Bacteria2
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Bacteria are classified into several phyla based on their characteristics. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic while Spirochetes are spiral shaped, with Treponema pallidum causing syphilis. Proteobacteria is the largest phylum and contains both pathogenic and beneficial bacteria. Bacterial cells have structures like cell walls, cell membranes, cytoplasm, and sometimes capsules or pili that aid in functions and survival. Bacteria can obtain nutrients through autotrophy or heterotrophy like saprophytism. Genetic recombination between bacteria can occur through conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Bacterial diseases harm hosts through exotoxins, endotoxins, or digestive enzymes, and antibiotics are used to
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1. Prokaryotes are ubiquitous and outnumber eukaryotes, inhabiting nearly all environments through symbiotic relationships. They are divided into bacteria and archaea.
2. Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in their lack of membrane-bound organelles and smaller genome size. They reproduce through binary fission and genetic variation occurs through transformation, conjugation, and transduction.
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Genetics
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who is considered the father of genetics. Through experiments breeding garden peas in the 1850s, he discovered the basic principles of heredity, including that genes come in pairs and can be dominant or recessive. His work was largely ignored during his lifetime but rediscovered in the early 1900s, forming the basis of modern genetics. Mendel used true-breeding pea plants and recorded inheritance patterns over multiple generations to develop the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which describe how genes are passed from parents to offspring.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, which contain stacks of thylakoids where the light-dependent and light-independent reactions take place. Light energy is absorbed by pigments like chlorophyll and carotenoids in the thylakoids, causing electrons to be transferred between photosystems and pumped across the membrane, generating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to make ATP and ultimately sugars from carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle.
Evolution
Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old, as determined through radioactive dating methods such as carbon-14 and potassium-40. Early models of the primordial Earth proposed that oceans contained organic molecules. Experiments in the 1950s by Miller and Urey produced organic compounds by simulating early Earth conditions. Early cell-like structures that formed had membrane boundaries and could self-replicate. The first life forms were likely anaerobic, heterotrophic prokaryotes. RNA may have come before DNA as it is more stable and can exhibit enzymatic activity. Fossils provide a record of early life, and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection explained how species diverge over time based on heritable traits that aid
Ecology Community
Community ecology examines how species interact with each other through predator-prey relationships, parasitism, competition, and symbiosis. Predator-prey interactions involve a complex balance of hunting and defense mechanisms influenced by natural selection, while parasites live on and weaken their hosts without killing them. Competition occurs when species require similar resources and can lead to competitive exclusion and influence community structure. Symbiotic relationships include mutualism where both species benefit and commensalism where one benefits without affecting the other.
Ecology Population
Ecology is the study of interactions between biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystems. It is concerned with issues like climate change, extinction, and endangered species. Ecosystems can be analyzed at different levels of organization from the biosphere down to populations of individual species. Organisms are interdependent on biotic and abiotic factors in their environment, and populations are regulated by density-dependent and independent factors. Populations grow through birth and immigration and decline through death and emigration, and their growth can be measured over time.
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Bacteria1
Bacteria are some of the oldest life forms on Earth, with fossil evidence placing their emergence at around 3.5 billion years ago. They are classified into two kingdoms, Archaea and Eubacteria, based on rRNA sequencing. While Archaea and Eubacteria both lack nuclei, they differ in their cell wall structure - Archaea have no peptidoglycan but special lipids, while Eubacteria contain peptidoglycan. Eubacteria are further classified by their shape as cocci, bacilli, or spirilla and differentiated as Gram positive or Gram negative based on their staining properties related to cell wall thickness.
Viruses
Viruses were first discovered in the 1800s and characterized in the 1930s by Wendell Stanley. Viruses are not considered alive as they require a host cell to reproduce and are comprised of protein, nucleic acids, and sometimes carbohydrates. Viruses have specific shapes and are categorized by their nucleic acid content and structure. Retroviruses contain reverse transcriptase and have an RNA genome. Viroids and prions are small infectious particles that can self-replicate and cause diseases in plants and mammals. Viruses replicate using either lytic or lysogenic cycles. [END SUMMARY]
Rna And Protein Synthesis Ss
This document summarizes RNA and protein synthesis. It describes that DNA is made of nucleotides and has a double helix structure. During transcription, RNA polymerase builds an RNA strand that is complementary to DNA. The RNA can be messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), or ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome. During translation, mRNA matches up with tRNA to add amino acids together and form a protein according to the mRNA's code.
DNA
This document summarizes key experiments and discoveries that determined DNA is the genetic material:
- Griffith (1928) and Avery (1944) provided early evidence through experiments with bacteria and pneumococcus.
- Hershey and Chase (1952) used radioactive isotopes to show that DNA, not protein, enters the cell during bacterial infection.
- The structure of DNA was discovered to be a double helix with nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases that pair up in a specific way.
- DNA replication requires several enzymes and occurs through a semi-conservative process at the replication fork. DNA repair mechanisms reduce mutations from replication mistakes.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose to extract energy. It has two main pathways - glycolysis, which breaks down glucose into pyruvate with or without oxygen, and the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, which use oxygen to further break down pyruvate into carbon dioxide and generate large amounts of ATP through electron transport. In the presence of oxygen, cellular respiration is highly efficient and produces 38 ATP, whereas without oxygen, fermentation takes place and only 2 ATP are produced.
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Bacteria2
- 1. Bacteria