Overview of the common audience theories looked at for AS Media Studies: Effects Theory Uses and Gratification Theory Reception Theory This is not specific to any board, and can apply to Film Studies as well in certain cases.

1. AUDIENCE THEORY
EFFECTS THEORY
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RECEPTION THEORY
- 4 sub sections
- 4 sub sections
- 3 sub sections
O V E R V I E W

2. EFFECTS THEORY
Effects theory implies that a media product has a direct
and powerful effect on its audiences, and that these
audiences are passive.

3. EFFECTS THEORY
Effects theory implies that a media product has a direct
and powerful effect on its audiences, and that these
audiences are passive.
The theory is very deterministic, meaning that there is a
clear cause and effect model:

4. EFFECTS THEORY
Effects theory implies that a media product has a direct
and powerful effect on its audiences, and that these
audiences are passive.
The theory is very deterministic, meaning that there is a
clear cause and effect model:
The text itself being the cause, and then the change in the
audience mindset or actions being the effect.

5. EFFECTS THEORY
Effects theory implies that a media product has a direct
and powerful effect on its audiences, and that these
audiences are passive.
The theory is very deterministic, meaning that there is a
clear cause and effect model:
The text itself being the cause, and then the change in the
audience mindset or actions being the effect.
The theory is split into four parts:
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
DESENSITISATION
COPYCAT
CULTIVATION

6. EFFECTS THEORY
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE

7. EFFECTS THEORY
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very
large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘injecting’ them
with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.

8. EFFECTS THEORY
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very
large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘injecting’ them
with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.
The hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are
injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately
influenced by the message.

9. EFFECTS THEORY
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very
large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘injecting’ them
with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.
The hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are
injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately
influenced by the message.
Examples:
Nazi Propaganda
War of the Worlds Radio Documentary

10. EFFECTS THEORY
COPYCAT

11. EFFECTS THEORY
COPYCAT
Copycat theory simply suggests that the audience will attempt to
recreate or reenact what they are exposed to.
This is a much more severe effect along the same lines as
cultivation theory.

12. EFFECTS THEORY
COPYCAT
Copycat theory simply suggests that the audience will attempt to
recreate or reenact what they are exposed to.
This is a much more severe effect along the same lines as
cultivation theory.
Examples:
Bobo doll experiment
American high school shootings

13. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION

14. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Desensitisation suggests that the more an audience experiences a
shocking event, the less shocked that they become by it. The
process of seeing something in a safe environment such as on
television distinctly alters their reactions and emotions towards
that action.

15. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Desensitisation suggests that the more an audience experiences a
shocking event, the less shocked that they become by it. The
process of seeing something in a safe environment such as on
television distinctly alters their reactions and emotions towards
that action.
It is suggested that because of violence in computer games and on
television, people are now less shocked by seeing violence in the
real world. (This also applies elsewhere, for example anorexia, and
positively, for example race and homosexuality)

16. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Also, as people become desensitised, the threshold for violence in
future texts rises.
This is seen as film ratings change over time, content changes,
and X-rated films get cleared for viewing.

17. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Also, as people become desensitised, the threshold for violence in
future texts rises.
This is seen as film ratings change over time, content changes,
and X-rated films get cleared for viewing.
What examples can you think of?

18. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Revenge of the Zombies 1951 X-Rated / late 90’s Universal

19. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Revenge of the Zombies 1951 X-Rated / late 90’s Universal
Natural Born Kilers 1994 X-Rated / 2001 - 18

20. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Revenge of the Zombies 1951 X-Rated / late 90’s Universal
Natural Born Kilers 1994 X-Rated / 2001 - 18
Reservoir Dogs 1992 X-Rated / 1994 - 18

21. EFFECTS THEORY
DESENSITISATION
Revenge of the Zombies 1951 X-Rated / late 90’s Universal
Natural Born Kilers 1994 X-Rated / 2001 - 18
Reservoir Dogs 1992 X-Rated / 1994 - 18
The Exorcist: 1974 X-Rated (Theatre)
1974 Refused (Video)
1999 - 18

22. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION

23. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.

24. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
As an audience we inherently believe what we see, at least up to a
point. Because of this, repeated viewings of a particular point of
view will alter our own views.

25. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
As an audience we inherently believe what we see, at least up to a
point. Because of this, repeated viewings of a particular point of
view will alter our own views.
Examples ?

26. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
Examples:
Russians being seen as villains and evil - James Bond / Call of Duty

27. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
Examples:
Russians being seen as villains and evil - James Bond / Call of Duty
Africa being a desert with lions running wild - Nature shows

28. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
Examples:
Russians being seen as villains and evil - James Bond / Call of Duty
Africa being a desert with lions running wild - Nature shows
Pretty blonde girls being less intelligent - Soaps operas, TV comedies

29. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
Cultivation theory suggests that continued exposure to certain
situations will change our views on them, to closer match what
we have seen in media texts.
Examples:
Russians being seen as villains and evil - James Bond / Call of Duty
Africa being a desert with lions running wild - Nature shows
Pretty blonde girls being less intelligent - Soaps operas, TV comedies
Italo-American organised crime and gangsters - TV Drama, films.

30. EFFECTS THEORY
CULTIVATION
What other examples can you think of?

31. Further examples
EFFECTS THEORY
Create your own (fictional) example situations that fit for each of
the four sections of effects theory:
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
DESENSITISATION
COPYCAT
CULTIVATION

32. Further examples
EFFECTS THEORY
Create your own (fictional) example situations that fit for each of
the four sections of effects theory:
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
DESENSITISATION
COPYCAT
CULTIVATION
E.g.
A girl plays a new Facebook game where she scores points by
breaking pencils. The next day in school, whilst her partner goes
to the bathroom, the girl empties her pencil case and breaks all
of her pencils in half. - Copycat

33. Further examples
EFFECTS THEORY
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE
DESENSITISATION
COPYCAT
CULTIVATION
Test Time

34. AUDIENCE THEORY
EFFECTS THEORY
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RECEPTION THEORY
- 4 sub sections
- 4 sub sections
- 3 sub sections
O V E R V I E W

35. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

36. Write down your definition of ‘gratification’

37. Write down your definition of ‘gratification’
“ Pleasure, gained from the satisfaction of a desire. ”

38. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
The basic tenet of Uses and Gratification theory is that people are
not helpless victims of all powerful media, but use media to fulfil
their various needs. These needs serve as motivations (gratifications
sought) for using media.

39. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
The basic tenet of Uses and Gratification theory is that people are
not helpless victims of all powerful media, but use media to fulfil
their various needs. These needs serve as motivations (gratifications
sought) for using media.
Gratifications obtained should correspond with gratifications sought
for the media to be able to meet the needs of the users. Jay G.
Blumler and Elihu Katz devised their uses and gratifications model
in 1974 to highlight four areas of gratification in media texts for
audiences:

40. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
The basic tenet of Uses and Gratification theory is that people are
not helpless victims of all powerful media, but use media to fulfil
their various needs. These needs serve as motivations (gratifications
sought) for using media.
Gratifications obtained should correspond with gratifications sought
for the media to be able to meet the needs of the users. Jay G.
Blumler and Elihu Katz devised their uses and gratifications model
in 1974 to highlight four areas of gratification in media texts for
audiences:
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
PERSONAL IDENTITY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
RELATIONSHIPS

41. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)

42. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
The surveillance need is based around the idea
that people feel better having the feeling that
they know what is going on in the world around
them.

43. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
The surveillance need is based around the idea
that people feel better having the feeling that
they know what is going on in the world around
them.
The surveillance model then is all about awareness. We use the
mass media to be more aware of the world, gratifying a desire for
knowledge and security.

44. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
An example:
As you are being driven home
from school you see a hoard
of police cars and roads being
closed as several helicopters
fly overhead. When you get
home you turn on the
television to find out what is
going on.

45. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
What other examples can you think of?

46. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
What other examples can you think of?
• Crimewatch

47. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
What other examples can you think of?
• Crimewatch
• Rogue Traders

48. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
What other examples can you think of?
• Crimewatch
• Rogue Traders
• Watchdog

49. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION

50. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
The diversion need describes what's commonly termed as
escapism - watching the television so we can forget about
our own lives and problems for a while and think about
something else.

51. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
This can work with positive programmes, such as holiday shows or the
constant happy endings in the Australian soap operas (Neighbours). Most
commonly this positive diversion in film is associated with comedies.

52. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
This can work with positive programmes, such as holiday shows or the
constant happy endings in the Australian soap operas (Neighbours). Most
commonly this positive diversion in film is associated with comedies.
Or with negative programmes, such as the bleak EastEnders or a tragic
film, which help to put our own problems into perspective:
“At least my life's not that bad!”

53. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
What sort of things do you watch to take your mind off things
if you’ve had a particularly rubbish day?

54. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION

55. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY

56. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
The personal identity need explains how being a
subject of the media allows us to reaffirm the
identity and positioning of ourselves within society.

57. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
The personal identity need explains how being a
subject of the media allows us to reaffirm the
identity and positioning of ourselves within society.
The characters in soaps are usually designed to have wildly
different characteristics, so that everyone can find someone to
represent themselves, someone to aspire to, and someone to
despise.

58. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
The personal identity need explains how being a
subject of the media allows us to reaffirm the
identity and positioning of ourselves within society.
The characters in soaps are usually designed to have wildly
different characteristics, so that everyone can find someone to
represent themselves, someone to aspire to, and someone to
despise.
This identification could act as a way to channel your own
life, helping you to set goals to work to.

59. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
The use of the media for forming personal identity
can also be seen outside of fiction:

60. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
The use of the media for forming personal identity
can also be seen outside of fiction:
Sports personalities and pop stars can often
become big role models, inspiring young children
everywhere (which is why there's such an outcry
when one of them does something wrong).

61. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
Write down two hobbies / interests that you have

62. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
PERSONAL IDENTITY
Write down two hobbies / interests that you have
Now list TV shows that you might watch
because of these interests

63. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS

64. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
The relationships need is further split into two parts:

65. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
The relationships need is further split into two parts:
We can form a relationship with the media, and also use the
media to form a relationship with others.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
RELATIONSHIPS
BECAUSE OF MEDIA

66. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Many people use the television as a form of
companionship. This may seem sad, but think about
how many times you've watched the TV on your
own, or with other people but sitting in silence.

67. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Many people use the television as a form of
companionship. This may seem sad, but think about
how many times you've watched the TV on your
own, or with other people but sitting in silence.
The television is often quite an intimate
experience, and by watching the same people on a
regular basis we can often feel very close to them,
as if we even know them.

68. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Many people use the television as a form of
companionship. This may seem sad, but think about
how many times you've watched the TV on your
own, or with other people but sitting in silence.
The television is often quite an intimate
experience, and by watching the same people on a
regular basis we can often feel very close to them,
as if we even know them.
We also talk to the TV a lot. Not many football fans can sit through
a televised match without shouting at the players or the referee,
and many people tell characters what to (or not to do) next.

69. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Have you ever cried when someone
died in a film or TV show?

70. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Have you ever cried when someone
died in a film or TV show?
Do you ever get angry with what characters do?

71. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Have you ever cried when someone
died in a film or TV show?
Do you ever get angry with what characters do?
Do you tune in weekly to a show to find out what has happened?

72. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS WITH
MEDIA
Have you ever cried when someone
died in a film or TV show?
Do you ever get angry with what characters do?
Do you tune in weekly to a show to find out what has happened?
The more we watch the same personalities, the more we feel we
get to know them. Even though the relationship is completely
one-sided, it's easy to see how we can fall in love with TV
personalities.

73. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
BECAUSE OF MEDIA
Another aspect to the personal relationships
model is how we can sometimes use the
media as a springboard to form and build upon
relationships with real people.

74. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
BECAUSE OF MEDIA
Another aspect to the personal relationships
model is how we can sometimes use the
media as a springboard to form and build upon
relationships with real people.
Having a favourite TV programme in common can often be the
start of a conversation, and can even make talking to strangers
that much easier.

75. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
BECAUSE OF MEDIA
Another aspect to the personal relationships
model is how we can sometimes use the
media as a springboard to form and build upon
relationships with real people.
Having a favourite TV programme in common can often be the
start of a conversation, and can even make talking to strangers
that much easier.
You may decide to watch a particular show because your
friends or people you want to impress are talking about it.
You’re watching it to improve your relationships in the real
world.

76. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RELATIONSHIPS
BECAUSE OF MEDIA
Have you ever watched something so that you could join a
conversation about that media text?
It could be a TV show, a Film, a film on Facebook, a YouTube video, etc.

77. USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
SURVEILLANCE (INFORMATION)
PERSONAL IDENTITY
ESCAPISM / DIVERSION
RELATIONSHIPS

78. AUDIENCE THEORY
EFFECTS THEORY
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RECEPTION THEORY
- 4 sub sections
- 4 sub sections
- 3 sub sections
O V E R V I E W

79. RECEPTION THEORY

80. RECEPTION THEORY
Reception Theory in terms of media products is adapted from
literary reader response theory.

81. RECEPTION THEORY
Reception Theory in terms of media products is adapted from
literary reader response theory.
The theory dates back many years, however it was the cultural
theorist Stuart Hall who was the main proponent in applying
reception theory to media analysis in the 1970’s.

82. RECEPTION THEORY
Reception Theory in terms of media products is adapted from
literary reader response theory.
The theory dates back many years, however it was the cultural
theorist Stuart Hall who was the main proponent in applying
reception theory to media analysis in the 1970’s.
Hall strongly opposed the ideas held that audiences are passive
and therefore effected in certain ways by media texts. Instead,
Hall proposed that audience members can play an active role in
decoding messages as they rely on their own social contexts.

83. RECEPTION THEORY
Hall developed his ideas and came up with what became the
‘Encoding and Decoding Model’

84. RECEPTION THEORY
Hall developed his ideas and came up with what became the
‘Encoding and Decoding Model’
Encoding
How the product is
constructed by the
producers of the text

85. RECEPTION THEORY
Hall developed his ideas and came up with what became the
‘Encoding and Decoding Model’
Encoding Decoding
How the product is
constructed by the
producers of the text
How the product is
interpreted by the
audience when they
receive it

86. RECEPTION THEORY
When talking about reception theory we always discuss it in
relation to the decoding. However the type of response is
meaningless without an understanding of the encoding.

87. RECEPTION THEORY
When talking about reception theory we always discuss it in
relation to the decoding. However the type of response is
meaningless without an understanding of the encoding.
Encoding
Producer encodes
meaning(s) into
the text

88. RECEPTION THEORY
When talking about reception theory we always discuss it in
relation to the decoding. However the type of response is
meaningless without an understanding of the encoding.
Encoding Decoding
Producer encodes
meaning(s) into
the text
Audience has a
preferred response

89. RECEPTION THEORY
When talking about reception theory we always discuss it in
relation to the decoding. However the type of response is
meaningless without an understanding of the encoding.
Encoding Decoding
Producer encodes
meaning(s) into
the text
Audience has a
preferred response
Audience has a
negotiated response

90. RECEPTION THEORY
When talking about reception theory we always discuss it in
relation to the decoding. However the type of response is
meaningless without an understanding of the encoding.
Encoding Decoding
Producer encodes
meaning(s) into
the text
Audience has a
preferred response
Audience has a
negotiated response
Audience has an
oppositional response

91. RECEPTION THEORY

92. RECEPTION THEORY
What has been encoded
by the producers?

93. RECEPTION THEORY
What has been encoded
by the producers?
The aim is to make the product look attractive and to generate
sales. It’s an advertisement.

94. RECEPTION THEORY
What are the possible
responses?

95. RECEPTION THEORY
What are the possible
responses?
Preferred
Negotiated
Oppositional

96. RECEPTION THEORY
What are the possible
responses?
Preferred
Negotiated
Oppositional
How would someone who had a preferred response be affected?

97. RECEPTION THEORY
What are the possible
responses?
Preferred
Negotiated
Oppositional
How would someone who had a preferred response be affected?
How would someone who had a negotiated response be affected?

98. RECEPTION THEORY
What are the possible
responses?
Preferred
Negotiated
Oppositional
How would someone who had a preferred response be affected?
How would someone who had a negotiated response be affected?
How would someone who had an oppositional response be affected?

99. RECEPTION THEORY
It is extremely important to always identify the intentions of the
producers before determining whether a response is preferred,
negotiated, or oppositional.

100. RECEPTION THEORY
It is extremely important to always identify the intentions of the
producers before determining whether a response is preferred,
negotiated, or oppositional.
Moving image examples

101. RECEPTION THEORY
Find an example of a short video clip for a partner on youtube.
Using your partners clip describe three different people,
each one having a different response to the clip.
(Preferred / Negotiated / Oppositional)

102. AUDIENCE THEORY
EFFECTS THEORY
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
RECEPTION THEORY
- 4 sub sections
- 4 sub sections
- 3 sub sections
O V E R V I E W