have been working with Dr. Jon Davenport
at Southeast Missouri State for about the last year just helping where I can. This spring I led an
experiment with spotted salamanders (A. maculatum) regarding foraging behavior in response to
predator kairomones. We hope to have the results figured out and go to a few herp conferences in
the early fall semester, and to have the paper out for review by the end of the year. I will be helping
him with more projects for the rest of my time at Southeast Missouri State. He is currently working
on an analysis of Alligator Snapping Turtles in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I plan on taking it towards the end of the summer and my GPA is better than some worse than others
it's at about a 3.45 I'm actively trying to get it into that 3.5 range because I know that 3.5 or above is
where most people would like to see prospective students at.
As far as the assistantships and fellowships go what you have mentioned sounds like a great deal of
$2000 per month it is more than I expected to be honest. I for the most part understand how
assistantships work, but must admit I am unsure how fellowships do through Iowa State I haven't
been able to find real clear information on how the application and acceptance process works. I'm a
first–generation college student with no siblings so everything for me has been a kind of figure it
out as you go when it comes to how scholarship, financial aid, and things of that nature.
I would definitely like to stay in contact with you I am very interested in your work and the
possibility to work in your lab in the future. Thank you for your time and consideration and I hope
to hear from you soon!
Regards, Christopher

Mane Jelly Fish Research Paper
In order to understand and aid an endangered organism it is important that one must be able to
identify spatial and temporal characteristics centered on the organism's means of energy intake. This
includes not only how they search, forage or capture their prey, but also what their prey is and where
it can be found geographically. This experiment specifically focuses on the foraging aspect of an
endangered species, the Leatherback Sea Turtles, in order to see how their prey influences their
foraging behavior and success. The problem that most researchers have been faced with when
regarding this topic is the fact that most prey are encountered and consumed at great depths by the
organism. Thus, there is not a lot of information or data that has been discovered because ... Show
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Thus, they concluded that these temperate waters off of eastern Canada play an extremely important
role in the Leatherback's survival as they allow them to capitalize on seasonally–abundant prey in
coastal temperate waters, showing that their migratory patterns are a necessity in order to ensure
their survival by allowing them to come gorge off of the abundance of food. The scientists actually
found out that the turtles, when they come to the waters off of eastern Canada, increase in mass by
roughly 33 percent. They also found out that even though jelly fish are fairly energy–poor the intake
of them by the Leatherback Turtles actually results in a high energy intake for

Changes And Continuities In The Foraging Era
6. Analyze changes and continuities (i.e. consistencies) in the way human societies are structured
(think social classes). Human societies throughout time have been structured by people's roles in
society and wealth. In the Foraging Era, "society" only consisted of your kin, as hierarchies were
based on gender, age, experience, and respect within the family. Differences in roles during this time
period didn't create hierarchical relations as human relationships were more personal rather than
hierarchical. People didn't need the institutionalized structures of modern society, which were
designed to regulate relationships between strangers (page 20). In the Agrarian Era, productivity
rose, leading to stored surpluses, which allowed communities ... Show more content on
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Human society became multilayered as some groups began to specialize in exploiting other people
(page 45–46). As communities grew larger, people had to find new ways of defining their
relationships with neighbors, and determine who had access to resources, and who could administer
justice, organize warfare, trade, and religious worship. Communities had to find ways of regulating
exchanges between persons whose interests and needs were diverse. The simple rules of kinship had
to be supplemented with more elaborate rules regulating behavior between people whose contacts
were more fleeting and less personal. Large building projects and organizing warfare required new
types of leadership. This led to the creation of institutionalized political and economic hierarchies
with wealthy rulers, priests, and merchants on one end and slaves at the other end. Gender
hierarchies may have arisen because the success of every household depended on bearing as much
children as possible, so women usually had less opportunities to take specialized roles, some of
which may have brought wealth and power. Men claimed natural superiority based on their role in
power structures, and women were increasingly defined by their role within the household and to
men, thus the rise

Bumblebees Research Paper
It is widely believed that the evolution of floral characteristics is influenced by the perception and
behaviors of insect pollinators such as bumblebees. Variation in floral traits may provide pollinators
with cues that reduce search time in flower locating, thereby increasing foraging efficiency.
Furthermore, genetic variation in these traits may be subject to pollinator–mediated selection.
Pollinators may be innately attracted to certain combinations of floral characteristics; alternatively,
they may learn to associate suites of traits with rewarding flowers. The effects of floral size, color,
and odor on bumblebee foraging behavior were tested. The main research question is how various
floral factors (size, color, and odor) affect the foraging ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the earlier discussed experiments, each consisted of an undocumented practice run that allowed
the bumblebees to get accustomed to the new test environment. This suggests that there is an
adjustment period for bumblebees. Bumblebee lifespan is short at around one month, therefore it is
evolutionary illogical for bees to continue learning more effective manners and methods to improve
foraging behavior. In humans, it is easier to learn a new language when one is a child compared to
an adult because the brain is still developing and learning is easier to happen in a developing brain,
could a similar concept be true in adaptation to a new environment in bumblebees? My research
question is: how does maturity of bumblebees affect foraging efficiency in a new environment? My
hypothesis is that maturity and age have a negative correlation to the initial foraging efficiency for
bumblebees in a new environment. My reasoning behind choosing this hypothesis is because
although I do not think there is a constant learning phase for bumblebees, I do think there is an
initial learning phase that occurs and this learning phase occurs more quickly than a mature
bumblebee reconfiguring its foraging practices to adjust to a new

Anthropogenic Noise On Cetaceans
Rays of pale sunlight pass through a gradient of cerulean blue. The wide–open space seems almost
eerie until a humpback whale gently swimming sings his song, and the space fills with wonder, until
a disturbance arises.
Cetaceans evolved to use sound as their way of sensing the environment, navigating, foraging, and
selecting mates. Anthropogenic sounds have negative effects on marine life. Humans produce their
own underwater sounds through activities such as aircraft overflights, boats and ships (vessels),
tourism, stationary offshore activities, air gun firing, sonars, explosions, and methods to control
movement of marine life (W. Johnson Richardson and Bernd Würsig, 1997).
Many studies have discovered vessels as the main contributor of anthropogenic noise. It is difficult
to study the effects of anthropogenic noise on cetaceans because it is hard for scientists to see the
effects on communities in aquatic environments. Nevertheless, researchers are finding new methods
to study cetacean acoustics, which results in better details, but it is still hard to understand the long–
term effects of anthropogenic noise on these mammals. Researchers need to conduct more studies
and add to previous data and results ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bottlenose dolphins will decrease their calls in the presence of certain vessels. Call rates decrease,
frequency and length of whistles increase, and creaks changed in the presence of ferries and leisure
boats. Dolphin whistles are a form of social communication. Vessel noise masks whistles interfering
with important social interactions such as mating and mother–calf communication, it is hard for the
receiver to recognize signals. Dolphins use creaks in echolocation; changes in these creaks reduce
the efficiency of foraging. Short–term vessel noise effects on foraging and mating may turn into
long–term, affecting residency patterns (David Lundquist et al.,

A New Optimization Technique And The Foraging Strategy Of...
In 2002, a new optimization technique was proposed by Passino which is inspired by the foraging
strategy of Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) bacteria present in human intestines called Bacteria Foraging
Optimization Algorithm (BFOA) [1]. It is a population–based stochastic search algorithm that has
been introduced to solve the problem related to optimization and control system. Since its inception,
BFOA successfully has drawn the attention of many researchers from diverse fields to exploit its
performance as a high–performance optimizer and has been successfully applied in real world
applications such as optimal power control [2], image processing [3], jobs scheduling[4], [5] and
etc. The advantages that motivate researchers to explore its ... Show more content on
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By sending the signal, it enables an individual bacterium to communicate with others. Healthy
bacteria will be reproduced and poor foraging bacteria will be eliminated. The bacteria will keep
repeating these processes in their lifetime.
In BFOA, each of the individual bacteria in the search space is representing an individual solution to
the optimization problem [6]. Each bacterium will undergo chemotactic steps to the direction of
minimum fitness function (rich in nutrients). During the taxis, each bacterium will communicate
with other to swarm in the group toward the global optimum. Bacteria will be evaluated again
according to their health and sorted in ascending order. Half of them with better health will be
reproduced by splitting into two and the other half of poor health bacteria will be eliminated from
the search space. In order to explore more space, some of the bacteria will be eliminated and
reinitialized randomly to explore unvisited space in order to find the global minimum or maximum
point. For better understanding, this algorithm mechanism will be explained in solving an
optimization problem.
In optimization problem that we need to find the minimum of J(θ), θ ∈ ℜp, where we do not have
measurements or an analytical description of the gradient ∇J(θ). This problem is considered as a
non–gradient optimization problem. BFOA does not rely on the gradient function to operate but use
concentration of location of search space as the fitness function. Let θ be

Description Of The Snowy Egret
SPECIES PROFILE for SNOWY EGRET
(Egretta thula)
prepared for
MSC 276 – Marine Vertebrate Zoology by Ashley Wells alwells705@cfcc.mail.edu Submitted:
February 8, 2017
Names and classification
Egretta thula
Snowy Egret
Synonyms: Aigrette neigeuse (French), Garceta pie–dorado/Garza chusmita/Garza nivea (Spanish)
Family: Ardeidae (Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets)
Description
The snowy egret Egretta thula is a relatively large wading bird, standing at around 24 inches [60.96
cm] high and displaying a brilliant white plumage. Very similar in appearance to the Great Egret, the
Snowy Egret can be distinguished by its bright yellow feet, sometimes referred to as "golden
slippers," which contrast against its black legs. However, even ... Show more content on
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Fig. 1 Distribution of Egretta thula throughout North and South America based on seasons.
Habitat
Snowy egrets inhabit marshes, ponds, swamps, and mudflats (Bull & Farrand). Since snowy egrets
are wading birds, like other herons and egrets, they prefer habitats that are close to water. Wading
birds breed and build their nests in close proximity to water, allowing them to have access to food
while raising their young. In North America, the snowy egret's favorite habitats include salt
marshes, shallow bays, and mangroves. Snowy egrets prefer similar habitats throughout South and
Central America and the Caribbean (Weslosky, 2002).
Conservation Biology
Life cycle and reproduction
Breeding colonies, sometimes of multiple different species, form on islands surrounded by water or
guarded by a vegetative buffer. Such features are presumed to be desirable due to the protection they
provide from predators on the ground (Frederick, 2002). Nests are often built using sticks, reeds,

and other vegetation and constructed in trees, shrubs, or other aquatic vegetation (Elphick, 2014). A
clutch consists of 3–5 eggs, a pale blue–green in color, laid in a nest located in a bush or reedbed,
specific to the species of egret (Bull & Farrand, 1994). Breeding season begins in March or early
April and males will perform both flight and vocal displays to attract females. Snowy egrets are
social nesters

How Selection On Behavior Shapes Brain Investment
Understanding how selection on behavior shapes brain investment is a major question in the
analysis of the evolution of animal sociality [Szathmary and Maynard Smith, 1995; Edelman and
Changeux, 2001; Ricklefs, 2004; Gronenberg and Riveros, 2009]. Neural tissue is energetically
expensive and therefore brain regions should only enlarge when needed to meet functional demands
[Niven and Laughlin, 2008]. The social brain hypothesis posits that social interactions are so
cognitively demanding that social environment selects for enhanced neural development
[Humphrey, 1976; Dunbar and Shultz, 2007]. Studies supporting the social brain hypothesis usually
rely on comparative analyses across taxa with varying levels of social complexity and use ... Show
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To date only two brain investment studies on solitary and facultatively social bees are reported. A
study on solitary bees, Osmia lignaria found that adults emerge with neuronal development typical
of experienced workers in advanced eusocial insect species, but also found that mushroom body
neuropil volume further increased with foraging experience [Withers et al., 2007]. These results
confirm that mushroom bodies are important for cognitive processes in solitary antecedents, but
cannot inform us on the role of social experience on neuropil investment. Smith et al. [2010]
examined brain size and development using the facultatively social bee Megalopta genalis, a species
with both solitary and primitively social colonies in the same populations. Mushroom body size
increased with foraging behavior in solitary individuals and workers compared to newly emerged
M. genalis females, but even greater mushroom body development was found in queens. Smith et al.
[2010] attributed enhanced growth of the mushroom body cortex to maintaining behavioral
dominance. Much like obligately eusocial bees, however, Megalopta are bees with distinct
reproductive (queens) and foraging (workers) roles and therefore the relative roles of foraging and
social experience are not

Forging Groups: The Hunter And Gathering Foraging Societies
The hunter and gathering foraging societys do not have any recognized status differences and tend
to share resource. However, there are people who have skills and talets not shared by other and
some who are more influincual in decision making. They are polytheism which means they tend
recognize supernatural beings with equal or close to equal power and influence over the world. Most
foraging groups are closely family related and it is the basis for social organizations, which can be
called bands. When resources are abundante a few bands may even form together to better use each
bands tallants and resources. They practice population control because most foraging sociaties can
not sustatin a large group of people. Most foraging cultures are

Agar Civilizations Vs Foraging Research Paper
Have you ever stopped to think of 10 reasons why Agrarian civilizations may be more beneficial
than foraging and compared them to your daily life? Comparing the advantages and disadvantages
of both Agrarian civilizations and Foraging, can be a very great thing to know. With knowledge
about Agrarian civilizations and Foraging life can be even more interesting and you can get a very
different view point of what kind of life we are living. Foraging has less benefits and even bigger
risks than Agrarian civilizations.
To begin with Agrarian civilizations can store food on the other hand Foragers they don't have the
ability to store food for the winter. During the winters people can run very low on food supply, but
Agrarian civilizations have a solution to that problem. Over the summers the farmers harvest more
crops thanks to the bright sunlight that the sun releases in the sunny summer days. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The populations of Agrarian civilizations may increase to be too big but that can be a good thing.
But at the same time Foragers an increase in population can have a great effect on their way of life
less food for everyone and more work. To briefly sum up, with all of this kind of knowledge about
agrarian civilizations and foraging your life can be more interesting now that you get a very
different view point of the life that we all live today. Agrarian civilizations had a big impact in our
early world history, all thanks to their collective learning and their ingenious inventions that we still
use today. The Agrarian civilizations are like the base of the modern world. For Foraging we use
some of their techniques but Agrarian civilizations are the ones that played a bigger role in our
world

What Is The Difference Between The Alive Fids Of High And...
1. a) b) t–Test: Paired Two Sample for Means Variable 1 Variable 2 Mean 8.833333 7.066666667
Variance 21.9697 25.68060606 Observations 12 12 Pearson Correlation 0.118583 Hypothesized
Mean Difference 0 df 11 t Stat 0.944132 P(T<=t) one–tail 0.182689 t Critical one–tail 1.795885
P(T<=t) two–tail 0.365378 t Critical two–tail 2.200985 Ho: There is not a significant difference
between the alive FIDs of high and low resource abundance. Ha: There is a significant difference
between the alive FIDs of high and low resource abundance There is not a significant difference
between the alive FIDs of high and low resource abundance because the p value is bigger than 0.05
the standard value, meaning that we cannot reject our ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ecological reasons that explain this result is that the FID won't have a consequence in the
richness of the resources. There are some significant decisions that the prey must make such
obtaining the food needed to get energy to live and departing earlier to avoid getting caught.
Moreover, there are some factors that influence these decisions such as great quantities of predators
and prey, their size, and conditions. So as a result, we can conclude that it doesn't exist any
significant difference because it will be subject to the FID and not to the abundance of food. 2. a) b)
t–Test: Paired Two Sample for Means Variable 1 Variable 2 Mean 4.666666667 5.16666667
Variance 4.424242424 3.42424242 Observations 12 12 Pearson Correlation 0.272491146
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 df 11 t Stat –0.723746864 P(T<=t) one–tail 0.242164302 t Critical
one–tail 1.795884819 P(T<=t) two–tail 0.484328603 t Critical two–tail 2.20098516 Ho: There is
not a significance difference between the alive number of balls collected on high vs. low resource
abundance. Ha: There is a significance difference between the alive number of balls collected of
high vs. low resource abundance. There is not a significant difference between the alive number of
balls collected of high vs. low resource abundance p value is bigger than 0.05 our standard value
meaning that we cannot reject

Steller Sea Lion Research Paper
Steller sea lions (Eumetiopias jubatus) are the only member of Eumetiopias and are one of the
biggest of the eared seals. Steller sea lions feed mainly on fish, and sometimes even various types of
shellfish. Many Steller sea lions can be found along the coast of Western Alaska. Generally, Western
Alaska has relatively warm summers, cold winters, and mild temperatures during the spring and fall,
with the highest amounts of rainfall during the summertime. Steller sea lions have recently come
under the scope of many researchers because of their sudden and significant decline of population in
recent times. In some places such as the Aleutian Islands, which is an island chain found in the
Western part of Alaska, the population of Steller sea lions ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
An experiment documenting the effect of feeding low–quality prey like pollock to Stellar sea lions
was conducted (Jeanniard du Dot et al., 2008). In the experiment there were two groups of Stellar
sea lions, group H and group P. Group H was fed less herring and group P was fed pollock in equal
amounts regarding caloric content. After feeding each group the restricted diets, the researchers
recorded the foraging behaviors of the sea lions over the summer and the winter. All of the sea lions
increased their foraging behaviors during the summer, when prey is abundant, but only group H
conserved conserved energy during the winter when prey is less abundant. Group P did not reduce
energy consumption in order to use energy more efficiently when it turned winter because they had
less energy to use during the winter due to the low–quality diet, and that low–quality diets hurt the
sea lions during times of nutritional stress (Jeanniard du Dot et al., 2008). A journal article also
documented that young Stellar sea lions were more impacted by a low quality diet (Rosen, 2009). It
was seen that young sea lions were more impacted by a low quality diet because of their higher
energy requirements, and also their digestive capacity, which means they can't even consume a
higher quantity of lower quality fish to compensate. Both of these experiments explain how low
quality prey can

Leatherback Sea Turtle Research Paper
The Leatherback Sea Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, is one of the largest marine turtles found
throughout the ocean as a whole. They are found in parts of the East Coast of North America to the
Atlantic of Canada, through New Guinea and the Sea of Nova Scotia. They are shown to migrate to
parts of the Western and North Pacific Ocean during their nesting season where they migrate to
warmer waters. Studies have been done that results in nesting periods of in two to three year
intervals but mating multiple times a season around early spring to late summer, March– July
(James et al. 2005). They have unique diet such as jellyfish, squid, and tunicates. This organism is
very adaptable to different environments such as having the ability to be in water ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This was showed by testing the packed cell volumes, hematologic health parameter in the blood, of
nesting leatherback sea turtles from a wildlife refuge in the Virgin Islands and then compared those
results to the newly hatchlings. The Results detected a trend after taking samples from 175 samples.
(Perrault et al 2016). This trend that showed a decline of packed volume cells during breeding
season and were higher in turtles that laid more clutches. Which also means that the species
recorded foraged less for food rather than the previous studies stated that they foraged more
(Perrault et al 2016). These compared to the other studies shows that the behaviors in these species
may be differed on numerous factors. These factors could be such as lack of food in one area where
the test site was, poor reproductive rates that season as well as error in the measurements of the
collection tools of each study. One factor most people do not think about is how healthy a species
needs to be, and have that need of a clean environment such as an oil and garbage free habitat,
which in recent times may not be in such a state. All of this factors can result in slow metabolic
rates, reproductive rates as well, which can affect a population of a certain species very rapidly.
Without having a steady number of nutrients coming into the organism it can be very

Compare And Contrast Paleolithic And Neolithic Civilizations
The Paleolithic Age is the earliest period of human development. This period was about between 2.5
million and 20000 years ago. During this time frame the first appearance of the early stages of the
stone tools had marked an incredible step for mam–kind. There were two types of people that
thrived during this time. These societies were very similar yet different in their social, economic,
and political structures. The foraging societies appeared earlier then the urbanized societies who
devolved in the river valleys around 3000 B.C.E Foraging societies consisted of people who had no
consistently controlled source of food. They hunted and gathered; thus they remained at the mercy
of nature. While river valley civilizations had been more agricultural

Eastern Grey Squirrel Research Paper
The Eastern grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) are small mammals that are often seen around
parks and trees in the New York City area. Both males and females look alike in color and size. On
many occasions they involve in behaviors may not be easily understood by the onlookers. They
often engage in behaviors such as deception, a behavior that involve a squirrel to cache its food
from conspecifics by pretending to hide its food in an area but instead carrying the food in its mouth
and hiding it elsewhere (Steele, M. A., Halkin, S. L., Smallwood, P. D., McKenna, T. J.,
Mitsopoulos, K., & Beam, M. 2008) and also in cache hoarding such a behavior involves the storing
of food for later retrieval (Hopewell, L. J., & Leaver, L. A. 2008). Apart from all the other behaviors
that squirrel part take in, two important behaviors that this research will ... Show more content on
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Forging behaviors can be described as a behavior where animals have their heads down in search of
food and not too aware of what is happening in their immediate environment, where as a vigilant
behavior is where an animal is on its hind legs with its heads up or sometimes in a frozen position
and cannot forage (H.R. Pulliam, G.H. Pyke, T. Caraco, 1982). Because squirrels are small
mammals they do tend to be more vigilant of their surroundings. Foraging and vigilant behaviors are
important because of the fact that these animals are smaller and are likely to be attacked by
predators. When they are in a foraging behavior it can be difficult to be aware of other mammals
that are lurking around, thus they also involve themselves in vigilant behaviors to determine if there
is a threat or not. Smaller mammals tend to display higher vigilance than those of larger sizes due to
their increased risk of predation (StevenL.Lima, Thomas J. Valone, Thomas Caraco,

What Is The Impact Of Foraging Mode A Snake
This essay is about the impacts of foraging mode on the morphology, physiology and ecology of
snakes. But before exploring the impacts, need to understand how or why snakes select particular
habitats, be it a desert, grassland, rainforest, aquatic, etc. whether active during the day or night is
also important. The reason is foraging mode (food that an animal eat and the way it obtains it) is
central to their ecology.
It is important to note that snakes have undergone adaptive measures since their origin. They have
diversified into large number of species occupying large ecological habitat. The driving and limiting
factors of this selection have to be highlighted. Examples physical limiting factors include
temperature, pH, salinity, etc. that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The consumption of a large meal consisting of a single prey is efficient in terms of energy utilization
however, the extra mass impact on locomotion in snakes and again making it hard to evade
predators. The size and sex of a snake plays a role and the preferred number or size of prey they can

Gender Specific Role In Forging Groups
From the time that fully modern humans emerged about 100,00 years ago up until approximately
12,000 years ago, societies of humans practiced foraging as a means for their survival. This period
in which foraging was predominant is known as the "pre–complexity" period. In the traditional
sense, anthropologists classify "complex" societies as those that are sedentary and practice farming
instead of foraging. The traditional classification of a sedentary, agrarian society as "complex" is
imperfect because it discounts the societal complexities found within foraging bands. While these
societies are sometimes portrayed as primitive without culture, they actually have an egalitarian
social structure with language, religion, and a vast knowledge of the landscape in which they lived.
The !Kung people of southern Africa, for example, were able to identify close to 90 different plant
species and utilize them in their diet. While there were clear gender specific roles in foraging
societies, where women tended to gather plants while men hunted, the societies themselves did not
have persistent inequalities. This was necessary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These characteristics include increased population, increased urbanism, use of storage, increased
inequalities, economic interdependence between societies, and an increase in central authority.
These characteristics are best understood through a web model instead of a direct linear chain of
events. This is due to the fact that many of these characteristics likely coevolved together and could
have developed in various different orders based on the location of the society. For example, one
society could have consolidated authority before the introduction of record keeping, while another
society may have prioritized agrarian record keeping and as a result power was consolidated
amongst those that kept the

Spinner Dolphins
Benoit–Bird seek to investigate the acoustic communication of spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris
during the foraging behaviour in cooperative groups. Acoustic communication of marine mammals,
especially in foraging behaviour occurred in the underwater were not clear because it is hard to
detect due to limited approaches in the last few decades.
Aims were stated in the introduction of this paper. Author were attempted to figure out what kind of
sounds will spinner dolphins produced during the foraging behaviour and what were the relationship
between these sounds and different stages of foraging behaviour. Hypotheses were also clearly
stated in both abstract and introduction in this paper. Benoit–Bird hypothesized that the group social
communication of spinner dolphin during the foraging behaviour was mainly produced by a low
frequency acoustic, whistles while echolocation clicks in high frequency were more likely to detect
when they were trying to capture preys. These hypotheses were made by the used of information
from previous studies and thus they were ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Second, they formed a tight line stage reducing their interpair spacing, and began to undulate their
swimming path up and down. During the third stage, spinner dolphins formed a circle surrounding
the preys after prey densities increased as to avoid dolphins. Last stage, each pair of dolphins had
the opportunity actively fed on the prey for about 10s inside the circle before taking the positions of
other pairs. In this study, two response variables can be found which were the whistles rates and
echolocation click rates. Both of these response variables were dependent on the foraging patterns
as different foraging patterns produced different rates and sound. Besides that, the whistle rates and
echolocation rates can also affected by water depth because sound can only detected within
scattering layer in this

Persuasive Essay In History: Foraging Or Farming?
Good morning/afternoon class,
Today I will be exploring a currently debated topic in history, foraging or farming? Which one
provided a better quality of life? Many people have expressed their different opinions in this debate,
and today I will be doing the same.
Change slide
To begin, lets talk about foraging. To forage means to search widely for foods or provisions, usually
in areas such as forests and plains. The people who are involved in foraging are referred to as
foragers or hunter–gatherers. Foraging began with the birth of the first homo sapiens but it was used
for 1.8 million years before that by our hominine ancestors. Foraging has been used for 95% of
human history as it was the only sustainable way of life up until the invention ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Farming is the act of growing and harvesting crops and raising livestock. The first signs of farming
began around 12000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent located in Mesopotamia. The shift from
foraging to farming is known as the "Neolithic Revolution" and is one of the most debated topics in
history.
Farming, like foraging, has its ups and downs but is still a sustainable way of life. Farming is most
well known for being able to support huge populations, being reliable so the farmers could predict
when to harvest, and protecting people from poisonous foods. But not everything about farming is
good, in fact, early farming was much less productive than foraging, only producing three–fifths of
the produce. Along with this, diseases could spread much more easily though the town as the food
or water wasn't treated and it was exposed to almost the whole community.
Change

Dolphin Foraging Techniques Essay examples
Bottlenose dolphins are known to use sea sponges as tools when foraging for food in the ocean. This
behavior is referred to as "sponging". "Sponging" refers to when these particular dolphins put a sea
sponge over their rostrum (snout area) and use it to help collect food. Different explanations have
been given as to why Bottlenose Dolphins engage in this behavior. It has been perceived that young
dolphins learn this behavior from their mothers. Researchers are also exploring the option that a
differentiation in diving skills exists between dolphins caused by variation in the mitochondrial
genes processing of proteins that are involved in the creation of the Bottlenose Dolphins' respiratory
system, and that variation may have lead them to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once found, researchers documented the behavior of these groups and the activities that these
groups partook in. Long–term photographic databases were used to establish identity, and if the
dolphin was noticed to be engaged in sponging at least once, they were included in the dataset for
the study. On the eastern gulf, researchers were already aware of the sponging dolphins due to
previous studies. Between the years of 1994 and 2008, remote biopsy samples of sponging dolphins
were taken when the opportunity to do so allowed. Using a Magellan Meridian Marine GPS device,
the site that each biopsy was taken at was noted appropriately. The biopsy sample was made up of
29 sponging dolphins and 54 "non–sponging" dolphins. At a total of 83 dolphins, 59 of the dataset
consisted of 24 males and 59 females. The researchers recognize that sponging is a predominantly
female activity, however they observed some males engaging in the activity as well and for that
reason they decided to include males in the data, as to test for possible gender influences, but
genetic influence is what they researchers were truly looking to rule out. To do this they chose to
examine the coxII and ctyb genes, using a Gentra Tissue kit to obtain the DNA. These two
mitochondrial genes play a vital role in the respiratory chain, which is link directly to the dolphins'
metabolic energy and therefore could possibly affect the overall diving ability

What Is Optimal Foraging Theory?
Optimal Foraging Theory If two choices are given to a person, but one is lacking in explicit
probability information, then the individual will tend to default to the choice with more explicit
information about probability of each outcome. For instance, there are two boxes filled with black
and white balls that a person can choose from and there is a possible monetary reward associated
with drawing a ball of certain color from either bag. However, the person knows that one bag is half
white balls and half black, while they don't know the composition of the other bag. Whether the ball
they needed to draw was black or white, people tended to choose the bag with equal amounts of
each color balls. This has been dubbed the ambiguity effect, which basically means we have a
preference for known probabilities over ambiguous ones. However, it's unknown exactly what kinds
of situations will cause ambiguity to be avoided or preferred. The literature is also unclear as to
whether the reaction is from the, "missing probability parameter itself, or (2) motivational or
attributional factors..." (Rode et al. 1999) associated with comparing opitions. The authors
hypothesized that, "people associate ambiguous probabilities with highly variable outcomes" (Rode
et al. 1999). If the outcome that the person needs is higher than the average payoff of each option,
then the person should actually default to the ambiguous option because it would have more
variability, which could have a greater chance

The Diet And Foraging Behavior
Diet and Foraging Behavior
Capuchins are generally frugivorous with fleshy fruits making up 53.9% of their diet. The other half
of their diet is made up of 16% seeds, 13.9 % corn, 11.1% flowers, 6.3 % leaves, and 1.5% roots.
These primates forage together in large groups; and have a preference for fleshy fruits is thought to
be a way of eliminating competition for food, as there is evidence that other species avoid the fruits
capuchins eat (Galetti and Pedroni 1994). While chimpanzees and capuchins share the diet of seeds,
leaves, and fruits; the diet of the chimp is incredibly variable. Although primarily frugivorous their
diet includes: bark, resin, stems, pith, insects, eggs, and occasionally soil (Goodall 1986).The
usually highly social chimpanzee prefers to forage alone with males spending most of their day
foraging for food and females spending more than half of their day resting. There is also evidence of
groups of chimpanzees hunting and eating various large mammals including: bushpigs, colobus
monkeys, and baboons (Boesch & Boesch 1989).
Capuchins and chimpanzees both utilize tools in order to obtain foods. Capuchins have utilized
anvil stone tool technology, in which a nut is placed on a hard surface (anvil) and pounded upon
using a large stone (hammer) until the shell cracks (Fragaszy 2004).On the other hand, chimpanzees
not only use the hammer and anvil technology, they also create their own tools. Chimpanzees have
been known to use sticks, stems, and

Foraging Affects The American Culture
Foraging affects the American Culture because sometimes it is hard for them to be able to find food
for the families to be able to eat. Everyone has to work together as a family and help one another to
be able to survive with being able to find food for everyone. Some of the American Cultures have
different methods they that use in order to be able to find food. Foraging is a mode of livelihood
base on obtaining food that is available in nature methods such as gathering, hunting, fishing or
scavenging (Miller, 2013). Sometimes they do not have difficulties with finding food so a lot of
times they will just have to hunt for food. Fr example, they will collect different things from a
nearby river such as fish or and small species that they see that they can eat. The men are the ones
that do most of the hunting of the big animals because the big animals go a long way. In order for
the American Cultures they have to be prepared. They have to rely on a diverse set of tools used for
gathering, transporting and processing wild food (Miller, 2013). They need tools in order to be able
to catch food so that they are able to eat and so that they are able to plant things in the ground such
as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and different kinds of fruits. When the American cultures are hunting,
they have to make sure that they have a lot of land. If they do not have a lot of land it will be hard
for them to be able to hunt for food. It has been estimated that people that have a lot of land

Why Does The Leatherback Sea Turtles Do They Face With...
The Leatherback sea turtle is one of seven different turtle spices in the world. It inhabits three major
tropical bodies of water: Pacific, Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans [2]. According to IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species [1] the leatherback sea turtle (Demochelys coriacea) is at a vulnerable state.
With its geographically widespread distribution, the species is doing well in population size. A
unique aspect about this turtle is that its diet consists only of soft–bodied animals, such as jellyfish.
[16]. Hence, the research question being discusses in this paper being: How and why does the
leatherback sea turtle eat only jellyfish? And what dangers do they face with migration? With
research from many scientific journals, the following thesis was concluded. Leatherback sea turtles
survive and feed exclusively on jellyfish because of their adapted anatomy and for migratory
purpose such as foraging and mating while facing dangers of lengthy migrations due to humans. As
previously stated, jellyfish, or gelatinous zooplankton, are an integral part of the leatherback sea
turtles diet. Jellyfish species (medusae) and population are as geographically widespread as the
turtles themselves [9]. Ranging all over the temperate and tropical waters, studying these creatures
is very difficult due to difficult ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
That's why many conservation efforts have been made to help decline the mortality rate caused by
humans. Commercial fishing and human pollution is a large cause of mortality during migration for
these animals [5]. Another up and coming cause of concern is climate change throughout the world.
The turtles rely very heavily on the ability to forage in temperate waters, the migrating to tropical
ones. Without having a clear distinction of where to find their prey, the turtle population could once
again become

Sound Intensity In Crickets
The Effect of Sound Intensity and Type on the Foraging Time of the House Cricket, Acheta
domesticus. Brett Tung, 2017, Ecology (BIO 211), University of Puget Sound.
The topic of interest was how instincts and perceptions affect the foragers through the ecology of
fear. The aim was to look at if sound intensity and/ or sound type affects the foraging time of
common house crickets. This was to see how foragers overall would react to a threat of predation
(the sound). Using a simple maze and a speaker we looked at two different types of sound as well as
a control the sound types consisted of a Bluebird and a 1000 Hz tone and a tone at 70 dBA. The run
time was recorded by how long it took for the cricket to get from a start line to a food source in the
presence of the sounds or lack of. It was found that together the sound type and intensity had a
significant effect on the foraging time of the crickets. Separately the sound type had no significant
effect but the different intensities did have an effect.
Introduction
Sound pervades throughout nature from a combination of abiotic factors, such as the wind, or biotic
factors, like bird calls. A large increase this background noise has occurred from the consequence of
humans rapidly spreading around the globe (Barber et ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2012), or aquatic animals, like fish (Amoser and Ladich 2005), with few focusing on invertebrates
like the cricket (Morley et al. 2014). Few studies have focused on cricket's response to noise
specifically how they use it in predator avoidance (Moiseff et al. 1978), but invertebrates in general
lack the depth of research they deserve as such crucial aspects of the environment (Morley et al.
2014). Looking at the effects from foragers to top predators will allow us to see the effect of sound
pollution on the community as an integrated

Significant Changes In The Forager Society
When humans transitioned from foragers to farmers, there were a few noticeable changes.
Materialistic values emerged. People became kinder and less kind simultaneously as sharing and
violence became less commonplace. More structure started to evolve in the society as it was
necessary to establish leaders. Energy consumption increased and was spent on work instead of
travelling to areas of abundance. Although some of these differences may not seem drastic, there
was and is a considerable difference between the ways the lifestyles are lead. In the forager society,
travel was necessary to survive. Although this did not allow people to possess many physical
belongings, it also provided basic essentials without a large amount of work. Hunters would kill
deer, feed their community, and shortly move on to the next place with a high deer population. The
women would gather berries and again share. There were limited ways to store food, so abundances
were spread amongst the community to avoid waste. Labor and skills were divided equally because
there were few people in each travelling group. Overall, foragers shared, had ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The inequality that farming brought led to extremes in human welfare. However, farming also
brought structure and a willingness to compromise in order to avoid conflict that wasn't present in
foraging societies. When this transition was made, it was undoubtedly difficult for society to adjust.
People were not accustomed to living in close proximity for long periods of time and as a result,
early farming societies were often brutal in their lifestyles, with hard work and fear being the center
place. Compared to the foraging life of little work and being able to leave when disagreements
arose, this was a difficult situation. But as time passed, people became more aware of how to coexist
more

Does The Beak Size Of Probosciger Affect Its Foraging...
Does the beak size of Probosciger aterrimus affect its foraging success?
Introduction:
Probosciger aterrimus, also known as the palm cockatoo, goliath cockatoo, and great black
cockatoo, is a large black parrot of the Cacatuide family (White et al. 2011). The cockatoo
Probosciger aterrimus is often found in New Guinea, Aru Islands and Cape York Peninsula. A bird's
beak not only allows it to eat, but also to groom and feed its offspring. Proboscigar aterrimus has a
long, pointed and curved black beak that exceeds past its mouth. The mouth always remains slightly
open, as the lower beak meets its top beak only at the tip. Its beak is so massive that it exceeds the
average beak sizes of much larger species. The only species out of the parrot tribe with a larger beak
is the Hyacinth Macaw, also known as the Anodorynchus hyachinthinus (Mulawka 179). An
observation by Wood (1988) states that the Probosciger aterrimus is often seen feeding on various
seeds, leaf buds, fruits, such as the kernels of the Nonda Plum Panarian nonda. Other important food
items include the fruits of Pandanus species, Grevillea glauca and the seeds of Persoona falcota.
The species' beak allows the species to sufficiently remove the shells of nuts that are difficult to
break (Mulawka 2013). Grant and Grant (2002) argue that the phenotypic variation in regards to a
bird's beak is due to environmental differences, and the food resources that are available within the
particular

Otariid Rearing Behavior Case Study
Otariid Rearing Behavior
In all otariid species, the male ignores young pups. There is no parental care. Often, the males are
even overly aggressive towards young pups. After parturition, the mother immediately smells the
newborn and vocalizes. The pup can vocalize within minutes of birth. Through these actions, a
mother–pup bond is formed. They can then recognize each other and reestablish connections based
on smell and vocalizations (textbook). It is thought that hearing is the more efficient so that
vocalizations are better at distinguishing between individuals (3). This is beneficial in reuniting pup
and mother after she returns from her foraging trip. The female will attack females at risk of
endangering their pup. They will move the pup out of harms way if necessary by way of mouth (3).
Pups are rejected by non–maternal females (4). Pups often aggregate with other pups in the same
age group normally in areas away disturbances. Pups receive no instruction in feeding and
swimming from the mother. They learn from their social ties with other pups (3).
Otariid's use a foraging cycle strategy when rearing. On average Otariid species spend 1 to 7 days
feeding and 1 to 3 days nursing offspring. Otariid's nurse their pup for 4 ... Show more content on
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Lipid fat increases as the duration of the feeding trip increases (12). This suggests a correlation in
length of feeding and lipid content. The Northern fur seal spends 7 days foraging and has 51% fat
milk. Galapagos fur seal spends 12 hours foraging and has 40% fat milk. The Antarctic fur seal
spends 5 days foraging and has 40% fat milk. The Galapagos sea lion spends 12 hours foraging and
has 18% milk fat. The California sea lion spends 4 days foraging and has 32% fat milk. Age and the
total number of days nursed by mother at weaning varies between species: Northern fur seal
125;125, Galapagos fur seal 800;–, Antarctic fur seal 117;117, Galapagos seal lion 341;–, and the
California sea lion 300

Sexual Cannibalism And Sex Cannibalism
In many Arthropoda (Arthropods), sexual cannibalism is quite common. Female Mantodeas
(Mantids), commonly referred to as Mantis from their genus, have been known to decapitate their
male counterparts before, during or even after sexual copulation. Sexual cannibalism varies widely
amongst the species of Mantids, where some species lack this behavior all together. Males often
take part in ritualistic dances to court a female and are very cautious of their proximity before
attempting to mount. Although sexual cannibalism does not occur constantly, one could hypothesize
that female sexual cannibalism is a foraging strategy that results in an increase of fecundity from the
nutritional gain of consuming males. Female mantids who participate in sexual cannibalism should
be more fit, thus contributing to the quality and quantity of her offspring. An increase in sexual
cannibalism should occur when there is low food and resource availability. With gathered research I
was able to evaluate the validity of my hypotheses. The phenomenon of sexual cannibalism in this
perspective held some truth, yet produced repulsions amongst several others.
Introduction
Sexual dimorphism, favoring larger sized females, initially offered a theory as to why females
exhibited cannibalistic behavior. Sexual cannibalism is where a counterpart eats his/hers potential
sexual partner prior, during or after copulation. This is typically seen in female arthropods. It was
once thought that females who

Isopod Prioritization
The data generated in this experiment is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis. As a result, we
cannot ascertain a statistically significant trend involving isopod prioritization between foraging
behaviors and predator avoidance mechanisms in environments with elevated levels of predation
risk. Even though the experiment produced statistically insignificant data, an interesting biological
trend emerged during the final sampling intervals of the experiment. As the experiment progressed,
an increased number of isopods in both treatments started to cross the mesocosms to forage for
particulate organic matter. This observation clearly exemplified the prioritization of foraging over
predation risk. While this observation was important to note, there is a larger biological
underpinning present in the connection and comparison between the experimental and the control
treatments. In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First, using a larger sample will increase the probability of getting statically significant results that
are essential to draw insightful conclusions. Adding experimental treatments that include dead
conspecifics will not only be instrumental in investigating the precedence of different chemical cues
in isopods predator avoidance, but also in ascertaining additional factors that determine the extent to
which isopods maintain a balance between foraging and predator avoidance. Moreover, reducing the
food availability to both the crayfish and isopods before conducting the experiment will elevate both
the chemical cue for the presence of a hungry predator and the isopods intrinsic need to forage. All
in all, future research that incorporates the above recommendations will minimize sampling error,
increase the probability of obtaining statistically significant results, and shed light on new evidence
about the precedence of various chemical cues and intrinsic cues in isopods decision–making

Animal 's Ability Foraging Theory
Introduction
Within certain environments such as casinos or betting houses, it is not uncommon to see
individuals choose sub–optimally, meaning individuals will often choose options that offer a high
reinforcement outcome but with a lower probability of it occurring than a safer choice that would
offer less reinforcement but more reliably. In animals, it would be expected not to see this
behaviour, for instance, optimal foraging theory (Pyke, 1984) argues that an animal 's ability forage
ultimately effects there overall evolutionary fitness in terms of ability to survive and the ability for
the genes to be passed on. Therefore, choosing risky behaviour would ultimately be a deficit to their
survival. However rather Paradoxically, animals do indulge in very similar gambling behaviours to
that seen in humans (Stagner & Zentall, 2010).
Gipson, Alessandri, Miller, and Zentall (2009)was able to show this phenomenon to which they
provided pigeons with two alternative keys a 50% discriminative chain, meaning it had two light
that represented reinforcement or no reinforcement. A secondly a key that provided food 75%
reinforcement on a non–discriminatory chain, meaning that it had a single contingency. what they
found was that pigeons would choose the 50% alternative as opposed to the 75% chain despite it
providing far more food Stagner and Zentall (2010) at a better rate. Implying that gambling
behaviours are visible in animals. The Procedure is where pigeons are provided with the

Australian Sea Lion
Breeding and foraging behavioural adaptations of the Australian Sea Lion (Neophoca cinerea)
Introduction The Australian sea lion, Neophoca cinerea of family Otariidae is the sole extant species
of its genus and the only endemic pinniped found in Australian waters, ranging from coastal
Western Australia to Southern Australia (Kirkwood & Goldsworthy 2013; Lowther et al. 2012).
Unique in its non–annual, temporally asynchronous breeding cycle across adjacent colonies,
prolonged breeding and lactation period, extreme female site fidelity, and natal philopatry, the
Australian sea lion is thus considered one of the world's rarest non–migratory otariids (Kirkwood &
Goldsworthy 2013; Campbell 2005). The innate philopatry nature coupled with its geographically ...
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Although previous studies presented no concrete evidence to suggest a cause for this breeding
system, scientists hypothesise the cause to be linked to nutrient–deficient environment accustomed
to Southern and Western Australian coastal marine (Campbell et al. 2008). While nutrient–poor
marine environment demotes synchronized seasonal breeding as it fails to provide lactating cows
sufficient energy and nutrient for pups, it has been argued that the non–annual breeding cycle allows
for longer maternal association to develop the neonates' foraging abilities (Gales, Shaughnessy &
Dennis 1994). This behaviour of nurturing young pups in developing unique foraging strategies has
been termed "family farm hypothesis" by Kirkwood and Goldsworthy (2013, p.61), resulting in
females developing stronger inclinations to return to their breeding site. This coincides with studies
that presented evidence where analysis of genetic structure revealed increased rates of maternally
inherited marker fixation amongst colonies (Campbell

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