The document discusses various theories about the effects of media on audiences. It describes direct effect theories like the hypodermic syringe theory which argues media directly influences behavior, and cultivation theory which says repeated exposure shapes attitudes. Diffusion theories like two-step flow argue media's effects depend on social discussion. Indirect effect and pluralist theories view audiences as active interpreters influenced by many individual factors rather than just media exposure. The document aims to raise awareness of these debates and support critical analysis of media effects theories.

1. AUDIENCE
• To be aware of ‘The Effects Debate’
• Identify some theories of the way the media
may affect an audience
• Support a critical engagement with the
theories
• rajib@wellingschool-tkat.org

2. The Effects Debate
Media producers think carefully about identifying their
target audience and providing a text which will interest
and engage them. However, the mass media is such a
major part of people’s lives that one of the major
debates in media studies is the effect that the media
may have on its audience.
However, the mass
media is such a major
part of people’s lives
that one of the major
debates in media
studies is the effect
that the media may
have on its audience.
This issue focuses on
the negative effects
that may be created by
media texts; for
example, considering if
there might be a link
between violent
behaviour and
representations of
violence in the media.

3. The Effects Debate
Does the media have the power to change
peoples’ behaviour, attitudes or promote values
and ideologies?
1. Do you play violent video games and/or watch
violent films? Are you violent in ‘real life’?
2. Do you ever see a product advertised on TV or
on the internet and decide you want to buy it?
3. Have you ever seen a documentary which has
drawn your attention to an issue which you now
feel strongly about?

4. The Washington Navy Yard shooting occurred on
September 16, 2013, when lone gunman Aaron Alexis
fatally shot twelve people and injured three others in a
mass shooting at the headquarters of the Naval Sea
Systems Command (NAVSEA) inside the Washington
Navy Yard in Southeast Washington, D.C
The Columbine High School massacre was a school
shooting which occurred on April 20, 1999. The
perpetrators, two senior students Eric Harris and
Dylan Klebold, murdered a total of 12 students and
one teacher. They injured 21 additional people, with
three others being injured while attempting to
escape the school. The pair then committed suicide
James Patrick Bulger was murdered on 12 February
1993, at the age of two. He was abducted, tortured
and murdered by two ten-year-old boys, Robert
Thompson and Jon Venables. Bulger disappeared
from the New Strand Shopping Centre in Bootle,
while accompanying his mother. His mutilated body
was found on a railway line two-and-a-half miles
away in Walton, Liverpool, two days after his
murder. Thompson and Venables were charged
with Bulger's abduction and murder. The pair were
found guilty on 24 November 1993, making them
the youngest convicted murderers in modern
English history.

5. Do you play violent video games
and/or watch violent films? Are you
violent in ‘real life’?
Whilst some people do act
violently, many do not and
in today’s culture it is
almost impossible to avoid
violent representations.
This seems to support the
view that the media does
not directly cause people to
act a certain way.

6. Do you ever see a product advertised
on TV or on the internet and decide
you want to buy it?
Advertisers spend millions
of pounds promoting their
products. The Marks and
Spencer’s food adverts
have increased the grocery
sales for the high street
shop and encouraged
customers to indulge
themselves with the luxury
items they sell.
It’s not just food,
it’s M & S food

7. Have you ever seen a documentary which
has drawn your attention to an issue
which you now feel strongly about?
Viewing a documentary can provide
access to information that may
change the way you feel about an
issue. It may even make you want to
act differently, eat more healthily,
join a political group or simply tell
your friends about what you have
learnt. This seems to support the
view that the media does have the
potential to influence people.
MacDonalds began offering ‘healthy
options’ after concerns raised in this
documentary appeared to have
impacted on sales.

8. Audience Theories
The question of media effects is a difficult one and it is impossible to prove either
side of the argument. Several theories have been developed which offer specific
viewpoints on the effects the media may have.
• Audience theories regarding the effects of the
media on audiences can be divided into these
categories:
• Direct Effect Theories
• Diffusion Theories
• Indirect Effect Theories
• The Pluralist Approach

9. Direct Effect Theories
These ideas view the media as having a direct effect on the ideas, attitudes and
behaviours of the audience.
Hypodermic Syringe
Theory
Cultivation Theory
(George Gerbner)
This is one of the simplest models used to
explain the way the media can have an
effect on the audience. It assumes that the
audience are passive and that all members
of the audience group are the same and
respond in similar ways. It states that the
media has a direct influence on the
audience and it ‘injects’ its beliefs and
values directly into the viewers or readers.
For example, if someone watches
violence, it will make them behave violently
or accept violent behaviour.
This theory considers the way the media
affects attitudes rather than behaviour. The
media is seen as part of our socialisation
process, communicating ‘appropriate’
attitudes and the norms and values of the
culture. According to this theory, while any
one media text does not have too much
effect, repeated exposure to certain ideas
and values may make the audience less
critical of the ideas presented as they
appear ‘normal’.

10. Hypodermic Syringe Theory
• The Hypodermic Syringe Theory is often used
as a method of scapegoating and some types
of texts seem to get blamed more than others
such as horror films, rock music and video
games. Scapegoating is when a simple reason
(a media text) is blamed for a specific action
or event. It is often easier to scapegoat a
media text rather than look at the more
complex reasons why something may have
happened.

11. Which seems more
logical?
• Listening to Marilyn Manson
caused teenagers to open fire in a
high school killing students and
teachers?
Which of these ‘reasons’ for
this tragedy would be easiest
to address and, potentially,
solve?
• The Columbine High School shootings
occurred due to a complex relationship
between:*
• The ease of access to firearms and the
social
• acceptance of gun ownership
• The alienation felt by teenagers who felt
as though they did not fit in
• The hopelessness caused by living in an
area where unemployment was high and
was economically disadvantaged
• The general desensitisation caused by
access to a range of violent images: film,
TV, the news, the internet
• * This is the argument offered by Michael
Moore in his film Bowling for Columbine
The Hypodermic Syringe Theory can
offer quick, simple reasons for
behaviours with apparently simple
solutions but does not take into account
that a range of factors may influence
audience behaviour. It is an idea that is
popular with the tabloid press and
politicians who attempt to provide
solutions to problems to reassure their
audience/constituents. However, there
is little to support this
theory when it is considered carefully.

12. Cultivation Theory
The key ideas here are that:
• Through repetition attitudes, ideas and values may become normalised or
naturalised; they are accepted rather than considered
• Through repetition the audience may become desensitised towards negative and/or
violent representations
• Often more vulnerable groups are
a main consideration within this
approach. For example, children
are often seen to need protection
from the cultivation of certain
ideas and values. This concern
has led to the banning of fast
food advertising during children’s
TV programming, responding to
recent concerns regarding
nutrition and childhood obesity.

13. When being bad is good
• Consider a typical
action film you have
seen recently. It is likely
it contained the
following values:
• Violence for a ‘good’
reason is acceptable.
• Violence for a ‘bad’
reason must be
punished.
• Complete the following
table giving textual
examples of how your
text represented these
ideas.
Do these values appear in any other
action films, other genres or other
types of media texts?

14. Cultivation Theory
• Although cultivation theory goes beyond a simple ‘cause and
effect’ approach to audience effects, critics see both these
direct theories as having an elitist element suggesting a
judgement is being made about the mass audience as they
are assumed to be easily led and not perceptive or self-aware.
The individual nature of the members of the audience is not
taken into account.
• This theory identifies the media as being a negative influence
but does not consider forms of ‘high art’ in the same way.
Some of Shakespeare’s plays are extremely violent but are not
seen to be a problem whereas games and television
programmes are open to criticism

15. Diffusion Theories
These ideas focus on the influence media may have but concentrate on the personalised
way audiences access texts and consider the influence other people may have.
Two-Step Theory
(Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz)
Indirect Effect Theories
This theory acknowledges that we often
access media texts with others or, if alone,
we may well talk about our media
experiences with our friends and family
later. One argument is that these kinds of
conversations have more influence on
potential behaviour than than media text
itself.
These theories acknowledge that the media
may affect people but focuses on the fact that
people respond differently to media texts and
images and the environment we are in may be
a part of that too.
Pluralism
The final theoretical position is the pluralist one which sees media
institutions as free to present whatever point of view they wish and
audiences being equally free to choose from the ideas and
representations available. This view sees the audience, not as a
manipulated mass, but as individuals who are in a relationship with
the media texts they access. The pluralist view sees the media
offering a wide selection of viewpoints to various social groups.

16. Two-Step Theory
• This theory states that, whatever
our experience of the media, we
are likely to discuss it with others.
If we respect their opinion (the
theory calls these people opinion
leaders), the chances are that we
may be affected by the opinion
leaders’ responses as well as by
the text itself.
• Opinion leaders can come in the
form of reviewers, presenters on
television or people from groups
we admire such as religious
leaders, politicians etc. as well as
from our family or social groups.

17. Indirect Effect Theories:
Reception Analysis
• Reception Analysis is based on
the idea that no text has one
single meaning. The audience
create meanings for
themselves based on many
individual factors such as:
• Gender
• Age
• Race
• Religious beliefs
• Personal values
• Upbringing and education
• Geographical location
• Historical location
How might different people
interpret these texts?
How might a
religious person
respond to Skins? What would a
pensioner make of
Hollyoaks?
Why do many
teenagers find
Question Time boring?