This document discusses clauses and sentence types. It defines a clause as a group of words with a subject and predicate. There are two main types of clauses: main/independent clauses which can stand alone as sentences, and subordinate/dependent clauses which cannot stand alone and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The document then discusses four basic sentence types: simple sentences with one independent clause, compound sentences with two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions, complex sentences with one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

1. Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences
Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences
Lead-in-Task
Answer the following questions individually and discuss your responses in threes.
1. What are clauses?
2. What are the types of clauses? Can you give examples for each?
3. What roles do they play in writing effective sentences?
In order to construct effective and grammatical sentences that give variety to your
writing, you need to know the necessary grammatical structure of sentences. To identify
sentence types based on their structure, it is also important to look at clauses because
sentences can be classified based on the number and kinds of clauses they contain.
Hence, this section briefly discusses about clauses that would help you in identifying the
types of sentences based on their grammatical structure.
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. By learning about clauses,
you learn how to write effective sentences that clearly show the relationship between
your ideas.
For analysis, read the following short paragraph and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Because their literature and drama club proposed to raise money for the activities this
semester, the students planned to hold a talent show in the social science college. (b) All
the students in the club are naturally talented, but they don‘t have sufficient performing
experiences and qualifications. (c) Nevertheless, they thoroughly practiced for more than
a month, and the show is certain to be useful and entertaining.
1. What two ideas does sentence (a) present? Why did the students hold a talent
show?
2. What two ideas does sentence (b) present? What problem does this sentence
express?
3. What two ideas does sentence (c) present? How the students have solved their
problem?
In the given paragraph, you can recognize that each sentence presents two ideas, and each
idea is presented in a different clause. This shows that it is essential to learn how clauses
function and how they can be utilized to make your writing clear.
1.1. Types of Clauses

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Clauses are primarily of two types: main clause (also called independent clause) and
subordinate clause (also called dependent clause). An independent clause has a subject
and a predicate and can stand by itself as a sentence. Example:
Most of the guests left the party at nine, but we stayed to help clean up. (‗Most
of the guests left the party at nine.‘ and ‗We stayed to help clean up.‘ are both
independent clauses and they can stand as independent sentences)
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand by itself as an
independent clause but has to depend on another clause for the full meaning of the
sentence. Dependent clause usually begins with subordinate conjunction or relative
pronoun.
Example:
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 while he was growing some
cultures of common germs. (‗Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928‘ is
an independent clause. ‗While he was growing some cultures of common germs.‘ is
dependent clause.)
1.3. Sentence Types Based on Their Structure
In order to write effective and meaningful sentences, you have to know the required
grammatical structures of sentences. If you are familiar with the patterns of construction
on which different types of sentences are based, you can feel confident of expressing
your ideas clearly to others. You can also vary the sentence types that you use in your
essays and reports to avoid monotonous series of sentence structures. This means, if you
consistently vary simple sentences with other, more complicated sentence structures, you
provide your readers with variety and maintain their interest. This section makes you
familiar with the four basic sentence types that may help you achieve this quality in your
writing.
1.3.1. Simple Sentence and Compound Sentence
A simple Sentence
A simple sentence can be described as a sentence structure that consists of only one
independent clause. In a simple sentence we may have a compound subject, a compound
predicate or both.
1. My brother reads magazines. (Simple sentence with a single subject)
2. Abebe and Gutema read fictions. (Simple sentence with compound subjects)

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3. Dr. Kemal cleaned the patient‘s teeth and examined them. (Simple sentence with
compound predicate)
4. Almaz and her brother listened carefully but missed the announcement. (Simple
sentence with compound subjects and compound predicate)
5. My father, mother and sister came to the school play, applauded the performers
and attended the party afterward. (Simple sentence with three subjects and three
predicates)
It is important to recognize that a simple sentence can be as short as one word such as
‗Devour!‘, ‗Remember!‘ and ‗Stop!‘ However, a simple sentence is usually quite long
since adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, appositives, verbal phrases and
complements are used to expand its subject and predicate. See these examples:
1. The boy devoured pasta.
2. The boy from North America with the funny earring in his left ear devoured a
dish of delicious Italian pasta.
3. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer.
4. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer watching a drama showing a murder
on the stage and confessing his guilt.
As you can see from these examples, you can easily understand that it is a mistake to tell
a simple sentence from a compound or complex sentence simply by looking at its length.
A Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses that
are joined by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, nor, or, for or yet. In other words,
Compound sentences are formed by linking simple sentences. When forming compound
sentences, a comma is usually placed before coordinating conjunction.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or
contrast between two or more equally important pieces of information in your writing.
Examples:
1. Kansa rang the bell door several times, but no one answered.
2. She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or sense of rhythm, so she
eventually gave up the idea of becoming a dancer.
3. The sun was setting over the mountains, and the shadows were growing long.
A compound sentence has also independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs such
as therefore, otherwise, nevertheless or semicolon.
Examples:

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1. Nuclear accidents can happen; therefore, nuclear power plants should have strict
safety control.
2. Always go to other peoples funerals; otherwise, they won‘t go to yours.
3. Sustainable development would require industry to reduce pollution output and
resource use; as a result, technical innovation will be stimulated.
4. All sentences in a paragraph must support the main point of the paragraph; all
paragraphs in an essay must support the thesis of the essay.
1.3.2. Complex Sentence and Compound Complex Sentence
A complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. A complex sentence often has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. Examples:
a. When he handed his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and one
dependent clause.
‗When he handed his homework,‘ is dependent or subordinate clause.
‗He forgot to give the teacher the last page.‘ Independent or main clause
b. The story that was told us by a little boy and that seemed almost unbelievable
turned out to be true on enquiry.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and two
dependent clauses.
‗The story turned out to be true‘ is independent or the main clause.
‗That was told us by a little boy‘ is dependent or subordinate. It is an adjective
clause qualifying the noun ‗story‘ in the main clause.
‗That seemed almost unbelievable‘ is also dependent or subordinate.
It is an adjective clause qualifying the noun ‗story‘ in the main clause. It is
coordinate to the subordinate clause ‗that was told us by a little boy.‘
c. If you work hard to gain sufficient knowledge and skill in your field of study
while you are still at university, you will effectively serve your nation when you
leave the university.
This is also a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and
three dependent clauses.
‗If you work hard to gain sufficient knowledge and skill in your field of study,‘
‗While you are still at university‘ and ‗When you leave the university‘ are all
dependent or subordinate clauses.
‗You will effectively serve your nation‘ is the independent or main clause.

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A compound Complex Sentence
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
a. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found
anyone to go with.
This is a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two independent
clauses and one dependent clause.
I haven't had the time to go lately. (Independent clause)
I haven't found anyone to go with. (Independent or main clause)
"Although I like to go camping... ". (Dependent or subordinate clause)
b. Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, he chooses to use chopsticks in
Chinese restaurants; however, they aren't easy to use.
This is also a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two independent
clauses and one dependent clause.
He chooses to use chopsticks in Chinese restaurants (Independent or main
clause)
They aren't easy to use. (Independent or main clause)
Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, (Dependent or subordinate
clause)
C. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch
scary movies, thought that we were wrong.
We decided that the movie was too violent (independent clause)
our children thought that we were wrong(independent clause)
Who like to watch scary movies (dependent clause)
1.4. Sentence Types Based on Their Function
In the preceding section you have seen how sentences are classified according to the
number and kinds of the clauses they contain. In addition to thinking about their clause
structures, it is also very useful to know the function sentences perform. Broadly
speaking, it is possible to classify sentences as fitting into one of the four categories:
declarative, interrogative, imperatives and exclamation.
1.4.1. Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence is used to make a statement. It always ends with a period.
Examples:

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a. The lab samples will be ready on Wednesday.
b. The western style of education has gained popularity all over the world.
c. The calf and its mother lifted their heads and bellowed.
1.4.2. Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions. It always ends with question mark.
Examples:
a. What is the primary purpose of a research?
b. When do you finish writing your assignment?
1.4.3. Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction,
or instruction. If the command or the request is mild, the sentence ends with period. If the
command or the request is strong the sentence ends with the exclamation mark.
Examples:
a. Stop right there!
b. Submit the revised specifications of your plan by Friday.
c. Please turn out the lights.
d. After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and
fluffy.
Notice that imperative sentences begin with a verb. The subject ‗you‘ is implied. Notice
too that imperative sentences are used when describing steps in a set of instructions.
1.4.4. Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It often begins with the
modifier ‗what‘ or ‗how‘. An exclamatory sentence always ends with exclamation mark.
Examples:
a. What a wonderful day!
b. How beautiful is it!
c. Here comes the parade!
Notice that scientific and technical writers should avoid this type of sentence for the most
part because it violates a preference for dispassionate logic.

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1.5. Faulty Sentences
1.5.1. Subject Verb Agreement Errors
When the agreement between the subject and a verb, a pronoun and its antecedent and a
number of the subject and a verb is not maintained it results in faulty agreement.
Examples:
a. Every scrap of soil and photo scan were analyzed for signs of past life on Mars.
(Faulty)
b. Every scrap of soil and photo scan was analyzed for signs of past life on Mars.
(Correct)
a. Almaz and her cousin has been studying mechanical engineering. (Faulty)
b. Almaz and her cousin have been studying mechanical engineering. (Correct)
In order to write correct and effective sentences, you are therefore expected to make your
subjects agree with the verbs. This section may help you to write sentences free from
agreement errors.
1.5.1.1. Singular and Plural Nouns and Pronouns
If a noun or personal pronoun in your sentence refers to one person, place, thing or idea,
it is singular in number and takes a singular verb. If a noun or personal pronoun refers to
more than one person, place or thing, or idea, it is plural in number and takes plural verb.
Examples:
a. He teaches technical report writing. (The singular pronoun ‗He‘ and the singular
verb ‗teaches‘ agree in number)
b. Children need frequent changes of activity. They need activities which are
exciting and stimulating their curiosity.
(The plural noun ‗children‘ or the plural pronoun ‗They‘ and the plural verb ‗need‘
agree in number)
1.5.1.3. Titles and Names as Subjects
The title of a book, story, play, movie, television program, musical composition, or
magazine refers to one work. Even if a noun within the title is plural, a title is always
singular and takes a singular verb.
Examples:
a. The three Musketeers is an exciting novel by Alexandre Dumas.

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b. Arsenic and Old Lace was performed last year by both the local community
theater and the high school‘s drama club.
c. Problematical Recreations is a collection of mathematical puzzles.
1.5.1.4. a, Every, and Each with Compound Subjects
When a, every, and each precedes a compound subject, the subject is considered singular.
a. Many a writer, painter and musician know disappointment.
b. Every child and adult enjoys the performances of the entertainers.
c. Each dolphin and its trainer is in the pool.
1.5.1.5. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
In English, some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be
either singular or plural, depending upon the noun they refer to. In order to make your
sentences effective and meaningful, you are therefore required to determine whether the
indefinite pronoun is singular or plural, and make the verb agree.
Indefinite pronouns
Always singular Always plural
Singular or plural
each everyone nobody
anything either everybody
nothing someone neither
everything anyone somebody
one no one anybody
something
several
a few
few
many
both
Some most
More plenty
All
none
Enough
a. Examples:
Everyone in the class wants to read Romeo and Juliet. No one wants to read
King Lear.
Either is an appropriate answer.
Everybody was hoping for a victory.
b. Examples:
Few are expected for refreshment.
Both were good choices.
c. Examples:
Some of the meat was overcooked.
Some of the students were absent from the class.
All of her relatives are coming from California.
All of the sugar has been used.

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1.5.1.6. Compound subjects joined by „or‟ or „nor‟
when or or nor( either…or or neither…nor) connects a compound subject made up of a
singular subject and a plural subject, use a verb form that agrees in number with the
subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence.
1. Acalculator or an adding machine is needed for this job.
2. Neither the students nor their college dean was represented at the assembly.
(The singular noun dean is closer to the verb and it agrees with it)
3. Either my sister or her classmates are making public speaking. (The plural
subject classmates is closer to the verb and it agrees with it)
1.5.1.7. Intervening Expressions
The number of a subject is not affected by phrases or expressions such as together with,
as well as, accompanied by, in addition to, plus, with and along with. Although
expressions such as these have a meaning that is similar to that of the conjunction ‗and‘
they do not create a compound subject. However, if one of the two subjects happens to be
plural, the verb agrees with the former of the two. Examples:
1. The department head, with his children, has been attending the graduation
ceremony.
2. The children, with their father, have been attending the graduation ceremony.
3. Hanna‘s job, in addition to her school work, takes her spare time.
4. The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, forms the heart of
the machine.
1.5.2. Pronoun Reference Errors
A pronoun should refer clearly to one, clear, unmistakable noun coming before the
pronoun. When a pronoun lacks a clear and explicit antecedent, it results in pronoun
reference error.
1.5.2.1. Vague Pronoun Reference
You are advised never to use the pronouns this, that, which and it without a clearly stated
antecedent. When you use them, be sure that you have clearly expressed the object or the
idea that you mean these words to stand for.
a. Our school football team won, which was its reward for much hard work. (Vague
because the pronoun ‗which‘ has no clear antecedent)
b. Our school football team won the championship trophy, which was its reward for
much hard work. (Effective because a clear antecedent is add for the pronoun)

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a. Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and this is obvious from the
great number of people who go to see her films. (Vague because the pronoun
‗this‘ has no clear antecedent)
b. Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and her popularity is obvious
from the great number of people who go to see her films. (Effective because a
clear antecedent is add for the pronoun)
1.5.2.2. Ambiguous Pronoun Reference
When a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, reword the sentence to make
the antecedent clear, or eliminate the pronoun.
a. Carlos told Jefferson that he had been elected the chairperson of the school.
(Vague: Who had been elected – Carlos or Jefferson?)
Carlos told Jefferson that Jefferson had been elected the chairperson of the
school. (Effective)
Carlos said to Jefferson, ―you had been elected the chairperson of the
school.‖(Effective)
Carlos said, ―Jefferson, you had been elected the chairperson of the
school.‖(Effective)
b. If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget it. (Vague: what is the
antecedent of ‗it‘- the book or the backpack?)
You will forget the book if you leave it in your backpack. (Effective because
there is clear antecedent)
If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget the book. (Effective: the
pronoun ‗it‘ is eliminated)
Left in your backpack, the book will be forgotten. (Effective: the pronoun ‗it‘ is
eliminated)
1.5.2.3. Indefinite Use of Pronouns
Do not use ‗you‘ or ‗they‘ as indefinite pronouns. Instead, name the person or group to
which you are referring. You may also be able to reword the sentence in such a way that
you do not name the person or group and you do not use a pronoun. Usually you would
use the passive voice to accomplish this kind of revision.
a. To increase fitness, you have to exercise regularly. (Indefinite)
b. To increase fitness, an individual has to exercise regularly. (Effective because
the sentence is rewritten by substituting the noun for pronoun)
a. As part of basketball team, they must learn to work together. (Indefinite)

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b. As part of basketball team, the players must learn to work together.
(Effective because the sentence is rewritten by substituting the noun for pronoun)
a. They said at the bank that my account was overdrawn. (Indefinite)
b. The teller at the bank said that my account was overdrawn. (Effective because a
noun is substituted for the pronoun)
1.5.3. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not contain a subject or a verb or both.
This indicates that a fragment is an incomplete sentence. Hence, you need to avoid
sentence fragments when you write.
Examples:
a. Last Monday, walked to the class in the rain. (Subject is missing)
Revised: Last Monday, my dorm mate walked to the class in the rain. (Subject is
added)
b. Our instructor on techniques of paragraph development. (The verb is missing)
Revised: Our instructor lectured on techniques of paragraph development. (Verb is
added)
A common kind of sentence fragment is a phrase. It is separated sentence part that does
not express a complete thought.
In other words, it is usually an additional idea that has been incorrectly cut off from the
sentence to which it belongs. This kind of fragment is often corrected by including the
phrase in a related sentence. Examples:
a. I saw the two friends. Running along the main road. (Fragment)
Revised: I saw the two friends running along the main road.
b. Arba Minch University offers many majors in Engineering. Such as Electrical,
Mechanical, and Civil Engineering. (Fragment)
Revised: Arba Minch University offers many majors in engineering such as
Electrical, Mechanical, and Civil Engineering.
Another common type of sentence fragment is the subordinate clause. This kind of
fragment can be fixed by combing the clause with a related sentence. Examples:
a. John wants to visit Australia. Because his ancestors came from there.
(Fragment)
Revised: John wants to visit Australia because his ancestors came from there.
b. Although Henson received little formal education. He wrote a book about his
adventure. (Fragment)
Revised: Although Henson received little formal education, he wrote a book
about his adventure.

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1.5.4. Run-on Sentences
A run on sentence has two or more complete sentences that are written as though they
were one sentence. A run on sentence lacks correct punctuations, so it can be confusing
to readers as it does not show where one idea ends and the next idea begins.
Run on sentences are of two types. They are fused sentences and comma splice. A fused
sentence consists of two or more complete sentences that are not separated by correct
punctuation at all. Examples:
a. Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already
this proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
b. The physicist Marie Curie discovered radium she won two Nobel prizes.
The second type of run on sentence is a comma splice. The comma splice consists of two
independent clauses that are separated by only comma, but without coordination.
a. Copper is far more malleable than steel, it can easily be shaped by hammering or
pressing.
b. There are different kinds of radio telescopes, all of them have antennas and
receivers.
You have seen how run-on sentences hamper the clarity of meaning in your writing.
Thus, you need to fix them to be able to express your thoughts effectively. To do so, here
you have some important ways of correcting run-on sentences.
1.5.4.1. Using a period/full stop (.)
The simplest way to correct a run-on sentence is to separate the improperly joined
sentences by using a period.
Run-on: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday we talked until
midnight.
Revised: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday. We talked
until midnight.
1.5.4.2. Using a semicolon (;)
If you want to encapsulate your two ideas in one sentence rather than two, you had better
use a semicolon rather than a period. A semicolon is probably the most important remedy
when there is the logical connection between the two independent clauses is already clear
and when the idea represented in the two clauses are very closely related.
a. Run- on: The great white shark supposedly eats humans research shows that
most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.
Revised: The great white shark supposedly eats humans; research shows that
most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.

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b. Run-on: He got up late this morning he didn‘t have time for breakfast.
Revised: He got up late this morning; he didn‘t have time for breakfast.
1.5.4.3. Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction
Join the independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction. Like the semi
colon, a conjunction allows you to combine your two ideas in a single sentence, but it has
the added advantage of allowing you to indicate the logical relationship between the two
ideas.
a. Run on: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, in much of Asia,
white is worn at times of death and mourning.
Revised: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, but in much of
Asia, white is worn at times of death and mourning.
b. Run on: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water
special pores on the shark‘s skin can detect these signals.
Revised: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water,
and special pores on the shark‘s skin can detect these signals.
1.5.4.4. Using subordinating conjunctions
Change one of the independent clauses to a subordinate clause, adding a subordinating
conjunction.
a. Run on: I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my life, I decided
to take some advanced speech courses.
Revised: Because I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my life,
I decided to take some advanced speech courses.
b. Run on: The rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
Revised: When the rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
1.5.4.5. Using conjunctive adverbs
Join the two independent clauses with a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and
a comma.
a. Run on: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols a
totemic animal may represent the clan.
Revised: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols;
for example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
b. Run on: He is a very weak president, most people support him.
Revised: He is a very weak president; nevertheless, most people support him.

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Notice that it is also possible to correct those sentences in the following way:
 A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols. For
example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
 He is a very weak president. Nevertheless, most people support him.
1.5.5. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplace modifiers are different from dangling modifiers in that nothing has been left out
from the sentence. However, the modifiers are simply in the wrong place modifying the
wrong word or group of words. In order to produce coherent and meaningful writing, you
are therefore required to use modifying words, phrases or clauses in a sentence where
they clearly describe what they are intended to describe. Examples:
a. Our instructor could not drive to home in his small new car with a broken leg.
(Misplaced)
Revised: With a broken leg, our instructor could not drive to home in his small
new car.
b. My brother nearly studies for five hours every day. (Misplaced)
Revised: My brother studies nearly for five hours every day.
c. My friend‘s mother held the ticket tightly in her hand that I gave her.
(Misplaced)
Revised: My friend‘s mother held the ticket that I gave her tightly in her hand.
d. Only capacitors and inductors become good conductors when a frequency
reaches a certain level. (Misplaced)
Revised: Capacitors and inductors become good conductors only when a
frequency reaches a certain level.
1.5.6. Dangling Modifiers
To modify means to qualify or limit the meaning of a word, phrase, or a clause. Thus in
grammar, a modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or limits other words,
phrases, or clauses. When the modifier occurs at the beginning of the sentence, readers
usually expect it to modify the subject of the sentence. When it doesn‘t logically do that,
the modifier is said to dangle. A dangling modifier, a specific case of which is the
dangling participle, can change the intended meaning of the sentence dramatically, which
makes readers have to slow down in order to sort-out the meaning.
Examples:
a. While driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall
toward Almaz‘s car. (It sounds like the tree was driving.)
Revised: While Almaz was driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a
tree began to fall toward her car.
b. Rolling around in the slop, kumsa watched the stone. (Rolling modifies ‗Kumsa‘
not ‗stone‘)

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Revised: Kumsa watched the stone that was rolling around in the slop.
c. Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed. (The logical doer
of the action is left out from the main clause)
Revised: Having arrived late for practice, the captain of the team needed a
written excuse.
1.5.7. Faulty Parallelism
Parallel construction or structure is the use of similar structure in a pair or series of
successive expressions in a sentence. Parallelism helps the flow of a sentence and
emphasizes the relationships of the ideas in parallel elements. This means, it keeps a
sentence balanced by making these elements grammatically equal: nouns are paired with
nouns, verbs with verbs, and the like.
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are parallel in meaning,
but not parallel in form.
1.5.7.1. With lists after a colon or lists in series
When listing a series of things, ideas, or actions, make sure that all the elements in a list
have the same grammatical structure.
a. The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings and looking up irregular verbs.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings and irregular verbs.
b. The faculty dean went to the hairdresser‘s, visited the butcher shop, and stopped
off at the movie theater. (Non-parallel)
Revised: The faculty dean went to the hairdresser‘s, to the butcher shop, and to
the movie theater.
c. The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clearly and logically.
(Non-parallel)
Revised: The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clarity and
logic.
1.5.7.2. With coordinating conjunctions
When joining two words or word groups by the coordinating conjunctions, each word or
word group must have the same grammatical functions.
a. He enjoys playing football and to read different fictions. (Non-parallel)
Revised: He enjoys playing football and reading different fictions.
b. My friend blocked well, but tackles unskillfully. (Non- parallel)
Revised: My friend blocked well, but tackled unskillfully. Or My friend blocks
well, but tackles unskillfully.
c. His mother kept the store clean and she made it conveniently arranged. (Non-
parallel)

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Revised: His mother kept the store clean and conveniently arranged.
1.5.7.3. With correlative conjunctions
These includes: either…or, neither…nor, not only….but also, both…. and, need to
have the same or balanced patterns both before and after the half of the pair.
Examples:
a. This book is not only broader, but also the most difficult one. (Non- parallel)
Revised: This book is not only broader, but also more difficult. Or
This book is not only the broadest, but also the most difficult one.
b. That man is either a thief or robbing the bank. (Non- parallel)
Revised: That man is either a thief or a robber.
c. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. (Non- parallel)
Revised: You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.
1.5.7.4. Comparison with „than‟ or „as‟
When comparing people or things using ‗than‘ or ‗as‘, you have to make parallel
comparison.
a. The girls in Ontario are prettier than California.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The girls in Ontario are prettier than the girls in California.
b. Joan does not like basketball as much as she seemed to like football.(Non-
parallel)
Revised: Joan does not like basketball as much as she likes football.
1.6. Using Varied Sentence Types
In addition to being familiar with sentences according to their grammatical forms, you
should learn how to vary sentence length and how to use special literary sentence types.
Sentence variety establishes rhythm, contributes to meaning and keeps the reader‘s
interest. This section provides you with the ways of varying sentences in your writing.
Too many simple or compound sentences beginning with the subject followed by the
verb can create a monotonous effect. More importantly, such writing may lack coherence
and needed emphasis. In order to improve coherence and add emphasis to your writing,
consider beginning your sentences differently. Look at some of the following examples:
1.6.1. Begin with adverbial modifier
You can easily begin with an adverbial modifier in front of the sentence subject, if such
construction is needed to achieve emphasis and coherence. The modifiers can be single
word, phrases, or clauses.
Examples:

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Original: The workers in the factory were in their rooms for seven days, where they
were deprived of sleep, overwhelmed by works, and driven to distraction with
worry.
Revised for variety: For seven days, the workers in the factory were deprived of
sleep, overwhelmed by works, and driven to distraction with worry.
Original: The ornithologist cautiously approached the eagle‘s nest.
Revised for variety: Cautiously, the ornithologist approached the eagle‘s nest.
1.6.2. Begin with prepositional phrase
Original: Today was the first day in my English class, and I couldn't believe that
we had an assignment already.
Revised for variety: In my English class today, we already have an assignment.
Original: There were two kinds of engineers before the Industrial Revolution.
Revised for variety: Before the Industrial Revolution, there were two kinds of
engineers.
1.6.3. Begin with Participial phrases
Original: I keep thinking of the lazy days of summer, and I wish September had
never arrived.
Revised for variety: Thinking of the lazy days of summer, I wish September had
never arrived.
Original: The molecules of a gas at high temperature move within a closed space,
constantly colliding with walls and other molecules.
Revised for variety: Constantly colliding with walls and other molecules, the
molecules of a gas at high temperature move within a closed space.
1.6.4. Begin with infinitive phrase
Original: My brother used to study hard to perform well on matriculation.
Revised for variety: To perform well on matriculation, my brother used to study
hard.
Original: A thorough understanding of thermodynamics is required to design a heat
sink, an air conditioning system, or an internal combustion engine.
Revised for variety: To design a heat sink, an air conditioning system, or an
internal combustion engine, a thorough understanding of thermodynamics is
required.
1.6.5. Begin with subordinate clause
Subordinate clauses at the beginnings of sentences usually serve as adverbs. Begin a
sentence with a subordinate or dependent clause to achieve variety that results in a
complex sentence.

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Original: Today was the first day in my English class, and I couldn't believe that we had
an assignment already.
Revised for variety: Since today was the first day in my English class, I found it
hard to believe that we already had homework.
Original: Most nocturnal birds have very large eyes, but the New Zealand Kiwi‘s
eyes are tiny.
Revised for variety: Although most nocturnal birds have very large eyes, the New
Zealand Kiwi‘s eyes are tiny.
1.10. Punctuation Marks in Writing Effective Sentences
Punctuation marks can make or mar the meaning of a sentence. They are a set of
symbols, and are an integral part of written language. There are specific rules for the
usage of each. Punctuation marks help put spoken words into writing. Thus, it is said that
punctuation is the art of dividing written discourses into sections by means of points, for
the purpose of showing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the
sense more obvious.
The most important punctuation marks are: the full stop or period, the question mark, the
exclamation mark, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the dash, the hyphen, the
bracket or parenthesis, the quotation mark and the apostrophe.
Punctuation marks with some relevant examples
Punctuation Marks Examples
Full stop or period (.)
Put a full stop or period to end a statement
or a command.
Use a full stop or a period after an
abbreviation or shortened word
Put a question mark at the end of a question
Use an exclamation mark to show strong
feeling
Flowers are beautiful in the spring.
Water the flowers.
B.Sc., Ph.D., Mr., Mrs.
How long have been in Arba Minch?
Well, I am not a gardener! What an awful sight!

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Comma(,) mark for the shortest pause is used:
To separate items in a series
To separate the day of the month from the
year, and after the year.
Note: if no day is given, no commas are
necessary.
To separate the parts of an address in a
sentence.
To set off an introductory phrase from the
rest of the sentence.
To set off an appositive—a word or word
group that identifies, renames, or describes
a noun or a pronoun.
To separate a non-defining clause.
Before a coordinating conjunction in a
compound sentence.
After a dependent adverbial clause that is
followed by an independent clause in a
complex sentence.
I am taking English, Spanish, physics, and
economics.
Americans declared their independence from
England on July 4, 1776, in Philadelphia.
Americans declared their independence from
England in 1776 in Philadelphia.
The office of the famous fictional detective
Sherlock Holmes was located at 221b Baker
Street, London, England.
Walking home, my sister decided to change her
major.
To keep fit, people should try to exercise
regularly.
I have visited only one country, Canada, outside
the United States.
Mr. John, our head master, is out.
A really gifted artist, he is also a wonderful
father.
The mayor, who was recently elected, has no
political experience.
The boy, who stood first, got a prize.
We don‘t need to bring umbrellas, for the sun is
shining brightly.
Because kora is an outstanding student, he
always gets the first rank from the class.
Semicolon (;) mark for a little longer pause than the coma is used:
Between independent clauses that are not
connected by a coordinating conjunction in
a compound sentence.
My battery is dead; my car won‘t start.
My battery is dead; therefore, my car won‘t
start.
Come in time; delay may spoil your chance.

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Colon (: ) a longer pause than semicolon is used:
To introduce a direct quotation.
To introduce an explanation, a clarification,
or an example.
To introduce a list.
Our family motto is a simple one: ―Accept no
substitutes.‖
Only one thing kept him from climbing Mt.
Everest: fear of heights.
I left my job for four reasons: boring work, poor
working conditions, low pay, and a terrible
supervisor.
The dash (—), the hyphen(-), and the bracket ( )
Use dashes to set off important information.
Use hyphen to form a compound word.
Use bracket or parentheses to enclose
material that is relatively unimportant.
She parked her car—a red Firebird—in front of
the president office.
Pick-pocket, hot water-bottle
The weather in Portland (a city in Oregon) was
overcast.
Quotation marks (“ ”) are used:
Around the words of direct quotation She said, ―I‘ll miss you.‖
―I‘ll write you every day,‖ she promised.
―I‘ll think about you every day,‖ she continued,
―and I‘ll dream about you every night.‖
Apostrophe ( ‟ ) is used:
To combine two words. The apostrophe
takes the place of omitted letters.
To show ownership. Nouns and indefinite
pronouns do not have special possessive
forms. Instead, they use apostrophes to
indicate ownership.
To form the possessive of plural nouns
ending in -s (including names), add just an
apostrophe (not an apostrophe plus an s).
I didn‘t =did not, It‘s =it is not, I am= I‘m
The strike‘s outcome (the outcome of the strike)
was uncertain.
Whether it would succeed was anyone‘s guess
(the guess of anyone).
The two drugs‘ side effects (the side effects of
the two drugs) were quite different.
The Johnsons‘ front door (the front door of the
Johnsons) is red.

21. 21
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
Lead-in-Task
Answer the following questions individually and discuss your responses in threes.
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is a topic sentence and where is its position in a paragraph?
3. What are the supporting sentences? What are their functions in a paragraph?
4. What relations do the supporting sentences have with the topic sentence?
What about the concluding sentence?
It is considered that writing a paragraph is the most basic structure in any writing.
Understanding how to write effective and intriguing paragraphs can improve your
writing greatly. Thus, before you will practice writing paragraphs, this section is
devoted to provide you with the definition of a paragraph and its basic structure.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Understand about a paragraph.
 Recognize the basic structure of a paragraph.
 Differentiate various types of paragraphs.
 Understand the difference between a topic and topic
sentence.
 Learn producing effective topic sentences from the
given topics.
 Know the characteristics of a good paragraph.
 Learn different types of paragraph organization.
 Apply different techniques of paragraph development.
 Practice using various transitional words and
transitional phrases in writing a paragraph.
 Develop the skill of writing well developed paragraphs.

22. 22
A paragraph is a combination of sentences that deal with a distinct unit developing one
major idea or a topic sentence. A paragraph can be written for any of several purposes,
but all paragraphs have one thing in common: each sentence logically relates to the
same topic. In other words, a group of unrelated sentences is not a paragraph. A good
paragraph is well organized, properly linked and adequately developed. From the
definition you can generally understand that a paragraph:
 Is a group of sentences;
 The sentences are logically related;
 All sentences deal with the single main idea or topic sentence giving
detailed and relevant information.
In other words, this is to mean that an effective paragraph has unity, coherence, and
adequate development or completeness. These will be discussed in detail under the
topic the basic characteristics of an effective paragraph.
2.1. Basic Structure of a Paragraph
Most of the paragraphs have three basic structures: the introduction, the body, and
the conclusion. That means most paragraphs are made up of a topic sentence, a series
of detailed or supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
2.1.1. The Introduction
The introduction is the first section of a paragraph which includes a topic sentence.
The topic sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a paragraph. It
is called so because it is that idea or topic alone which is developed and explained in
the rest of the paragraph.
2.1.2. The body
The body of a paragraph is the section that follows the introduction and contains the
detailed or supporting sentences. The body is the main part of a paragraph which is
developed sequentially.
The detailed or supporting sentences in the body explain or discuss the controlling idea
stated in the topic sentence by providing enough and specific supporting details, using
facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information. They should be strong
convincing points on which the topic sentence can rely upon and be clear evidence that
what the topic sentence says is trustworthy.
2.1.3. The conclusion
The conclusion is the final section which summarizes the connections between the
information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph‘s controlling idea
through the concluding sentence. The concluding sentence reminds the readers of what
they have to value by summing up what the topic sentence and the supporting details talk
about.

23. 23
Sample paragraph
Arba Minch is famous for several amazing natural features. For example, it is noted for
Chamo and Abaya lakes which are spectacular sights in the rift valley. Between the two
lakes, there is a thick forest where people trek to view monkeys, beautiful birds and other
wild animals. The forty springs that are found nowhere else in Ethiopia are also found in
Arba Minch. Immediately to the east of Arba Minch, is the NechSar National Park. The
Park is fortunate in possessing a number of rivers and streams such as Kulfo and Sarmele
which are reasons for the rich wildlife resources of the area. The landscapes with
breathtaking views, where one can plan a vacation to the areas that promise many
fabulous photo opportunities, are also found there. Moreover, the crocodile breeding area
is a wonderful natural feature that attracts many of the tourists. All in all these natural
features are truly interesting and make Arba Minch a famous place to visit.
If you have carefully read the given model paragraph, you can immediately notice its
structure as follows:
Introduction (topic sentence): Arba Minch is famous for several amazing natural
features.
Body (supporting sentences): For example, it is noted for Chamo and Abaya lakes
which are very wide and attractive. Between the two lakes, there is a thick forest where
people trek to view monkeys, beautiful birds and other wild animals. The forty springs
that are found nowhere else in Ethiopia are also found in Arba Minch. Immediately to the
east of ArbaMinch, is the NechSar National Park. The Park is fortunate in possessing a
number of rivers and streams such as Kulfo and Sarmele which are reasons for the rich
wildlife resources of the area. The landscapes with breathtaking views, where one can
plan a vacation to the areas that promise many fabulous photo opportunities, are also
found there. Moreover, the crocodile breeding area is a wonderful natural feature that
attracts many of the tourists.

24. 24
Conclusion (concluding sentence): All in all these natural features are truly interesting
and make Arba Minch a famous place to visit.
2.2. Position of a Topic Sentence in a Paragraph
A topic sentence can be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end in a
paragraph. However, it is always better to use the topic sentence at the beginning of a
paragraph for it is a very useful guide to both the writer and the reader. When the topic
sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph, it helps a writer to see what
information to include and what information to exclude in a paragraph. The readers also
understand what is going to come in that particular paragraph once they find the topic
sentence at the beginning.
Now, read the following sample paragraphs and study how it is possible to place
topic sentence at the beginning, in the middle and at the end. The topic sentence is
underlined in each paragraph.
Sample 1
There are a number of steps to take if you are stung by a bee or a hornet. The first thing to
do is remove the stinger. A stinger contains venom. It will continue to release venom as
long as it is contact with skin. When the stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. This
will reduce the swelling. Then, apply a small amount of baking soda. It contains enzymes
that will weaken the venom. Finally, look for signs of an allergic reaction such as
difficulty in breathing. People have died from strong allergic reactions to stings. When
such a reaction occurs, the victim should be taken to the hospital for treatment.
Sample 2
Science is not an impersonal construction. It is no less and no more personal than any
other form of communicated thought. This book is not less scientific because my manner
is personal, and I make no apology for it. Science searches the common experience of
people, and it is made by people and it has their style. The style of a great man marks not
only his own work, but through it, the work of others for generations. The style of
Newton‘s work as much as the content, dominated science for two centuries and in that
time shaped its manner and its matter. But style is not monopoly of the great, nor is its
appreciation a vintage reserved for experts. The school boy who can tell a neat proof

25. 25
from a dull one knows the style and takes pleasure in it. Indeed he finds it easier to
appreciate the style of science than the style of Shakespeare.
Sample 3
The true problem of city planning and rebuilding in a free society is how to cultivate
more city districts that are free, lively and fertile places for the differing plans of
thousands of individuals, not planners. Nothing could be farther from the aims of
planners today. They have been trained to think of people as interchangeable statistics to
be pushed around, to think of city vitality and mixture as a mess. Planners are the
enemies of cities because they offer us only the poisonous promise of making every place
in a city more like dull and standardized morning side heights.
They have failed to pursue the main point: to study the success and failure of the real life
of the cities. With their eyes on simple minded panaceas, they destroy success and health.
Planners will become helpful only when they abandon what they have learned about
‗ought‘ to be good for cities.
Important Note:
It is important to notice that in some paragraphs, it is hardly possible to get the
right position of the topic sentence because it may be implied in the details given.
For example, narrative and descriptive paragraphs sometimes do not state a topic
sentence directly.
2.3. Narrowing a Subject into Topics
Subject refers to a general area of interest. Topic is a subject that has been narrowed
down. Your instructors usually give you a subject to write about. It is you who should
decide how to change the subject into a good topic. You should narrow the subject in
such a way as to be able to cover it within the limits assigned by your instructor.

26. 26
Look at the examples below which show how each subject has been narrowed into a few
topics.
Subject Topic
Sports Soccer
Basketball
Tennis
Oils
Mineral oils
Vegetable oils
Animal oils
Planets
Mars
Earth
Jupiter
The narrowed topics from the given subjects are still broad and it is possible to narrow
down these topics too. Suppose that you have chosen one topic for each of the above
subjects. For example, you have chosen soccer as the topic from the sports subject, Mars
from the planets subject, and vegetable oils from the oils subject. You can now further
narrow each of these topics. This can make your paragraphs even more interesting to the
readers because narrow topic forces you to be more specific.
Topic Specific Topic
Soccer How soccer affects politics
Great soccer teams of the world
The World Cup
Vegetable oils
The process of getting oil from vegetables
Different types of vegetable oils
Medical value of vegetable oils
Mars
The possibility of life on Mars
Mars compared to Earth
Space travel to Mars

27. 27
2.5. Characteristics of Good Paragraph
Writing good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting
and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a
piece of writing.
You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas are not presented in a well unified,
coherent, and adequately developed manner, you will lose your readers‘ interest and
fail to achieve your goals in writing. Hence, this section discusses the basic
characteristics of an effective paragraph: unity, coherence, and adequate development
or completeness.
2.5.1. Unity
You have seen that a topic sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a
paragraph. It states the main idea of a paragraph. When all of the detailed or supporting
sentences in a paragraph are directly related to the main idea that is stated in the topic
sentence, the paragraph has unity. Thus, Unity is the quality of sticking to one idea from
start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of
that paragraph.
Read carefully and notice how the detailed or the supporting sentences in the following
unified paragraph develop the main idea.
All insects have three main body parts. These are the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen. The head has a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The
thorax is the middle region of the body, and it bears the legs and wings. The
abdomen contains many body organs, such as the heart, respiratory system,
digestive system and reproductive system. Even though there are many
different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have the same body.
In this model paragraph, all of the detailed or supporting sentences discuss the topic
sentence which is the three main body parts of insects and thus form a unit of thought-
oneness of ideas in the paragraph. In order to write a unified paragraph, you are thus
required to consider the following points:
 Make sure that your paragraph focuses on a single controlling idea and state that
idea in your topic sentence.
 Check whether you have put your topic sentence effectively within your paragraph
or not.
 Stick to one idea from start to finish by making your paragraph's evidences. Avoid
any sentence that does not support or develop the idea stated in your topic
sentence.
 Check whether the purpose of your paragraph and the natures of your supporting
evidence guide you or not.

28. 28
 Explain the relationship between your evidence and your idea clearly and
effectively.
2.5.2. Completeness or Adequate Development
Completeness or adequate development is another important element in paragraph
writing. If every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph‘s
controlling idea, we can say a paragraph is Well-developed or adequately developed. See
the model paragraph used under the topic paragraph unity.
2.5.3. Coherence
Lead-in-Task
In groups of threes or fours answer the following questions.
1. What is coherence in paragraph writing?
2. Do you think that a unified paragraph is coherent? Why?
3. Can lack of coherence affect ` the quality of a paragraph? How?
4. How can you achieve coherence in your paragraph?
You have discussed that unity is an important element in developing a paragraph.
However, a unified paragraph can be incoherent when the continuity of thought in it is
not maintained. In order to make your paragraph coherent, you should arrange your
sentences in a logical manner and in a way that follow a definite plan for development.
You can achieve this through the following ways.
A. Using transitional words or phrases
Skill in using transitional words or phrases is vital to coherent writing. Transitional words
or phrases are words and phrases that point out the exact relation between one idea and
another, one sentence and another. Words like therefore, however, for example, and
finally are signals that guide the reader from sentence to sentence. Without them, even
orderly and well-written paragraphs can be confusing and hard to follow.
If you read the following paragraph carefully, you will recognize that all the supporting
sentences talk about the main idea stated in the topic sentence. This means the paragraph
has unity.
However, the paragraph is incoherent because the appropriate linking words or phrases
are not used.
Everybody catches cold. Cold causes a lot of inconvenience to the sufferers. Some people
may see a doctor with the complaint. Some persons may take inhalation. Some brave
persons may ignore it. They would put up with a running nose. They must keep in their

29. 29
person two handkerchiefs. They should not blow their nose noisily in a group. They must
use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs to collect
the phlegm. The phlegm is infectious. Other may catch cold with your phlegm.
Now, read carefully and check how the above incoherent paragraph is improved to
achieve coherence.
Everybody catches cold. Thereupon, it causes a lot of inconvenience to them. As a result,
some may see a doctor with the complaint. And a few may take inhalation. And yet, a
Small number of brave ones may ignore it completely. Consequently, they would put up
with a running nose. However, such persons must keep with themselves two
handkerchiefs. Next, they should not blow their nose noisily in a group. Furthermore,
they must use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs
to collect the phlegm. Incidentally, is infectious. Other may catch cold with your phlegm.
2.6. Paragraph Organization
Lead-in-Task
Think about the following questions individually and share your answers in threes
or fours.
1. What is paragraph organization?
2. Why paragraph organization is important?
3. What are the methods used to organize a paragraph?
One can develop more flexible sense of organization by looking at some patterns that are
more exclusively patterns or principles of organization. These principles have many
variations that they sometimes overlap with patterns of development and that good
writing sometimes combines different methods. Clear logical organization is the most
important part of effective writing. To obtain coherence in our paragraph, we also need to
organize it using the appropriate method of paragraph organization.
When we talk about effective writing, we often think first about elements like word
choice, grammar and mechanics, and content or evidence. But a really important part of
effective writing—and effective thinking, too—is clear, logical organization. Thus, this
section deals with the following methods of paragraph organization that help you achieve
coherence in your paragraphs.
A. Spatial Order
Spatial organization utilizes the concept of space. The information presented in the
paragraph, then, is organized from a start point to an end point, proceeding logically from
one to the other. Spatial organization is frequently used in descriptions where the writer
moves in an orderly manner form one feature to the next.
Model paragraph:

30. 30
My room is a nice comfortable place. As you enter the room, you will see my desk on the
right. Next to my desk, there is a wide fireplace with a chimney on the top of it. As you
pass the fire place you will see my bed. Now you will have to make a left turn. As you
pass along my bed, on the wall you will notice a window that opens to a beautiful garden.
When you get to the foot of my bed, you will have to make another left turn; otherwise,
you will bang against the wall in front of you. After you have made the turn, you will see
my computer table in the corner in front of you. On this table you will find my computer
and all of its peripherals. Then you should make your last turn and move along the wall to
get to the door; one step further, and you will be in the hall.
B. Chronological Order (Time Order)
Chronological order can suit different rhetorical modes or patterns of exposition. It
naturally fits in narration, because when we tell a story, we usually follow the order in
which events occur. Chronological order applies to process in the same way, because
when we describe or explain how something happens or works, we usually follow the
order in which the events occur.
C. Order of Importance (Emphatic Order)
Ideas in a paragraph can also be arranged in the order of importance. You may start
with the most important idea and end with the least, or you may begin with the least
important idea and build to a climax with the most important one.
2.7. Types of paragraphs
Basically there are four types of paragraphs namely: Descriptive, Expository, Narrative
and persuasive paragraphs.
2.7.1 Descriptive Paragraph
A description is a form of writing that gives a picturesque of a topic. It shows the reader
what a person, a place, a scene, a thing, a sensation or an emotion is like. Thus, when you
write a description, you use words to paint a picture for your readers. With description,
you use language that creates a vivid impression of what you have seen, heard, smelled,
tasted, or touched. You can develop this type of paragraph by including more descriptive
details so that the reader is able to see or think about, or act on what you have shown.
When you write a descriptive paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A descriptive paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states the main
point you want to make in your paragraph.
 Your topic sentence should indicate the person, place, or object that you
describe in your paragraph.
 All your examples and details should help to support your paragraph‘s main
idea. Have enough descriptive details.

31. 31
 A descriptive paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up the
main idea stated in the topic sentence.
 Since space order is often used in description, a descriptive paragraph should
present the details that support the topic sentence in a clear spatial order, the
order in which you observed the person, object, or scene you are describing.
Thus, as you arrange your ideas in a descriptive paragraph, be sure to use
appropriate transitional words and phrases to lead readers from one detail to
another.
 Of course, other kinds of order are possible. For example, a description of a
person might have two parts: details of physical appearance and details of
behavior. See this example paragraph:
Our new instructor from abroad is thirty years old, rather tall and has blue
eyes and short black hair. He wears casual clothes as he teaches students in
a relaxed atmosphere. He enjoys his job because he gets to meet and help
so many different people. During his spare time, he likes playing tennis
which he plays at least three times a week. He also loves listening to
classical music and he admitted that he spends a lot of money on buying
new CDs! He lives in a pretty private room in Arba Minch. He enjoys
eating great cultural food and laughing with the likable people who live
here.
2.7.2. Expository Paragraph
The purpose for an expository or explanatory paragraph is to give information about a
subject. This paragraph should explain ideas, phenomenon, gives directions, or shows a
process of how to accomplish something. Explanatory paragraph should have factual
information provided in sequential order. Expository paragraph can be written by using a
combination of all or some of the following techniques of developing ideas: Definition,
Cause and effect, classification, process writing, comparison and contrast, illustration,
identification and analysis.
A. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits
the thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by
determining its precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation.

32. 32
Definition is a method of explaining words or phrases. When most people think of
definitions, they think of the formal definitions they see in a dictionary. Formal
definitions have a three-part structure.
 The term to be defined
 The general class to which the term belongs
 The things that make the term different from all other items in the general class to
which the term belongs
Term Class Differentiation
Ice hockey is a game
Played on ice by two teams on skates who use
curved sticks to try to hit a puck into the opponent‘s
goal.
Spaghetti is a pasta Made in the shape of long, thin strands, usually
served with a sauce.
A single-sentence formal definition is often not enough to define a specialized term
(point of view or premeditation, for example), an abstract concept (happiness or success,
for example), or a complicated subject (stem-cell research, for example). In these cases,
you may need to expand the basic formal definition by writing a definition paragraph. In
fact, a definition paragraph is an expanded formal definition.
In the following paragraph, an extended definition is used as part of the introduction to a
research article. The intention here is both to establish the terms of the discourse and to
establish the importance of the subject. By exploring the meaning of the term bimetals,
the writer creates a shared concept that focuses the discussion that follows.
Bimetals are components made up of two separate metallic units, each occupying a
distinct position in the component. Bimetal rods or wires, also called clad metal, duo- or
dual-metal, are made of dissimilar metals. The rod core, a cylindrical body made of one
metal, is surrounded by a concentric, cylindrical sleeve of another metal. Some fibrous
metals may also be regarded as bimetallic; for example, rods made by unidirectional
solidification of some eutectic compositions contain a metallic or nonmetallic compound
of fibrous filaments embedded in an almost pure metallic matrix. The structure of a
present-day niobium-tin (Nb-Sn), a metallic chemical compound of niobium (Nb) and tin
(Sn), used industrially as a type superconducting core can be even more complex. It is
multi-metallic--containing more than two dissimilar metals. The two elements of a
bimetallic product are usually intimately interlocked, so that they function in unison.
When you develop a paragraph through definition, keep the following guidelines in mind:

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 Have a clear topic sentence that states the paragraph‘s main idea
 Your topic sentence must identify the term you are defining.
 Check that all examples and details support your topic sentence.
 Consider whether you need to add more examples or details to help you define
your term.
 Check whether your transitions are appropriate for the pattern (or patterns) of
development you use, or to add transitions to make your paragraph more
coherent.
 End the paragraph with a concluding statement that summarizes your main idea.
Task18
The following paragraph is developed by definition. Read it carefully and answer
the questions that follow it.
Imperialism is a nineteenth-century term that refers to the policy by which one country
takes over the land or the government of another country. The goal of imperialism was to
establish an empire. The imperialist country thought that it was superior to the country it
took over. It justified its actions by saying that it was helping the other country. For
instance, countries such as Germany, Belgium, Spain, and England claimed large areas of
land in Africa. The point of imperialism was to take as much out of the occupied
countries as possible. For example, in South America and Mexico, Spain removed tons of
gold from the areas it occupied. It made the natives into slaves and forced them to work
in mines. In order to protect their interests, imperialist countries often sent troops to
occupy other countries and to keep order. As a result, imperialism kept the people in
occupied countries in poverty and often broke down local governments and local
traditions. At its worst, European imperialism brought slavery, destruction, and death to
many people.
1. What is the important term that is defined in this paragraph?
2. What examples and supporting details are included to develop the definition of the
term?
3. What appropriate transitional words and phrases are used to make the connection
between the ideas clearer?
4. What is the concluding statement that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph?
What does it conclude?
B. Exemplification
An exemplification paragraph explains or clarifies the idea in the topic sentence with
specific examples. Personal experiences, class discussions, observations, conversations,
and reading (for example, in newspapers and magazines or on the Internet) can all be
good sources of examples.

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To clarify general statements, we use exemplification—that is, we use specific examples
that illustrate a general idea.
General Statement Specific Examples
Today is going to be a hard day. Today is going to be a hard day because I have a
history test in the morning and a lab quiz in the
afternoon. I also have to go to work an hour earlier
than usual.
My car is giving me problems. My car is burning oil and won‘t start on cold
mornings. In addition, I need a new set
When you write an exemplification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An exemplification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states the
paragraph‘s main idea.
 The topic sentence is followed by examples that support the main idea.
 Examples should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least important
to most important or from general to specific.
 An exemplification paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up its
main idea.
 When you write an exemplification paragraph, be sure to include clear transitional
words and phrases. These transitions help readers follow your discussion by
indicating how each example is related to another as well as how each example
supports the topic sentence.
C. Cause and Effect
If your purpose for writing is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, you
should use cause and effect method. Cause and effect analysis states the cause in the topic
sentence and then proceeds to analyze the topic by discussing the effects of the central
idea.
A cause is something or someone that makes something happen. An effect is something
brought about by a particular cause.
A cause-and effect paragraph helps readers understand why something happened or is
happening or shows readers how one thing affects something else.
Cause Effect

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Increased airport security
Weight gain
Seatbelt laws passed
Long lines at airports
Health problems
Increased use of seatbelts
When you write a cause-and-effect paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers
whether the paragraph is focusing on causes or on effects (for example, ―There
are several reasons why the cost of gas is so high‖ or ―Going to the writing center
has given me confidence as well as skills‖).
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should discuss every important cause or effect, one
at a time. The causes or effects should be arranged in some kind of logical
order—for example, from least important to most important.
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums
up the main idea stated in the topic sentence.
 Transitions in cause-and-effect paragraphs, introduce individual causes or effects.
They may also show the connections between a cause and its effects or between
an effect and its causes. In addition, they may indicate which cause or effect is
more important than another.
D. Process
If the purpose is to explain the series of actions, stages, or procedures, then you should
use process method. A process paragraph consists of a series of connected steps. The
steps must be logical and are often chronological in order. You can use time words and
transition expressions to make the sequence of events or actions clear. Process writing is
especially important when you want to explain the steps necessary to complete a task.
Process paragraphs usually demonstrate how to do something.
When you write a process paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A process paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that identifies both the
process and the point you want to make about it (for example, ―Anyone who takes
the subway to school in the morning knows how hard it is to find a seat, but by
following a few simple steps, you should be able to get one almost every day‖ or
―By following a few steps, you can design an effective résumé‖).
 A process paragraph should describe the steps in the process, one at a time. These
steps should be presented in strict time order—the order in which they occur or
are to be performed.
 A process paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums up the
point you are making about the process.

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Here are some important transitional words you might need to use in explaining
your Process:
At the start of the
process
In the middle of the process At or near the end of the
process
At first… Next…, As you continue. Finally…
In the beginning… After that… As you finish…
To begin with… Continuing with… Toward the end…
The first step… The next step is…. The last step…
When you begin… When this step is finished…
E. Comparison and Contrast
Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing or examining two or more subjects
according to their similarities and differences or both. Writers use comparison and
contrast simply because it is often the best way to explain something - an object or an
idea is better understood only when its features stand next to those of another idea or
object.
When you write a comparison-and-contrast paragraph, keep the following guidelines in
mind:
A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells
readers whether the paragraph is going to discuss similarities or differences.
 The topic sentence should also make clear the focus of the comparison (for example,
―Toni Morrison and Maya Angelou have similar ideas about race and society‖ or ―My
parents and I have different ideas about success‖).
A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should discuss the same or similar points for both
subjects, one by one. Points should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least
important to most important.
 A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should end with a concluding statement that
reinforces the main point of the comparison.
Model Paragraph 1
Professor John and Professor Diana demonstrate very different teaching styles in how
they operate their classes, how they give exams, and they grade us. Professor John‘s
classes are highly organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order.
Professor Diana uses an opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which
enable us to learn most. Their exams differ too. Professor John gives standard,
predictable essay exams that are based on his lectures. Professor Diana gives both
multiple choice and essay exams, so we never know what to expect. In addition, each
professor grades differently. Professor John counts class participation as half of our
grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams, you will probably pass
the course. Professor Diana, on the other hand, counts the exams 100 percent, so you

37. 37
have to do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable
teaching style, and I am learning a great a lot from each.
F. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to
make clear the relationship among the members of the group. Writers need to classify,
because it helps them present a mass of material by mean of some orderly system.
Related bits of information seem clearer when presented together as parts of a group.
When you write a classification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A classification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that introduces the
subject of the paragraph. It may also identify the categories you will discuss (for
example, ―Before you go camping, you should sort the items you are thinking of
packing into three categories: those that are absolutely necessary, those that could
be helpful, and those that are not really necessary‖).
 A classification paragraph should discuss each of the categories, one at a time.
 Your discussion of each category should include enough details and examples to
show how it is distinct from the other categories.
 The categories in a classification paragraph should be arranged in logical order—
for example, from most important to least important or from smallest to largest.
A classification paragraph should end with a concluding statement that reinforces the
main point stated in the topic sentence.
2.7.3. Narrative Paragraph
To narrate is to tell a story that explains what happened, when it happened, and who was
involved. For example, a narrative paragraph could tell how an experience you had as a
child changed you, how the life of some famous personalities is inspiring, or how the
Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point in the Civil War.
We tell stories to teach a lesson, illustrate an idea, or make someone laugh, cry, or get
involved. No matter what your narrative is about, every narrative should have a clear
point: It should reveal what you want your reader to learn or take away from the story.
When you write a narrative paragraph, you need to keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A narrative paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers the
point of the paragraph—that is, why you are telling a particular story.
 Events are presented in a definite time order, usually the order in which they
occurred. Effective narrative paragraphs include only those events that tell the
story and avoid irrelevant information that could distract or confuse readers. Use
details to present settings by answering the ―when‖ and ―what‖ questions.
 You should allow your readers to build up their emotions with your use of nouns
and verbs. You should have a sense of reality.

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 You should write either from the first person point of view or from the omniscient
(third person) point of view.
 A narrative paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up the main
idea stated in the topic sentence.
2.7.4. Argumentative
In an argument paragraph, your purpose is to persuade readers that your position has
merit.
You attempt to convince people of the strength of your ideas by presenting evidence—
facts and examples. In the process, you address opposing ideas, and if they are strong,
you acknowledge their strengths. If your evidence is solid and your logic is sound, you
will present a convincing argument.
Important Note: There are two kinds of evidence—facts and examples.
1. A fact is a piece of information that can be verified. If you make a
statement, you should be prepared to support it with facts—for
example, statistics, observations, or statements that are accepted as true.
2. An example is a specific illustration of a general statement. To be
convincing, an example should clearly relate to the point you are
making.
When you write an argument paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An argument paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states your
position. Using words like should, should not, or ought to in your topic sentence
will make your position clear to readers. The federal government should lower the
tax on gasoline. The city should build a new sports stadium.
 An argument paragraph should present points that support the topic sentence. For
example, if your purpose is to argue in favor of placing warning labels on
unhealthy snack foods, you should give several reasons why this policy should be
instituted.
 An argument paragraph should support each point with evidence (facts and
examples).
 An argument paragraph should address and refute (argue against) opposing
arguments. By showing that an opponent‘s arguments are weak or inaccurate, you
strengthen your own position.

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Unit Three: Writing Effective Essays
Lead-in-Task
Think about these questions individually and discuss your thoughts in threes or
fours.
1. What is an essay?
2. How is it different from a paragraph?
3. What is the structure of an essay?
4. What is a thesis statement?
5. What are the Characteristics of a good essay?
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Distinguish the difference between a paragraph and an
essay.
 Know the basic structure of an essay.
 Know the characteristics of an effective essay.
 Understand the importance of thesis statement in writing
an essay.
 Learn producing effective thesis statements from the given
topics.
 Learn producing appropriate essay outline.
 Differentiate various types of essays.
 Develop the skill of writing well developed essays using
different techniques.
 Recognize the use of transitional words or phrases in
writing effective essays.

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This unit will help you apply the skills of paragraph writing to the writing of different
essays. It will guide you from a look at the essay and its parts through planning and
writing essays of your own.
Although writing effective paragraphs will help you complete short-answer exams and do
brief writing assignments, much of the time—in college or university and in the business
world—you will be required to write essays and reports which are several paragraphs
long. Essays are longer and contain more ideas than the single paragraph you have
practiced so far. It is a group of paragraphs, each with the function of supporting a
controlling idea called the thesis. The paragraphs should be logically related together by
directly or indirectly saying the same thing about the thesis statement. Essays require
many of the same skills that paragraphs do.
3.1. Basic Characteristics of a Good Essay
 An essay should possess unity. That means each paragraph should clearly relate
to the main idea of the essay.
 The essay should be written concisely with simple sentences and vocabularies,
which would attract the readers‘ attention.
 The essay should have a clear and concise main idea (thesis statement).
 The essay should have a specific purpose such as informing, entertaining,
evaluating, or persuading.
 The introductory paragraph should create interest in the topic and make the
audience want to read on.
 The main point or the topic sentence of each paragraph in an essay should be
clear and each topic sentence should be supported with specific details.
 There should be clear transitions from one paragraph to the next.
 The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought and should end with an
appropriate conclusion.
3.2. The Difference between a Paragraph and an Essay
The difference between a paragraph and an essay is briefly put in the following table.
Paragraph Essay
Introduction

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The topic sentence introduces
the paragraph, expresses its
main idea, and controls its
content
The thesis statement, by itself
or with other sentences,
expresses the main idea
body
A series of sentences support
the topic sentence, using one
or more methods of
development
A series of paragraphs
support the thesis statement,
by using one or more methods
of development
conclusion
A sentence summarizing the
paragraph repeats the topic
sentence in a heightened form.
A paragraph summarizing
the essay repeats the thesis
statement in a heightened
form.
3.3. The Structure of an Essay
As you can briefly understand from the given table, like a paragraph, essay has also three
basic structures: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
3.3.1. The Introduction
This is the first paragraph of an essay that attempts to arouse the reader‘s interest by
providing background information on the topic, stressing the significance of the topic, or
presenting one or more startling facts. Introductory paragraph should lead logically to the
thesis, which usually appears at or near the end of the introductory paragraph.
3.3.2. The Body
If, in your introduction, you say what you are going to say, then the body of your essay is
where you actually say it. Each paragraph of the body of your essay should contain a
topic sentence. Often the main point can be found in a topic sentence, which may appear
anywhere in the paragraph or be implied.
Of course, all the middle paragraphs must ultimately explain and support the essay‘s
thesis statement and come between the introduction and the conclusion.
3.3.3. The Conclusion

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The conclusion is the last paragraph of an essay. It summarizes or restates the thesis and
the supporting ideas of the essay. In other words, the conclusion briefly sums up the
points and evidences provided to support the thesis statement. It signals the readers that
the discussion has come to an end or makes a recommendation or prediction for the
future.
Read the sample essay below and identify its three basic structures: the
introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
Changing English: the African American Influence
If you ask average Americans where their language comes from, they will probably say
―England‖. However, English vocabulary has also been influenced by other countries and
groups of people. Some words are borrowed from other languages, such as typhoon,
which originally came from Chinese word, ―tai-fung‖, meaning ―big wind‖. Skunk, the
name of a small, smelly, black and white animal, came to English from a Native
American language. African Americans, too, have both contributed new words to English
and changed the meanings of some existing words.
African Americans, many of whose ancestors were brought to the States as slaves
hundreds of years ago, have introduced a number of words to English from the language
that they spoke in their native countries. The common English OK is used around the
world today, but it was not always part of English vocabulary. One theory is that slaves in
America used a phrase in their own language that sounded like OK to mean ―all right‖.
Americans heard the phrase and started using it. Today, almost everyone in the world
uses OK to mean ―all right‖. Another good example of a ―new‖ word is the word jazz.
African American musicians living in the United States began playing jazz music in the
city of New Orleans, and they used the word jass or jazz to describe the music and certain
kinds of dancing. No one is sure where the word originally came from, but as jazz music
became more and more popular, the word jazz became a common English word.
The meanings of words sometimes changes over time. The word cool is a good example.
Cool has been used in English for a long time to describe a temperature that is ―not warm
but not too cold‖ or to describe a person who is ―calm or unemotional‖. However an
additional meaning was given to the word cool in the past 100 years.
Just like the word jazz, African American musicians used the word cool to describe the
music they were playing. For them cool meant ―good‖. As jazz music and other forms of
music played by African American musicians became popular, more and more people
started to use the word cool in conversation. Today, it is a commonly used word,
especially by younger people, to mean ―good‖ or ―great‖. A word with the opposite
meaning of cool is square. Square is, of course, a shape, but it also is used to describe a

43. 43
person who is not cool. This may be because a person who is too old-fashioned and not
flexible is like a shape with four straight sides and four corners.
English owes some of its interesting and colorful vocabulary to African Americans.
Existing ethnic groups in the United States as well as new immigrants will surly continue
to bring new words to English and give fresh meanings to existing words. Who knows
what the ―cool‖ words of tomorrow will be?
3.4. Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is the sentence that tells the main idea of the whole essay. That
means, it tells the reader exactly what you will be covering in the essay. It subtly sums up
the whole composition and often gives the reader a hunch on how the main idea will be
supported in the entirely of the composition. The thesis statement can be compared to a
topic sentence, which gives the main idea of a paragraph. It usually comes at or near the
end of introductory paragraph.
The thesis creates a focus for the essay and should not be too broad or too narrow for the
assignment.
A thesis that is too broad is a statement that is too large to be adequately developed in the
length essay you have been assigned. A thesis that is too narrow is a statement that is not
large enough to be developed into an essay. A well-focused thesis presents a main idea
that can be adequately developed in the number of paragraphs or pages you have been
assigned to write.
3.6. Steps in Writing an Essay
1. Select a subject that interests you
2. Limit the subject you have chosen into manageable size
3. Determine the purpose of your writing
4. Consider your reader‘s need
5. Gather materials
6. Organize your notes
7. Prepare a complete outline
8. Begin writing your paper
9. Write a draft
10. Set the draft aside for a day or two, then read it through and make
changes.
11. Write a complete essay.

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3.7. Outlining an Essay
In order to write a good essay, planning plays the prior role. The ideas and information
are collected to form an outline, which is later developed into an essay. The outline of an
essay is therefore the backbone of an essay because it is a list of the information that you
will put in your essay.
An outline:
 Begins with the essay‘s thesis statement;
 Shows the organization of the essay;
 Tells what ideas you will discuss and shows which ideas will come first, second,
and so on;
 Ends with the essay‘s conclusion.
Writing an outline before you write an essay will:
 Show you what to write before you actually begin writing;
 Help make your essay well organized and clearly focused;
 Keep you from forgetting any important points.
3.7.1. Important Steps for Outlining
Use Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc.) for your essays main ideas: your introduction
and your thesis statement, your main body paragraphs and your conclusion write all of
these first and, before going into more detail anywhere.
Types of Essays
Essays may be endless kinds, but like a paragraph, they are generally divided into four
main types each having its own purpose.
3.8.1. Descriptive Essay
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
III. Second main idea
IV. Third main idea
V. conclusion

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It is a form of discourse that gives a picturesque detail of a topic. It revolves around one
point in time and tells you how your subject appears. The purpose of a descriptive essay
is to describe a person, place, or thing in such vivid detail that the reader can easily form
a precise mental picture of what is being written about. The author may accomplish this
by using imaginative language, interesting comparisons, and images that appeal to the
senses.
A Good Description:
 Creates a main impression-an overall effect, feeling, or image -about the topic
 Uses concrete, specific details to support the main impression.
 Uses details that appeal to the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch
 Uses adjectives and figures of speech
Task 5
1. Read the following Sample descriptive essay and answer the questions that follow
it.
The first thing that you notice about a burning house is not that it is burning, but that it is
burning with such intensity. James watched the house across the street as fire engulfed it
from all sides. There was fire everywhere; the roof was on fire, the doors and windows
were on fire, fire was even coming out of the house through various openings, looking
like a fire-breathing dragon was inside the house, puffing away vicariously. The flames
burned deep red and amber, almost livid purple as James saw various firefighters trying
to put out the fire. Fortunately, there was no one inside as the whole family had been out
for dinner. Nothing inside was likely to survive the fire, James thought as he saw some
flames licking up in the air with the wind, trying to catch something else on fire, and
finding nothing but air, disappearing into the windy night, like disappointed flutters.
It all began about an hour ago. James was in his room and he thought he smelled
something burning. It smelled like a heated soldering iron or as if some wires and rubber
was being burnt. The first thought that crossed James' mind was that it was his computer
and that it had begun to fry. But then after a careful inspection ruled out that possibility,
he started back at his homework. He could not really concentrate as the smell persists. He
was convinced now that something was very wrong and went downstairs to inspect his
kitchen. It was as he was going down the stairs that he noticed something out of the
window. It looked like a fluttering red bird that had just flown by and as James try to
catch another glimpse, his curiosity turned to horror as he realized that the house across

46. 46
the street was on fire. He ran downstairs and dialed 911, explaining what he had seen and
pushed his way into his driveway.
The house in front of him had just started to smolder in the fire. The first thing that
crossed his mind was what if there were people inside. He thought of going inside the
house and looking for some people, but the extreme heat that was coming out the house
thwarted him instantly. He could not go further than being a good hundred feet away
from the house. It was excruciatingly hot and he almost felt his eyebrows burn. He was
still very worried. Alex lived in that house and he had known him since they were kids.
Not knowing what to do, James ran back in the house and called Alex on his cell phone.
He watched through the kitchen window as a crash brought down the ceiling of the
house, bringing the whole roof down with a loud crash. Alex picked up the phone as
James saw a bellow of ash and smoke rise out of the house. It was mildly relieving to
James to find out that Alex and his whole family had decided to go out for dinner and
none of them were inside the house.
Soon, the firefighters arrived and looked at the full-blown inferno in front of them. The
fire had gotten quite out of control now as the whole house was on fire. The firefighters
evacuated the street and told everyone to go inside their houses. James had no choice but
to retreat to his room where he could see, feel, and hear Alex's house burn down. In a few
minutes, the house had been reduced to a pile of rubble, ashes, and smoldering wood and
items. There was a very putrid smell that took over the whole neighborhood, like a bad
barbeque party gone horribly wrong. The smell was so overpowering that it took James
almost two weeks to get it out of his nose. The house had burnt down to nothing within a
few hours, making James realize the futility of the human life and ventures. It takes man
many years to build his dream house and it takes nature only a few minutes to completely
destroy his dreams.
3.8.2. Expository Essay
This is a type of essay where the purpose is to inform, explain, or define the author's
subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to deposit information and is the most
frequently used type of writing. Depending upon the particular purpose for which the
expository essay is being written, the mode of essay development that will be used may
vary. If the purpose is to break down a subject into its constituent parts and to explain
how they are related to the whole topic, then analysis method should be used; if the
purpose is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, cause and effect
method should be used; if the purpose is to give the similarities and the differences,
compare and contrast method should be used; if the purpose is to explain the meaning of
a word or phrase, then definition should be used, and if the purpose is to explain the

47. 47
series of actions, stages, or procedures, then process method should be used. Expository
essays are of many types. In this section you will see each type in detail.
A. Definition
Although paragraphs of definition are more common in college and the workplace than
essays are, you may at some time have to write a definition essay.
B. Example or Illustration
A writer uses examples or illustration to develop a general idea or prove a general
statement. Examples are specific and concrete, not general or abstract. They explain,
clarify, or demonstrate a general idea. An illustration is an extended, developed example.
Examples help readers understand the writer‘s ideas by making abstract ideas concrete
and easier to understand. Just as a picture or illustration helps the reader see and
understand the writer‘s ideas, examples or illustrations help the reader understand a
general idea. Examples are also more memorable than abstractions. Most students
remember the examples an instructor used in class long after they‘ve forgotten the point
the instructor was trying to make. Examples keep the reader‘s attention and make writing
vivid and memorable.
D. Cause and Effect
Essays of cause and effect are among the most important kinds of essays to master
because knowing how to analyze the causes and consequences of events will help you
succeed in college, at work, and in your personal life.It is a unique piece of writing that
you are often assigned with.
Sample Cause and Effect Essay
The twentieth century saw a major increase in the world‘s population. Yet large parts of
the globe remain uninhabitable, so people are drawn towards living in existing towns and
cities. As a result our modern day cities face a number of serious problems which are due
to overcrowding.
Cities teeming with people are put under great strain to supply housing, health care,
education, jobs and a certain quality of life for the inhabitants. The consequence of too
dense a population is that one or all of these areas must suffer. Owing to being over
peopled Britain‘s main cities all have a number of people living on the streets. Life must
be extremely hard for these people and one effect of such a lifestyle is that drug abuse
and crime rates rise.
Cities are environmentally unfriendly places. This is because light, heat, travel and food
must all be supplied artificially as one is removed from nature. Hence, the greater the

48. 48
population, the more natural resources are burnt up and, consequently, the more pollution
is created. A city crowded with people leads to roads crawling with cars. The effect of the
consequent levels of carbon monoxide in the air is said to, in cities as crowded as Mexico
City, be equivalent to smoking twenty cigarettes a day. Living in a city therefore forces
us to be part of an unhealthy consumer throwaway society, which creates illness and
environmental crisis, rather than curing it.
It is the Government‘s responsibility to find solutions for these problems. As a result a lot
of taxpayer‘s money is spent on trying to keep the effects of overcrowding under control.
More housing is built; more roads are planned. This tactic might alleviate some
symptomatic problems at high cost. However, it will never solve the problem of
overpopulation.
For this reason, we must look to the cause of the problem, which is simply an unchecked
epidemic of people. Thus, Governments must educate people to limit the size of their
family. In China, couples are penalized financially as a consequence of having more than
one child. This may seem cruel, but the ―one-child policy‖ is beginning to have an effect
on the world‘s most populous nation. Similar such policies may also be necessary in
other overcrowded nations and this, in turn, would eventually result in solving the
overcrowding in cities.
E. Process
Process essays either explain how to do something or describe how something works (or
how something happened).
Sample process essay
For Fun and Profit
My first experience selling items at a flea market was both fun and profitable. In fact, it
led to a hobby that is also a continuing source of extra money. That first time took a lot of
work, but the routine I established then has made each flea market easier.
The first step in the process is to call to reserve a spot at the flea market. Then, I recruit a
helper—usually my brother or one of my roommates—and we get to work.
The next step is sorting through all the items I managed to accumulate since the last flea
market. My helper comes in handy here, encouraging me to sell ugly or useless things I
may want to hold on to. We make three piles— keep, sell, and trash—and one by one, we
place every item in a pile. (Before we decide to sell or throw out an item, I check with all

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my roommates to make sure I‘m not accidentally throwing out one of their prized
possessions.)
Next comes pricing the items for sale, which is actually the hardest step for me. It‘s
always difficult to accept the fact that I might have to set a low price for something that
has sentimental value for me (a giant stuffed animal, for example). It‘s just as hard to set
a high price on the ugly lamp or old record album that might turn out to be someone‘s
treasure. At my first flea market, I returned with a lot of unsold items, and I later realized
I had sold other items too cheaply. I never made these mistakes again.
The next step is my least favorite: packing up items to be sold. I usually borrow my
friend‘s van for the heavy items (boxes of books or dishes, for example). The small items
(knickknacks, silk flowers, stray teaspoons) can be transported in my brother‘s car.
The final steps in my preparation take place on the day before the event. I borrow a
couple of card tables from friends of my parents. Then, I go to the bank and get lots of
dollar bills and quarters, and I collect piles of newspaper and plastic supermarket bags.
Now, my planning is complete. On the day of the flea market, I get up early, and my
helper and I load the two vehicles. When we arrive at the site where the event is to be
held, one of us unloads the cars. The other person sets things up, placing small items
(such as dishes and DVDs) on the card tables and large items (such as my parents‘ old
lawnmower) on the ground near the tables.
Then, the actual selling begins. Before I can even set up our tables, people start picking
through my things, offering me cash for picture frames, pots and pans, and video games.
We develop a system as the day goes on: one of us persuades buyers that that old meat
grinder or vase is just what they‘ve been looking for, and the other person negotiates the
price with prospective buyers. Then, while one of us wraps small items in the newspapers
or bags we brought (and helps carry large items to people‘s cars), the other person takes
the money and makes change.
Finally, at the end of the day, I count my money and give a share to my helper. We then
load all the unsold items into the car and van and bring them back to my apartment. We
store them in the back of my closet so it will be easy to pack them up again for the next
flea market.
G. Comparison and Contrast
The main purpose in a comparison and contrast essay is to show how two people, two
things, or two places are similar or different or both. Comparisons are discussions in
which you find similarities between two or more ideas or things; contrasts, on the other
hand are discussions in which you indicate differences between two or more ideas or

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things. Comparison/contrast essays can be very dull without the use of some imagination,
particularly in the use of transitions.
Because there are two popular ways (subject- by- subject comparisons and point-by-point
comparisons) to develop comparison or contrast essays, this section offers two essays so
that each pattern is illustrated. To understand what subject –by- subject or point-by-point
comparisons, you can refer back to the note in unit two that discusses about compare and
contrast paragraph.
It seems that one way the human mind makes sense of the world is by grouping similar
things and then dividing them into subcategories; a good classification does just that.
3.8.3. Narrative essay
Narration is probably the oldest form of all writings. Basically, a narrative is a story. It
may be a story written about you or about another person or about something that you
have read. The narrative may be simple anecdote or biography or historical event, it may
also be an incident, short story or a novel. One essential feature of the narrative is the
arranging of events and incidents into a believable time sequence.
In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind:
 Narrative is generally written in a particular point of view
 Narrative uses vivid verbs and modifiers
 Narrative uses conflict and sequence as does any story
 Narrative may use dialogue
 Narrative should include a plot, setting and characters; a climax; and an
ending.
 Narrative should answer ―WH questions‖ i.e. when, why, where,
 3.8.4. Argumentative Essay
Argumentative essay is an extended writing in which we try to convince others to agree
with our facts, share our values, and accept our argument and conclusions.
When writing an argumentative essay, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Begin by introducing the debate topic in your own words.
 Then write if you agree or disagree with the argument
 Tell people why you hold that opinion and come up with ideas and examples to
back up your arguments.

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 Try to put the ideas in an order with the most important ideas first and links
between each idea so that the essay flows well.
 Think about why people might have a different opinion and try to show why they
are not important or they are not true.
 Conclude with a brief summary and try to make a strong last sentence that people
will remember.

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