The document discusses the need to develop a test to assess spatial thinking ability in a holistic way. It provides the following key points:
- Existing tests assess individual spatial thinking factors but not spatial ability as a whole.
- A new test is needed that measures both small-scale and large-scale spatial abilities.
- The test would draw from existing tests like the Spatial Intelligence Test and Spatial Thinking Ability Test but expand them to assess additional large-scale factors.
- Guidelines are provided for developing the new test, including defining objectives, technical considerations, developing test activities, and validating the test.
This study examined how different types of 3D visualizations (interactive 3D animation, 3D animation, and static 3D illustrations) combined with narration and text affect learning among 212 eighth grade students in Greece. The study tested an interactive multimedia application on methods of separating mixtures that was produced in three versions differing only in the type of visualization. The results showed that versions with interactive 3D animations and 3D animations increased student interest and engagement. However, the version with static 3D illustrations allowed students more control over their learning pace and placed less cognitive load on working memory.
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
Analysing Legibility of Space in Office Buildings: Case Studies in Kerman, Iran.IJERA Editor
Most people spend a substantial amount of time at work. Despite this significant role, office buildings incur
some functional and environmental problems for users, one of the most critical of which is to access and move
easily through them regarding their mostly complicated spatial configuration. The aim of this study is to
understand the relationship between legibility and different building typology in addition to achieving some
design patterns by comparing them. In this connection, the role of physical context and different design
typology of some office buildings in Kerman have been investigated with the aim of analyzing interior legibility
and way finding. Accordingly, observation and interviews were conducted to complete the evidences found
from VGA results of the space syntax software along with self - administered questionnaires of employees and
clients. The results based on the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of these office buildings in terms of
legibility and way finding suggest some recommendations and guidelines so that they can contribute to
promoting the future of office buildings design.
Analysing Legibility of Space in Office Buildings Case Studies in Kerman, Ir...Valerie Felton
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed the legibility and wayfinding of office buildings in Kerman, Iran. The study examined four case study office buildings with different spatial configurations and typologies. Data was collected through observations, interviews, questionnaires of employees and clients, and spatial network analysis software. The results identified strengths and weaknesses of the buildings in terms of legibility and wayfinding. Recommendations are provided to help improve spatial legibility and wayfinding in future office building designs.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
Predictive coding posits that neural systems make forward-looking predictions about incoming information.
Neural signals contain information not about the currently perceived stimulus, but about the difference
between the observed and the predicted stimulus. We propose to extend the predictive coding framework
from high-level sensory processing to the more abstract domain of theory of mind; that is, to inferences about
others’ goals, thoughts, and personalities. We review evidence that, across brain regions, neural responses
to depictions of human behavior, from biological motion to trait descriptions, exhibit a key signature of pre-
dictive coding: reduced activity to predictable stimuli. We discuss how future experiments could distinguish
predictive coding from alternative explanations of this response profile. This framework may provide an
important new window on the neural computations underlying theory of mind.
This document discusses geographic information and phenomenology. It proposes that geographic data should be structured based on real-world phenomena rather than forced into vector or raster models. The key points are:
1) Geographic data models have traditionally focused on vector or raster structures, but these can create unrealistic representations of real-world phenomena.
2) A better approach is to represent geographic information based on the actual structures and relationships of phenomena in the real world, independent of any particular application.
3) Phenomena can be described by functional categories and topological properties, spatially referenced in a geographic knowledge base. The interpretation and analysis of relationships between phenomena constitutes cognition.
Facilitating Students' Geometric Thinking through Van Hiele's Phase Based Lea...Chin Lu Chong
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of Van Hiele’s phases of learning using tangrams on 3rd
grade primary school students’ levels of geometric thinking at the first (visual) and second (analysis) level.
This study examined how different types of 3D visualizations (interactive 3D animation, 3D animation, and static 3D illustrations) combined with narration and text affect learning among 212 eighth grade students in Greece. The study tested an interactive multimedia application on methods of separating mixtures that was produced in three versions differing only in the type of visualization. The results showed that versions with interactive 3D animations and 3D animations increased student interest and engagement. However, the version with static 3D illustrations allowed students more control over their learning pace and placed less cognitive load on working memory.
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
Analysing Legibility of Space in Office Buildings: Case Studies in Kerman, Iran.IJERA Editor
Most people spend a substantial amount of time at work. Despite this significant role, office buildings incur
some functional and environmental problems for users, one of the most critical of which is to access and move
easily through them regarding their mostly complicated spatial configuration. The aim of this study is to
understand the relationship between legibility and different building typology in addition to achieving some
design patterns by comparing them. In this connection, the role of physical context and different design
typology of some office buildings in Kerman have been investigated with the aim of analyzing interior legibility
and way finding. Accordingly, observation and interviews were conducted to complete the evidences found
from VGA results of the space syntax software along with self - administered questionnaires of employees and
clients. The results based on the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of these office buildings in terms of
legibility and way finding suggest some recommendations and guidelines so that they can contribute to
promoting the future of office buildings design.
Analysing Legibility of Space in Office Buildings Case Studies in Kerman, Ir...Valerie Felton
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed the legibility and wayfinding of office buildings in Kerman, Iran. The study examined four case study office buildings with different spatial configurations and typologies. Data was collected through observations, interviews, questionnaires of employees and clients, and spatial network analysis software. The results identified strengths and weaknesses of the buildings in terms of legibility and wayfinding. Recommendations are provided to help improve spatial legibility and wayfinding in future office building designs.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
Predictive coding posits that neural systems make forward-looking predictions about incoming information.
Neural signals contain information not about the currently perceived stimulus, but about the difference
between the observed and the predicted stimulus. We propose to extend the predictive coding framework
from high-level sensory processing to the more abstract domain of theory of mind; that is, to inferences about
others’ goals, thoughts, and personalities. We review evidence that, across brain regions, neural responses
to depictions of human behavior, from biological motion to trait descriptions, exhibit a key signature of pre-
dictive coding: reduced activity to predictable stimuli. We discuss how future experiments could distinguish
predictive coding from alternative explanations of this response profile. This framework may provide an
important new window on the neural computations underlying theory of mind.
This document discusses geographic information and phenomenology. It proposes that geographic data should be structured based on real-world phenomena rather than forced into vector or raster models. The key points are:
1) Geographic data models have traditionally focused on vector or raster structures, but these can create unrealistic representations of real-world phenomena.
2) A better approach is to represent geographic information based on the actual structures and relationships of phenomena in the real world, independent of any particular application.
3) Phenomena can be described by functional categories and topological properties, spatially referenced in a geographic knowledge base. The interpretation and analysis of relationships between phenomena constitutes cognition.
Facilitating Students' Geometric Thinking through Van Hiele's Phase Based Lea...Chin Lu Chong
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of Van Hiele’s phases of learning using tangrams on 3rd
grade primary school students’ levels of geometric thinking at the first (visual) and second (analysis) level.
Coates: topological approximations for spatial representationArchiLab 7
The document summarizes a student thesis that applies a Growing Neural Gas (GNG) algorithm to represent spatial topology. GNG is a type of self-organizing neural network that can learn and adapt based on "point intensity" or activity levels in a space. It creates a topology-preserving network of nodes to model spatial cognition. The student aims to further combine GNG with a Radial Basis Function for more flexibility, or with ant colony clustering for unsupervised classification of spaces. Representing spaces as evolving neural networks based on activity levels provides a model for understanding spatial cognition and complexity in architectural design.
The cognitive structure of goal emulation during the preschool years. Francys Subiaul
Humans excel at both mirroring others’ actions (imitation) as well as others’ goals and intentions (emulation). Since most research has focused on imitation, here we focus on how social and asocial learning predict the development of goal emulation. We tested 215 preschool children on two social conditions (imitation, emulation) and two asocial conditions (trial-and-error and recall) using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks involved responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). Generalized linear models demonstrated that during the preschool years, Motor-Spatial emulation is associated with social and asocial learning, while Cognitive emulation is associated only with social learning, including Motor-spatial emulation and multiple forms of imitation. This result contrasts with those from a previous study using this same dataset showing that Motor-Spatial and Cognitive imitation were neither associated with one another nor, generally, predicted by other forms of social or asocial learning. Together these results suggests that while developmental changes in imitation are associated with multiple—specialized—mechanisms, developmental changes in emulation are associated with age-related changes and a more unitary, domain-general mechanism that receives input from several different cognitive and learning processes, including some that may not necessarily be specialized for social learning.
The document discusses research on teaching and learning astronomy. It finds that students struggle with spatial visualization, mental modeling, and conceptual change. Effective teaching strategies engage students in challenging prior beliefs through activities that incorporate historical discoveries and modeling. Further research is needed to evaluate strategies for developing students' spatial thinking and orientation frameworks for understanding celestial phenomena. The document concludes by recommending exemplar areas for further research, such as investigating students' thinking processes for celestial motion problems.
Articulation Of Spatial And Geometrical Knowledge In Problem Solving With Tec...Scott Donald
This document discusses the relationship between spatial knowledge and geometrical knowledge in primary school problem solving. It defines spatial knowledge as dealing with characterizing shapes, positions and movements through empirical validation based on physical space, while geometrical knowledge involves theoretical objects and relationships validated through logical reasoning. The document proposes that both knowledge domains are distinct yet related fields that influence each other, with spatial knowledge providing a foundation for geometrical knowledge and geometry providing models for spatial thinking. It focuses on studying how relationships between spatial and geometrical knowledge can be developed through problem solving situations using physical and digital tools to support the learning of geometry.
1. The document discusses gender differences in spatial orientation abilities and wayfinding strategies.
2. It analyzes results from experiments that assessed how well males and females could locate themselves on maps and find directions, finding that males performed better on some route and survey tasks.
3. Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) was found to better predict orientation abilities for males than females, and active processing tasks predicted performance better for females, suggesting they use different strategies.
This document provides a historical overview of hidden pathway maze learning tasks (HPMLTs) and their use in neuropsychological research. Some key points:
1. HPMLTs were originally developed in the early 20th century to study spatial reasoning and learning without relying entirely on vision. They aimed to measure how animals and humans learn through trial and error to navigate hidden pathways.
2. Early maze studies used blindfolds but this caused confusion, so mazes were adapted to provide some visual information while still hiding the pathway. This led to the development of stepping-stone variants that are widely used today.
3. HPMLTs are argued to assess executive functions like planning, monitoring of errors, and use of
This document discusses the importance of considering spatial and geographic factors in social science research and analysis. It argues that location and context are important for understanding human behavior and social processes. Spatial analysis techniques can provide insights by examining how variables are distributed across space and relate to nearby locations. The document advocates for more integrated and multidisciplinary research that considers both social and physical geographic factors. It also introduces the concept of spatial data analysis and how maps can help analyze relationships by preserving spatial context unlike tables.
Intentional Child and Youth Care Life-Space Practice: A Qualitative Course-Ba...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This course-based research study explored how child and youth care students both understand
and engage in life-space practice. Data collection strategies included a conversational, open-ended interview and
an arts-based activity. The open-ended interviews were conducted via Zoom and Google Meet.The thematic
analysis resulted in the identification of four themes. The first three themes: a) it is meeting youth where they
are at, b) it is relational, and c) it is intentional practice aredirectly related to the central research question, and
the final theme: d) bureaucratic structures, policies, and procedures was extracted from a sub-question that asked
about what ―gets in the way of‖ effective life-space practice.
KEYWORDS:child and youth care, course-based research, life-space practice, qualitative
Spatial Reference Frames
Introduction to Spatial Planning
Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis Paper
Historical Features Of Spatial Data Essay
Research Paper On Spatial Inequality
Spatial Planning And Spatial Planning
Examples Of Visual-Spatial Abilities
Spatial And : Spatial Analysis
Spatial Memory
Edward T. Halls Four Spatial Zones
Spatial Specificity Analysis
Spatial Inequality
Definition Of Spatial Layout And Functionality
Spatial And Event-Based Design
Spatial Justice: The Concept Of Spatial Justice
The document describes a Web GIS plate tectonics simulation developed for an undergraduate Earth Science course to promote geospatial thinking. The simulation integrated geological and geophysical data sets in a Web GIS interface to allow students to dynamically reconstruct ancient plate motions. Students were assessed through artifacts and a survey. The survey found that students perceived the simulation as helping them think geospatially by analyzing spatial relationships in the visualized data. Key features of the simulation, like instructional supports and tools, contributed to successfully implementing geospatial analysis and thinking.
1) The document reviews fluid reasoning, a form of intelligence involving logical and abstract problem-solving. It is a core cognitive ability that develops throughout childhood and adolescence.
2) Fluid reasoning involves relational reasoning and identifying correspondences between mental representations. It can be measured using tests like Raven's Progressive Matrices that require identifying patterns in abstract visual puzzles.
3) Brain imaging research implicates the rostrolateral prefrontal cortex in fluid reasoning tasks, especially when integrating multiple relations between mental representations. Development of this region likely underlies gains in fluid reasoning abilities during development.
Dr. Ahmad, Full Text; Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's IdeaDr. Ahmad, Futurist.
Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's Idea, International Conference on Multilateral Cooperation: Emerging Global Scenario, India, 22-24 February 2016. Already cancelled in Scenario 2015 (Improving Scenario Methodology: Theory and Practice), WBS. UK, December 2015, p. 37. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/subjects/orms/ormsevents/scenario2015/programme/updated_11.12.pdf http://studylib.net/doc/13510220/scenario-2015-improving-scenario-methodology--theory-and-...
Environmental changes coupled with the impact on globalization leading to increasing complexity in many developing strategies, especially on the foresight and futures studies. These trends pose a fundamental question, what is the chalenges of future’s complexity? It seems before understanding the origin of Future Scenario's idea and laws governing the Future Time, we've gone into the application of Scenarios to build better stories about future.
In this paper we deeply investigated following issues in order to demonstrate the effects of the origin of idea's ontology on Future Scenarios;
1. Idea ontology,
2. The origin of creative thinking,
3. Idea nurturing in organizations,
4. Shaping the future time,
5. Scenario planning,
6. Ideas social network (global brain).
This paper is a fundamental research type that makes theory for an applied science. In fact, we seek to bridge an ontology base with an applied knowledge. According to qualitative approach this study because of its data references to valid resources is valid and due to expert's continuous supervisions is reliable.
Conceptual Model that have been emerged from this investigation, shows how we can improve scenario planning ability and what actually should be done to have good scenarios.
CHAPTER 8Adult Intelligence Sketch of a Theory and Applications.docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 8
Adult Intelligence: Sketch of a Theory and Applications to Learning and Education
Phillip L. Ackerman
University of Minnesota
OVERVIEW
Intelligence theory and assessment methods have traditionally been aimed at predicting academic success. As such, efforts during the early part of this century first focused on predicting the school success of children and young adolescents (for a review, see Ackerman, 1996). Around World War I, intelligence test content was extended upward—to allow for testing of young and middle-aged adults. As the educational establishment embraced intelligence testing, postsecondary institutions increasingly relied on the use of tests for selection of college and university applicants, starting in the 1920s. Today’s college entrance tests, such as the Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT) and the American College Testing Program (ACT), show a significant resemblance to the adult intelligence tests of the 1920s. Although these procedures may be useful predictors of college success for young adults, they fail to take account of the differences between child/adolescent intelligence and adult intelligence. A perspective of intelligence that focuses on knowledge as a key ingredient of adult intelligence is presented in this chapter. By moving away from the traditional process-oriented conceptualization of intelligence to a knowledge-oriented conceptualization, many aspects of adult intellectual development can be considered, especially in the context of learning and education for adults. Such a shift in emphasis provides a basis for considering other aspects of the adult learner, such as personality, interests, and motivational skills—and provides a framework for an integrated view of adult development, learning, and education.
In this chapter, I first discuss the differences between child and adult intelligence, as a contrast between process and knowledge components of intellect. Next, a discussion is presented of relations between intelligence and personality, interests, and motivational skills. Putting all of these components together provides for a perspective on adult development that stands in contrast to the traditional view of intellectual decline with increasing age. Finally, some implications of the knowledge-based perspective for adult education and learning are presented.
REVIEW OF DISTINCTION BETWEEN CHILD AND ADULT INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence as Process?
When the first modern procedures were devised for assessing intelligence, Binet and Simon (1905) distinguished between two different approaches, which they called the psychological and pedagogical methods. The psychological method, which they adopted for assessment of children, was specifically oriented toward aspects of intelligence that were believed to be less influenced by cultural privilege—namely memory, reasoning, following directions, and so on. Most of the measures that were developed to assess intelligence were thus process measures. Later developmen ...
This document summarizes a study that explored Turkish first-graders' understandings of the shape of the Earth. The researchers collected data through children's drawings and interviews. Results showed that 41% of children drew scientifically accurate spherical images of the Earth. However, interviews revealed that more children had scientific knowledge about the Earth's shape. Some children drew flat images of the Earth but expressed during interviews that they knew the Earth was actually round. The study aimed to better understand young children's initial conceptions of the planet Earth.
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether children’s imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year olds’ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., First→Second→Third) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., Up→Down→Right) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with ‘familiar’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Left→Middle→Right) as well as ‘novel’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Right→Up→Down) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
An Exploratory Study Of A Story Problem Assessment Understanding Children S ...Angie Miller
This study explored how students use their number sense when solving story problems by analyzing their strategies and reasoning. Researchers interviewed three 8- and 9-year-old students and had them solve story problems. Through qualitative coding, the researchers analyzed how the students' number sense was reflected in their problem-solving approaches and explanations. The results provided insights into how students coordinate different number sense constructs and showed flexibility in problem-solving. The study aimed to understand number sense in a holistic way rather than by assessing individual constructs in isolation.
research in geography it is help full for the students of geography and artstanadas
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographic research involves systematically collecting and analyzing information to increase understanding of cultural and physical phenomena in particular locations. The purposes of geographic research include developing new insights, reviewing existing knowledge, investigating situations or problems, offering solutions, generating new knowledge, and directing sustainable population growth and environmental management. Key types of geographic research include descriptive and analytical research, as well as qualitative and quantitative approaches. Geographic research is significant as it contributes to scientific understanding, helps integrate the relationships between people, places, populations and resources over time, identifies the distinctiveness of different locations, and provides insights relevant to addressing issues of interest to science and society.
This document discusses a number recognition assignment that will investigate how children learn number concepts through everyday experiences like playing and painting. The report will demonstrate planning, implementing, and evaluating activities to support number knowledge in 3-4 year olds. It will link to theories like Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and use scaffolding to guide learning. The evaluation will assess how well the activities help children understand numbers.
This document provides an overview of basic concepts in qualitative research. It defines qualitative research as aiming to understand people's experiences and perspectives through in-depth analysis of words and images rather than statistics. Key differences from quantitative research are discussed, such as qualitative research seeking to reveal multiple realities rather than one objective reality. The document also outlines common qualitative research paradigms like interpretivism and types of qualitative studies.
Dr Ahmad_Cognitive Sciences Strategies for Futures Studies (Foresight)Dr. Ahmad, Futurist.
Accepted to be presented by KogWis 2016: Doctoral Symposium, Bremen Spatial Cognition Research Centre, Universität Bremen, 26-30 Sep 2016.
https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0704/paper0704.pdf
Abstract. Developing the conceptual model of the origin of the idea of future scenarios leads to explore Cognitive Sciences (CS) strategies for Futures Studies (FS). This research will try to answer how scenario planning would benefit from CS by reshaping mental models? In other hand, how these explored strategies could develop the future oriented intelligence's machine? This is a vast amount of work to be considered. Modeling via abduction, chance-seeking via intervention on tacit knowledge, Acquiring useful information via causality grouping, Intelligence increase over time and idea blending are just the first examples, so we have a long way to go.
The Articles of Confederation promoted liberty but sacrificed stability and security, leading to its downfall. It established a loose confederation that gave too much power to states at the expense of the central government. However, it did promote the general welfare through laws like the Northwest Ordinance, which established public schools and a path to statehood for new territories. Overall, the Articles of Confederation effectively balanced liberty and unity at first but became too decentralized over time.
Hand Writing In Notebook Made From Recycled Paper Stock Photo - ImageAmy Roman
The essay describes the author's 5 years of experience riding horses at different barns, focusing on their current horse Stormy who they have competed with in pole bending and other events at the Waupaca County Fair. Over the course of the fair, which lasts 5 days, the author details preparing Stormy, practicing jumping, and having fun with friends in activities like the corn pit despite the challenges of juggling work, family, and horse responsibilities.
Coates: topological approximations for spatial representationArchiLab 7
The document summarizes a student thesis that applies a Growing Neural Gas (GNG) algorithm to represent spatial topology. GNG is a type of self-organizing neural network that can learn and adapt based on "point intensity" or activity levels in a space. It creates a topology-preserving network of nodes to model spatial cognition. The student aims to further combine GNG with a Radial Basis Function for more flexibility, or with ant colony clustering for unsupervised classification of spaces. Representing spaces as evolving neural networks based on activity levels provides a model for understanding spatial cognition and complexity in architectural design.
The cognitive structure of goal emulation during the preschool years. Francys Subiaul
Humans excel at both mirroring others’ actions (imitation) as well as others’ goals and intentions (emulation). Since most research has focused on imitation, here we focus on how social and asocial learning predict the development of goal emulation. We tested 215 preschool children on two social conditions (imitation, emulation) and two asocial conditions (trial-and-error and recall) using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks involved responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). Generalized linear models demonstrated that during the preschool years, Motor-Spatial emulation is associated with social and asocial learning, while Cognitive emulation is associated only with social learning, including Motor-spatial emulation and multiple forms of imitation. This result contrasts with those from a previous study using this same dataset showing that Motor-Spatial and Cognitive imitation were neither associated with one another nor, generally, predicted by other forms of social or asocial learning. Together these results suggests that while developmental changes in imitation are associated with multiple—specialized—mechanisms, developmental changes in emulation are associated with age-related changes and a more unitary, domain-general mechanism that receives input from several different cognitive and learning processes, including some that may not necessarily be specialized for social learning.
The document discusses research on teaching and learning astronomy. It finds that students struggle with spatial visualization, mental modeling, and conceptual change. Effective teaching strategies engage students in challenging prior beliefs through activities that incorporate historical discoveries and modeling. Further research is needed to evaluate strategies for developing students' spatial thinking and orientation frameworks for understanding celestial phenomena. The document concludes by recommending exemplar areas for further research, such as investigating students' thinking processes for celestial motion problems.
Articulation Of Spatial And Geometrical Knowledge In Problem Solving With Tec...Scott Donald
This document discusses the relationship between spatial knowledge and geometrical knowledge in primary school problem solving. It defines spatial knowledge as dealing with characterizing shapes, positions and movements through empirical validation based on physical space, while geometrical knowledge involves theoretical objects and relationships validated through logical reasoning. The document proposes that both knowledge domains are distinct yet related fields that influence each other, with spatial knowledge providing a foundation for geometrical knowledge and geometry providing models for spatial thinking. It focuses on studying how relationships between spatial and geometrical knowledge can be developed through problem solving situations using physical and digital tools to support the learning of geometry.
1. The document discusses gender differences in spatial orientation abilities and wayfinding strategies.
2. It analyzes results from experiments that assessed how well males and females could locate themselves on maps and find directions, finding that males performed better on some route and survey tasks.
3. Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) was found to better predict orientation abilities for males than females, and active processing tasks predicted performance better for females, suggesting they use different strategies.
This document provides a historical overview of hidden pathway maze learning tasks (HPMLTs) and their use in neuropsychological research. Some key points:
1. HPMLTs were originally developed in the early 20th century to study spatial reasoning and learning without relying entirely on vision. They aimed to measure how animals and humans learn through trial and error to navigate hidden pathways.
2. Early maze studies used blindfolds but this caused confusion, so mazes were adapted to provide some visual information while still hiding the pathway. This led to the development of stepping-stone variants that are widely used today.
3. HPMLTs are argued to assess executive functions like planning, monitoring of errors, and use of
This document discusses the importance of considering spatial and geographic factors in social science research and analysis. It argues that location and context are important for understanding human behavior and social processes. Spatial analysis techniques can provide insights by examining how variables are distributed across space and relate to nearby locations. The document advocates for more integrated and multidisciplinary research that considers both social and physical geographic factors. It also introduces the concept of spatial data analysis and how maps can help analyze relationships by preserving spatial context unlike tables.
Intentional Child and Youth Care Life-Space Practice: A Qualitative Course-Ba...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This course-based research study explored how child and youth care students both understand
and engage in life-space practice. Data collection strategies included a conversational, open-ended interview and
an arts-based activity. The open-ended interviews were conducted via Zoom and Google Meet.The thematic
analysis resulted in the identification of four themes. The first three themes: a) it is meeting youth where they
are at, b) it is relational, and c) it is intentional practice aredirectly related to the central research question, and
the final theme: d) bureaucratic structures, policies, and procedures was extracted from a sub-question that asked
about what ―gets in the way of‖ effective life-space practice.
KEYWORDS:child and youth care, course-based research, life-space practice, qualitative
Spatial Reference Frames
Introduction to Spatial Planning
Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis Paper
Historical Features Of Spatial Data Essay
Research Paper On Spatial Inequality
Spatial Planning And Spatial Planning
Examples Of Visual-Spatial Abilities
Spatial And : Spatial Analysis
Spatial Memory
Edward T. Halls Four Spatial Zones
Spatial Specificity Analysis
Spatial Inequality
Definition Of Spatial Layout And Functionality
Spatial And Event-Based Design
Spatial Justice: The Concept Of Spatial Justice
The document describes a Web GIS plate tectonics simulation developed for an undergraduate Earth Science course to promote geospatial thinking. The simulation integrated geological and geophysical data sets in a Web GIS interface to allow students to dynamically reconstruct ancient plate motions. Students were assessed through artifacts and a survey. The survey found that students perceived the simulation as helping them think geospatially by analyzing spatial relationships in the visualized data. Key features of the simulation, like instructional supports and tools, contributed to successfully implementing geospatial analysis and thinking.
1) The document reviews fluid reasoning, a form of intelligence involving logical and abstract problem-solving. It is a core cognitive ability that develops throughout childhood and adolescence.
2) Fluid reasoning involves relational reasoning and identifying correspondences between mental representations. It can be measured using tests like Raven's Progressive Matrices that require identifying patterns in abstract visual puzzles.
3) Brain imaging research implicates the rostrolateral prefrontal cortex in fluid reasoning tasks, especially when integrating multiple relations between mental representations. Development of this region likely underlies gains in fluid reasoning abilities during development.
Dr. Ahmad, Full Text; Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's IdeaDr. Ahmad, Futurist.
Origin Ontology of Future Scenario's Idea, International Conference on Multilateral Cooperation: Emerging Global Scenario, India, 22-24 February 2016. Already cancelled in Scenario 2015 (Improving Scenario Methodology: Theory and Practice), WBS. UK, December 2015, p. 37. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/subjects/orms/ormsevents/scenario2015/programme/updated_11.12.pdf http://studylib.net/doc/13510220/scenario-2015-improving-scenario-methodology--theory-and-...
Environmental changes coupled with the impact on globalization leading to increasing complexity in many developing strategies, especially on the foresight and futures studies. These trends pose a fundamental question, what is the chalenges of future’s complexity? It seems before understanding the origin of Future Scenario's idea and laws governing the Future Time, we've gone into the application of Scenarios to build better stories about future.
In this paper we deeply investigated following issues in order to demonstrate the effects of the origin of idea's ontology on Future Scenarios;
1. Idea ontology,
2. The origin of creative thinking,
3. Idea nurturing in organizations,
4. Shaping the future time,
5. Scenario planning,
6. Ideas social network (global brain).
This paper is a fundamental research type that makes theory for an applied science. In fact, we seek to bridge an ontology base with an applied knowledge. According to qualitative approach this study because of its data references to valid resources is valid and due to expert's continuous supervisions is reliable.
Conceptual Model that have been emerged from this investigation, shows how we can improve scenario planning ability and what actually should be done to have good scenarios.
CHAPTER 8Adult Intelligence Sketch of a Theory and Applications.docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 8
Adult Intelligence: Sketch of a Theory and Applications to Learning and Education
Phillip L. Ackerman
University of Minnesota
OVERVIEW
Intelligence theory and assessment methods have traditionally been aimed at predicting academic success. As such, efforts during the early part of this century first focused on predicting the school success of children and young adolescents (for a review, see Ackerman, 1996). Around World War I, intelligence test content was extended upward—to allow for testing of young and middle-aged adults. As the educational establishment embraced intelligence testing, postsecondary institutions increasingly relied on the use of tests for selection of college and university applicants, starting in the 1920s. Today’s college entrance tests, such as the Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT) and the American College Testing Program (ACT), show a significant resemblance to the adult intelligence tests of the 1920s. Although these procedures may be useful predictors of college success for young adults, they fail to take account of the differences between child/adolescent intelligence and adult intelligence. A perspective of intelligence that focuses on knowledge as a key ingredient of adult intelligence is presented in this chapter. By moving away from the traditional process-oriented conceptualization of intelligence to a knowledge-oriented conceptualization, many aspects of adult intellectual development can be considered, especially in the context of learning and education for adults. Such a shift in emphasis provides a basis for considering other aspects of the adult learner, such as personality, interests, and motivational skills—and provides a framework for an integrated view of adult development, learning, and education.
In this chapter, I first discuss the differences between child and adult intelligence, as a contrast between process and knowledge components of intellect. Next, a discussion is presented of relations between intelligence and personality, interests, and motivational skills. Putting all of these components together provides for a perspective on adult development that stands in contrast to the traditional view of intellectual decline with increasing age. Finally, some implications of the knowledge-based perspective for adult education and learning are presented.
REVIEW OF DISTINCTION BETWEEN CHILD AND ADULT INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence as Process?
When the first modern procedures were devised for assessing intelligence, Binet and Simon (1905) distinguished between two different approaches, which they called the psychological and pedagogical methods. The psychological method, which they adopted for assessment of children, was specifically oriented toward aspects of intelligence that were believed to be less influenced by cultural privilege—namely memory, reasoning, following directions, and so on. Most of the measures that were developed to assess intelligence were thus process measures. Later developmen ...
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An Exploratory Study Of A Story Problem Assessment Understanding Children S ...Angie Miller
This study explored how students use their number sense when solving story problems by analyzing their strategies and reasoning. Researchers interviewed three 8- and 9-year-old students and had them solve story problems. Through qualitative coding, the researchers analyzed how the students' number sense was reflected in their problem-solving approaches and explanations. The results provided insights into how students coordinate different number sense constructs and showed flexibility in problem-solving. The study aimed to understand number sense in a holistic way rather than by assessing individual constructs in isolation.
research in geography it is help full for the students of geography and artstanadas
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographic research involves systematically collecting and analyzing information to increase understanding of cultural and physical phenomena in particular locations. The purposes of geographic research include developing new insights, reviewing existing knowledge, investigating situations or problems, offering solutions, generating new knowledge, and directing sustainable population growth and environmental management. Key types of geographic research include descriptive and analytical research, as well as qualitative and quantitative approaches. Geographic research is significant as it contributes to scientific understanding, helps integrate the relationships between people, places, populations and resources over time, identifies the distinctiveness of different locations, and provides insights relevant to addressing issues of interest to science and society.
This document discusses a number recognition assignment that will investigate how children learn number concepts through everyday experiences like playing and painting. The report will demonstrate planning, implementing, and evaluating activities to support number knowledge in 3-4 year olds. It will link to theories like Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and use scaffolding to guide learning. The evaluation will assess how well the activities help children understand numbers.
This document provides an overview of basic concepts in qualitative research. It defines qualitative research as aiming to understand people's experiences and perspectives through in-depth analysis of words and images rather than statistics. Key differences from quantitative research are discussed, such as qualitative research seeking to reveal multiple realities rather than one objective reality. The document also outlines common qualitative research paradigms like interpretivism and types of qualitative studies.
Dr Ahmad_Cognitive Sciences Strategies for Futures Studies (Foresight)Dr. Ahmad, Futurist.
Accepted to be presented by KogWis 2016: Doctoral Symposium, Bremen Spatial Cognition Research Centre, Universität Bremen, 26-30 Sep 2016.
https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0704/paper0704.pdf
Abstract. Developing the conceptual model of the origin of the idea of future scenarios leads to explore Cognitive Sciences (CS) strategies for Futures Studies (FS). This research will try to answer how scenario planning would benefit from CS by reshaping mental models? In other hand, how these explored strategies could develop the future oriented intelligence's machine? This is a vast amount of work to be considered. Modeling via abduction, chance-seeking via intervention on tacit knowledge, Acquiring useful information via causality grouping, Intelligence increase over time and idea blending are just the first examples, so we have a long way to go.
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Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
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Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
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Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
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2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
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4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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Assessing Spatial Thinking Ability
1. 151
GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
11. Assessing Spatial Thinking Ability
Charcharos, C.; Kokla, M.; Tomai, E.
School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, National
Technical University of Athens, Greece
Abstract. Spatial (and geospatial) thinking has been well
studied and recognized as an important ability of humans and
especially for young people and young adults, who most of the
times use it subconsciously, from interpreting maps and
diagrams to navigating in familiar and non-familiar
environments. However, spatial thinking ability is not easy to
estimate, because spatial thinking is an amalgam of different
factors (e.g. spatial perception, spatial orientation, spatial
visualization, mental rotation etc.). Various tests have been
developed, especially from teachers and psychologists, which
in their majority assess one factor of spatial thinking, either at
small scales or large scales, but no test has been developed yet
from researchers engaged in the Geographic Information field
to assess spatial thinking in a holistic way. So, this paper
underlines the need to develop such a test.
Keywords. spatial thinking, assessment, test, factors
2. 152
GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
Introduction
What is common in tasks such as reading a map, finding your
way in a shopping mall, interpreting a diagram, and
understanding the spatial distribution of a phenomenon or the
association of places and events? They are all tasks that rely on
a mental skill called spatial or geospatial thinking. Spatial
thinking has lately been acknowledged as an important ability
both for sciences and everyday life. A report from the US
National Research Council (NRC, 2006) entitled "Learning to
Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum"
underlined that "without explicit attention to [spatial literacy],
we cannot meet our responsibility for equipping the next
generation of students for life and work in the 21st century".
Spatial thinking is considered as a key ability for the
STEM disciplines (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics). Research results stress the rewarding effects of
developing geospatial skills in increasing the participation in
STEM disciplines, lacking of which acts as a barrier for students
leading them to drop out (Uttal & Cohen, 2012). Even more,
spatial thinking is a vital talent for achieving STEM innovation,
however due to being neglected by educational systems it has
been missed. Lately, spatial thinking has also been
acknowledged as highly relevant to social sciences and
humanities (Goodchild & Janelle, 2010), as well as critical for
several tasks required in daily life, such as giving and following
directions, navigating in known and unknown spaces, and
interpreting images, graphs, and diagrams. Furthermore,
understanding central visual-spatial notions such as scale and
generalization finds also its cognitive analogy to the way people
learn, communicate, or deal with (not necessarily spatial)
everyday life issues. It actually constitutes a very important and
3. 153
GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
new approach to learning (learn-to learn), differing from the
more established auditory-sequential type of learning.
Spatial and geospatial thinking are used as identical
concepts, but there is an important difference that
distinguishes them. In order to achieve that distinction,
someone should fully understand the models of geographic
space, which can be categorized based on the projective size
relative to the human body and the mobility. For example,
Montello (1993) believe that the geographic space consists of
four major classes: figural, vista, environmental and
geographical. The figural and vista space are projectively
smaller than human body or equal to human body respectively
and can be apprehended without appreciable mobility, while
the environmental and geographical space are projectively
larger or much larger than the human body and can be
perceived via mobility or maps respectively. So, Golledge
(2008), using the previous model of geographic space, notes
that the te spatial efe s to the figu al a d ista spa e,
hile the te geospatial efe s to the e i o e tal a d
geographical space.
Although, the importance of spatial thinking in STEM
fields and in everyday life has been widely studied, the
assessment of spatial thinking abilities of young people and
young adults has not been given the appropriate attention.
Various tests have been developed, that assess significant
factors of spatial thinking, such as spatial visualization or spatial
orientation, however those tests cannot assess spatial thinking
ability as a whole.
4. 154
GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
Identification and Assessment of Spatial
Thinking Factors
11.2.1. Categorizing Spatial Thinking
In order to be able to assess spatial (and geospatial) thinking,
researchers have first to conduct a literature review and record
all those skills and abilities which consist spatial (or geospatial)
thinking, both in small and large scales of space24
. Many
researchers have dealt with this issue, such as Linn - Peterson
(1985) who considered that spatial thinking is not an one-
dimensional ability but rather an amalgam of three factors:
spatial perception, spatial visualization and mental rotation.
The above factors are considered as sub-factors of visual-
spatial abilities by Lohman (1979), who also introduced the
te opti al a ilit . “i e the , othe si ila atego izatio s
have appeared by adding some new categories, such as the
fa to “peeded ‘otatio that assesses the ti e eeded to
answer a mental rotation question). A major differentiation
made by Carrol (1993), who introduced five general spatial
thinking factors (visualization, spatial relationships, flexibility of
closure, closure speed and perceptual ability). These factors
refer mainly to small scales of space while for large scales,
Halpern (2000) and Bell - Saucier (2004) introduced the factors
D a i “patial A ilit a d E i o e tal A ilit
respectively.
Except from the above categorization and depending
on the point of view of the researcher, various other
categorizations can be identified, that cluster the spatial
24
The te s all s ale efe s to figu al a d ista spa e, hile the
te la ge s ale efe s to e i o ental and geographical space.
5. 155
GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
thinking factors rather than propose new ones, such as the one
of Newcombe and Shipley (2015) in which the spatial thinking
factors are clustered into the following: (a) Intrinsic-Static
(coding spatial configuration or shape of objects), (b) Intrinsic-
Dynamic (transforming spatial coding of objects including
expansions or reductions in size, rotation, cross-sectioning,
folding, benching, visualizing change over time, relating 2- and
3-dimensional views to each other), (c) Extrinsic-Static (coding
spatial location of objects relative to other objects or to a
reference frame), and (d) Extrinsic-Dynamic (transforming inter
relations of objects as one or more them changes location). As
it s o ious, this luste efe s ostl to small-scale factors and
less to large scale factors. Allen (2003), in his effort to discover
how small-scale assessed abilities are related to environmental
learning and wayfinding in large-scale spaces, and establish a
framework that could assist him in asking questions about
small-scale and large-scale spatial abilities, distinguishes three
functional families: object identification, object localization
and traveler orientation. Each family is associated with
different spatial thinking factors, for example o je t
ide tifi atio fa il is asso iated ith speed of losu e,
flexibility of closure and spatial scanning.
11.2.2. Testing Spatial Thinking Ability
For most of the above-mentioned factors, various tests have
been developed, which assess usually one or a couple of factors
and not spatial thinking in its entirety. For example, the Card
Rotation test (French, et al., 1963) assesses two-dimensional
orientation and rotation, the Hidden Image test, the Rod and
Frame test, and the Water Level test assess the flexibility of
closure (and at the same time the spatial relations), the Paper
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FormBoard test assesses two-dimensional spatial visualization.
Also, there are more complex tests, such as the Surface
Development test that can assess three-dimensional mental
rotation. Those tests are came from the Kit of Factor-
Referenced Cognitive Tests (available from the non-profit
organization Educational Testing Service), have well
established construct validity and are selected mostly from
researchers, who are interested in factor-referenced tasks,
which require a brief time. (Ekstrom, et al, 1976).
It is worth mentioning that different variations of the
above-mentioned tests have been developed over the years
but the central idea remains the same. Those tests are
addressed to a wide public, ranging from elementary students
to students who are in the early stages of higher education, as
well as in adults. Obviously, the degree of difficulty escalates,
according to whom those tests are addressed, however the
objective remains the same; the assessment of spatial thinking.
Those tests may be used either for research purposes
conducting experiments about the development of spatial
thinking, from childhood to adulthood, or for occupational
purposes to assess spatial ability of adults in order to
determine their career paths
These tests have been created mainly by teachers,
psychologists and scientists engaged in social psychology and
a e used i ps hologi al esea h to easu e hu a s spatial
thinking. However, only a small part has been developed by
scientists engaged in the field of Geographic Information (by
geographers or GIscientists for example). As a consequence,
those tests identify spatial skills under the perspective of
psychology and not under the broad spectrum of spatial
thinking, as indicated by Hegarty (2002).
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It should also be noted that these tests are
characterized as self-reported, meaning that the researcher is
not involved in the questionnaire completion process and the
participants answer the questions as they consider
appropriate. However, the contribution of the researcher
during the completion process of the test is important, for
clarifying any questions of the participants, as confirmed by the
fact that in experimental studies where experimental groups
and control groups are used, usually control groups have better
results than experimental groups due to the explanations given
to control groups before carrying out the test (Golledge et al.,
2008).
At this point, it should be stated that according to
Hegarty (2002), although these tests may be used for spatial
concepts, associated with different scales of space, as
appointed by Montello (1993), they are more suitable for the
classification of spatial skills and not for determining human
spatial thinking in its entirety. Also, these tests can be used only
to determine small scale visual-spatial abilities, while for large
scale spatial abilities, such as navigation or guiding someone to
a specific place providing him/her with the appropriate verbal
instruction.
Despite the fact that there are numerous tests which
can estimate some factors of spatial thinking, tests that
determine spatial thinking in a holistic way are limited. Two
examples of the latter are the Spatial Intelligence Test (SIT)
originally created by Nu Nu Khaing (2009) and also used by
Myint and Win (2011) in Asia and the Spatial Thinking Ability
Test (STAT) created by Lee and Bednarz (2012) in USA.
“IT as eated to a o odate the ou t s
(Myanmar) specific needs. Usually, spatial ability tests, can be
characterized as non-verbal, but this does not indicate that are
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GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
also culture-fair tests. This claim are strengthened by Barke
(2001), who has proved that cultural factors may have
influences on spatial ability and is in agreement with the
research conducted by Berry (1971). SIT assessed the four basic
factors of spatial thinking: spatial visualization, perception,
orientation and manipulation, using Paper Folding test, Paper
Formboard test, Figure Rotation test and Block Rotation test
respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 2 Tests used at SIT (Nu Nu Khaing, 2009)
On the other hand, STAT is a revised edition of Spatial
Skills Test (SST)25
, and was created to assess how students
develop spatial thinking by reason of the fact that teachers
sta ted to use the Tea he s Guide to Mode Geog aph AAC,
2015), which helps them to incorporate spatial thinking skills
25
SST was created by Lee and Bednarz (2009) to investigate the
possi le effe ts of GI“ lea i g o ollege stude ts spatial thi ki g
ability.
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GEOSPATIAL THINKING: Educating the Future Spatial Citizens
into their classes. Aspects of spatial thinking abilities covered
by STAT are shown in Fig. 2 and include (Lee & Bednarz, 2012):
comprehending orientation and direction,
comparing map information to graphic information,
choosing the best location based on several spatial
factors,
imagining a slope profile based on a topographic map,
correlating spatially distributed phenomena,
mentally visualizing 3-D images based on 2-D
information,
overlaying and dissolving maps, and
comprehending geographic features represented as
point, line, or polygon
Fig. 2 Selected items from the STAT (Lee & Bednarz, 2012)
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“o, it s o ious that both SIT and STAT neglect to assess
spatial thinking factors regarding large-scale spaces and STAT is
more oriented to connect GIS activities (zone of influence,
topology, georeferrencing, interpolation, network) with some
small-scale spatial thinking factors. It should be noted that
these GI“ a ti ities a e esse tial fo so eo e s spatial thi ki g
but are not constitute spatial thinking factors. For example, if
someone wants to mentally examine the way that a city affects
the nearby rivers (zone of influence), will rely on spatial
visualization and spatial perception.
Suggestion for Developing a Spatial Thinking
Ability Test for Education
From the previous discussion the need for developing a spatial
thinking ability test for educational purposes, that assess both
small-scale and large-scale abilities, is made evident. This
section provides some guidelines of how such a test should be
developed. SIT and STAT tests are adequate to form the basis
of the new test and in particular for the part dealing with small-
scale skills. The reason is that SIT has well established construct
and face validity, while STAT has moderate reliability and
construct validity. Although its moderate validity and reliability,
it is suitable for testing both university and high school
students.
Regarding large-s ale skills the e a e t tests that
examine more than two components simultaneously, so to
form the basis of the new test, several individual tests will be
used. Indicatively, the experiment made by Montello, Hegarty
and Richardson (1999) for navigation in real and virtual spaces
or the standardized self-report scale of environmental spatial
skills (Santa Barbara Sense of Direction – SBSOD) may be used.
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The first step for the development of the spatial
thinking ability test is the delineation of the objectives as well
as the skills to be measured and also the specification of the
target group of the participants. For example, the test will
address to adults, students26
or both, measure spatial
perception, visualization and orientation (small-scale spatial
abilities) and sense of direction, perspective topology and
spatial updating (large-scale spatial abilities) in order to
examine the spatial thinking ability in a holistic way, or
i estigate the le el of stude ts spatial thinking ability by
several variables (age, gender, and ethnicity), so the educator
adapt his/her course to the specific needs of the students.
Then, some technical issues will be finalized, which will
ensure the practicality of the test. Such technical issues are:
determination of required time and representation means
(text, picture, graph or map), maximizing spatial activities,
minimizing verbal activities required to answer correctly
because as found by Just and Carpenter (1985) many spatial
tasks are solved via verbal analytic processes. Then, the
development of the spatial activities according to the
objectives pursued can be done. For the evaluation of changes
in spatial thinking abilities over a period of time, two different
but equivalent versions of the same test could be developed,
whose questions will be slightly different but covering the same
spatial thinking factors (pre-test, post-test).
The test should also be checked for validity and
reliability. Initially, a pilot study will be conducted with a
relatively small number of participants (teachers, secondary
and higher education students) in order to make a preliminary
assessment of the validity and reliability of the test and correct
26
The te stude t efe s espe iall to ou g people a d ou g
adults (those between 13 – 19 and 20 – 25)
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as many errors and omissions as possible (questions that have
more than one correct answers, questions that are quite
difficult, adjusting the required time, improving not
understandable questions). After correcting the errors
resulting from the pilot study, the test will be checked once
again for its reliability and validity and if the results are
satisfactory, the test will be ready for use by the general public.
Checking the validity of the test includes check for:
Content validity; whether the questionnaire identifies
all the factors of spatial (and geospatial) thinking.
During this check, the content validity ratio will be
calculated (using a team of experts for each spatial
thinking factor).
Construct validity; the degree to which a questionnaire
reflects the real theoretical meaning of the variable
that claims to measure. During this check, the
convergent validity (whether the new test is related to
other existing tests which have acceptable validity and
reliability) and the discriminant validity (the opposite
of the convergent validity) will be examined.
Face validity; examines the appearance and
configuration of the questionnaire. Face validity
cannot be assessed by statistical methods and it
depends on the opinions of those who complete the
test.
Checking the reliability of the test includes check for:
Test-retest reliability; measures the degree of
correlation of the answers of a participant in two
different time periods.
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Alternative forms reliability; eliminates the "memory
effect"27
by creating similar forms of the test.
Split-halves reliability; estimates the degree of
correlation of participants' responses between two
separate parts of the test.
Internal consistency reliability; estimates the
consistency of participants' responses to the test
items).
Conclusions
The above discussion reveals the necessity of developing a test
by someone who is engaged in the field of Geographic
Information and who will guide the participants during its
completion in order to achieve the best possible estimation of
spatial thinking, in a holistic way that covers both small and
large scales. The role of the GIscientist is crucial for the
development of the spatial thinking ability test because the
majority of the tests have been developed by scientists who
does not fully understand the wide range covered by the term
spatial as a GIs ie tist. Also, the GIs ie tist is the o e
suita le pe so to la if a pa ti ipa ts uestio s a out the
spatial thinking ability test.
27 During the check for test-retest reliability, when the interval between the
tests is relatively small, then there is an increased chance for the participants
to be familiarized with the test and to give the same answers, based on their
memory.
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