This document summarizes the threat posed by the amphibian disease Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) to global salamander populations. Bsal was recently discovered in Europe and causes die-offs of fire salamanders. It poses a high risk of being introduced to North America through the international pet trade of Asian fire-bellied newts, which may act as reservoirs. The disease has suitable climate conditions to establish in parts of the US with high salamander diversity and endemism. Monitoring programs and restrictions on the wildlife trade are recommended to prevent an outbreak comparable to the global spread of the related disease Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.

1. Averting a biodiversity crisis:
AmphibiaWeb addresses the new
Bsal threat
Photo by Emanuele Biggi
Michelle S. Koo,
Tiffany Yap,
Vance Vredenburg,
Alessandro Catenazzi,
Carol Spencer, &
David Wake
-AmphibiaWeb-
SSAR Symposium, Lawrence, KS, 2015

2. About AmphibiaWeb
Our Mission Since 1999:
To provide information on
amphibian biology, natural
history, conservation and
taxonomy

3. About AmphibiaWeb
¤ Website launched 2000
running continuous since then
¤ Data
¤ Taxonomy, synonymy
¤ Aggregates VertNet data,
IUCN range & status
¤ Species biology, life history,
images, media
¤ Community
¤ Herp classes
¤ Educators
¤ Professionals & amateurs
¤ Conservation
¤ Steering committee:
¤ David Wake*, director
¤ Michelle Koo & Vance
Vredenburg, assoc. directors
¤ Joyce Gross, programmer
¤ Ann Chang, coordinator
¤ David Cannatella*, UT Austin
¤ David Blackburn*, U Florida
¤ Carol Spencer, UC Berkeley
¤ Alessandro Catenazzi, SIU
* Taxonomic subcommittee

4. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
(or Bsal)
¤ Described by An Martel et al. in 2013
¤ European Fire Salamander already in
decline in the Netherlands
¤ Affects only salamanders
(Martel et al. 2014)
¤ Skin lesions
¤ Anorexia
¤ Apathy
¤ Ataxia
¤ Death within a week
Photo by Frank Pasmans
Blooi et al., 2015

5. Salamander Biodiversity
¤ 7,427 total amphibian species
¤ 676 salamander species (~9%)
¤ 10 families
¤ 66 genera
¤ ~50% in North America
¤ 321 species, 9 families
¤ USA (190), Mexico (137),
Canada (21)
Photos by Joyce Gross and Todd Pierson
Data @AmphibiaWeb.org 2015

6. Ecological Role of Salamanders
¤ Density and biomass
¤ 2,950 to 18,000 salamanders/hectare
¤ Biomass ≥ birds, small mammals
¤ Trophic dynamics
¤ Keystone predator
¤ Valuable prey for top predators
¤ Carbon sequestration
¤ Slow the rate of leaf litter
decomposition
Wyman 1998; Davic and Welsh, 2004; Best and Welsh, 2014
Photo by Brian Freiermuth

7. Ecological Role of Salamanders
¤ Energy flow between aquatic and terrestrial systems
¤ Dispersal vectors
¤ Chemical transformations
¤ Soil dynamics
¤ Underground retreats
¤ Ecosystem functions and services
¤ Erosion control
¤ Water purification
¤ Climate modulation
¤ Agricultural benefits
¤ Recreation/aesthetics
Davic and Welsh, 2004; Best and Welsh, 2014
Photos by John Clare and Todd Pierson

8. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd)
¤ Discovered in 1998 (Berger et al.);
Described in 1999 (Longcore et al.)
¤ Aquatic zoospore
¤ Affects the skin
¤ Frogs
¤ Salamanders
¤ Caecilians
¤ Optimal growth at 17 – 23°C
¤ Found on all continents where amphibians occur
¤ > 350 affected species
¤ > 200 species declines and extinctions over multiple decades
Drawing by Alison Burke

9. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
(or Bsal)
¤ Recent discovery (Martel et al.) 2013
¤ Netherlands, Belgium
¤ Optimal growth at 15 – 20°C (lower
than Bd)
¤ Affects only salamanders
(Martel et al. 2014)
¤ Thermal limits at 25°C
(Blooi et al. 2015)
Photo by Frank Pasmans
Blooi et al., 2015

10. Bsal susceptibility trials in 35 amphibians
From Martel et al. 2014

11. Bsal (Martel et al. 2014)
¤ Originated in Asia over 30 million years ago
¤ Potential reservoir species – Fire-Bellied Newts:
¤ Cynops cyanurus (China)
¤ Cynops pyrrhogaster (Japan)
¤ Paramesotriton deloustali (Vietnam)
¤ Spread by international amphibian pet trade
¤ Not recorded in North America
¤ 2 North American species are highly susceptible
¤ Notophthalmus viridescens – Eastern Newt
¤ Taricha granulosa – Rough-skinned Newt
Photos by Todd Pierson, Henk Wallays, and Mark Aartse-Tuyn

12. What is the magnitude of the
threat?
1. Could Bsal get to North America?
¤ International amphibian trade

13. Salamander Trade
¤ International Trade Data are limited
¤ CITES – Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species
of Wild Flora and Fauna
¤ Only 146 (of 7427 amphibians) regulated; only 6 are salamanders
¤ USA amphibian trade data: 2010-2014
¤ Freedom of Information Act request from the United States Fish
and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (Yap et al. 2015)
Photos by savethesalamanders.org and Gonçalo M. Rosa

14. Major US Ports and Imports
Port Bsal threat Non-Bsal threat All shipments
1 Los Angeles, CA 418,692 1,198 419,890
2 Tampa, FL 272,338 1,140 273,478
3 New York, NY 55,441 70 55,511
4 Atlanta, GA 13,272 40 13,312
5 San Francisco, CA 3,164 6,459 9,623
Total
Top 5 US Ports
762,907 8,907 771,814
All US Ports
Combined
768,572 10,430 779,002
Yap, Koo, Ambrose, Wake & Vredenburg, 2015, Science

15. Major US Ports and Imports
Port Bsal threat Non-Bsal threat All shipments
1 Los Angeles, CA 418,692 1,198 419,890
2 Tampa, FL 272,338 1,140 273,478
3 New York, NY 55,441 70 55,511
4 Atlanta, GA 13,272 40 13,312
5 San Francisco, CA 3,164 6,459 9,623
Total
Top 5 US Ports
762,907 8,907 771,814
All US Ports
Combined
768,572 10,430 779,002
Yap, Koo, Ambrose, Wake & Vredenburg, 2015, Science
91% of all imported
salamanders included
Cynops or
Paramesotriton species

16. What is the magnitude of the
threat?
1. Could Bsal get to North America?
¤ International amphibian trade
2. What factors could influence Bsal invasion and
establishment?
¤ Abiotic – suitable habitat/climate envelope
¤ Biotic - availability of hosts
¤ Access – ports of entry

17. Bsal Habitat Suitability Model
Yap, Koo, Ambrose, Wake & Vredenburg, 2015, Science

18. Species Richness
Yap, Koo, Ambrose, Wake & Vredenburg, 2015, Science

19. Salamander Vulnerability Model
Yap, Koo, Ambrose, Wake & Vredenburg, 2015, Science

20. Appalachia and Southeast US
¤ Highest taxonomic diversity
¤ 7/10 Families
¤ Plethodontidae
¤ Salamandridae
¤ Up to 29 co-occurring species
¤ Many endemic species
¤ Includes Eastern Newt range
Photos by Henk Wallays and Todd Pierson

21. West Coast of the US
¤ Highest Bsal habitat suitability
¤ 5/10 Families
¤ Salamandridae and Plethodontidae
¤ Up to 12 co-occurring species
¤ Includes Rough-skinned newt range
Photos by Tiffany Yap, Harry Greene, Todd Pierson, and Sam Murray
1
5

22. Central Highlands of Mexico
¤ Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra
Madre Oriental, and Trans-
Mexican Volcanic Belt
¤ Hotspots of tropical salamander
diversity
¤ High endemism; high beta
diversity
¤ Many are threatened or
endangered
Photos by Abel Batista, Todd Pierson, Sean Rovito

23. What we can learn from Bd global
pandemic
¤ Bsal has spread 60 km in 5 years – Netherlands to Belgium,
and now Germany
¤ Once arrives, poses a severe, irreversible threat
¤ ONE ADVANTAGE: We may have caught it early
Cheng et al. 2011

24. Policy Implications
¤ USFWS – place a temporary ban on live salamander imports
¤ Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. § 42)
¤ it is prohibited to import any species “injurious to human beings, to the
interests of agriculture, horticulture, forestry or to the wildlife resources of the
United States.”
¤ The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) – declare Bsal a
notifiable disease
¤ Develop and implement a mandatory, structured system that allows for
accurate tracking of all species being traded
¤ Establish monitoring programs
¤ Incentivize captive breeding programs as an alternative to wild
harvesting
¤ Regulate online wildlife trade

25. Studies Needed
¤ Conduct studies to better understand the basic biology
of Bsal and host-pathogen dynamics
¤ Longitudinal studies in museum specimens – historical
distribution
¤ Targeted field surveys – recent declines in North
American salamander populations (anecdotal)
¤ Infection trials – which species are susceptible?
¤ What happens in co-infections with Bd?

26. Join AmphibiaWeb’s efforts
¤ We are building a needed Data Repository for Bd/Bsal
test results
¤ New collaboration with US Forest Service to create this
central portal
¤ Will include Bd-maps data
¤ Will allow both field or museum samples
¤ Community feedback requested!

27. Proposed Amphibian Disease Tracker
¤ Where have Bd and Bsal have been tested? Where have
Bd and Bsal been found?
¤ Which species have been tested with Bd /Bsal? Are there
geographic or temporal patterns? Are their patterns in
life history traits?
¤ Where are the sudden outbreaks of Bd/Bsal?
¤ How has the distribution, prevalence and intensity
changed over time and space?

28. Proposed Amphibian Disease Tracker

29. Proposed Amphibian Disease Tracker

30. Proposed Amphibian Disease Tracker

31. Questions? Ideas? Let’s hear!
Photo by Tiffany Yap

32. Special thanks to these sponsors and partners of
AmphibiaWeb
Find out more:
AmphibiaWeb.org